who water distribution guideline.pdf

8/11/2019 who water distribution guideline.pdf

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Water Safety in Distribution Systems

Public Health, Environmental and Social Determinants

Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and Health


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WHO/FWC/WSH/14.03

Water Safety in Distribution Systems


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World Health Organization 2014

A eeed. Pbca e Wd Hea Oaa ae aaabe e WHO

ebe (..) ca be caed WHO Pe, Wd Hea Oaa, 20Aee Aa, 1211 Geea 27, Sead (e.: +41 22 791 3264; a: +41 22 791 4857;

ea: bde@.).

Ree e edce aae WHO bca ee ae

ceca db d be addeed WHO Pe e WHO ebe

(../ab/ce/c_/e/de.).

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e ee a aee e a e Wd Hea Oaa

cce e ea a a c, e, c aea ae,

cce e dea e bdae. Ded e a eee

aae bde e c ee a e be aeee.

Te e ecc cae cea aace dc de a

e ae eded eceded b e Wd Hea Oaa eeece e

a a ae a ae eed. E ad eceed, e ae

ea dc ae ded b a caa ee.

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a caed bca. Hee, e bed aea be

dbed aa a d, ee eeed ed. Te eb

e eea ad e e aea e e eade. I ee a e Wd

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Ped b e WHO Dce Pdc Sece, Geea, Sead


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C

ACKLEDGEME ...........................................................................................................................................

IDCI ......................................................................................................................................................... 1

AE AFE LA ............................................................................................................................................... 6

1. ASSEMBLE THE WSP TEAM ............................................................................................................................... 7

2. DESCRIBE THE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM ........................................................................................................... 7

2.1 TYPES OF WATER TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ....................................................................................... 72.2 COMPONENTS OF WATER TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS .......................................................................... 92.3 OTHER IMPORTANT INFORMATION AND RELEVANT PERFORMANCE INDICATORS........................................................... 102.4 INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS .................................................................................................................................. 12

3. IDENTIFY HAZARDS AND HAZARDOUS EVENTS AND ASSESS THE RISKS .............. ............. .............. ............ .. 14

3.1 HAZARDS ...................................................................................................................................................... 143.1.1 ............................................................................................................................. 15

3.1.2 ............................................................................................................................. 163.1.2.1 Dec bdc ........................................................................................................................ 163.1.2.2 Ceca e aea ad ............................................................................................ 173.1.2.3 Wae eae ceca .................................................................................................................... 18

3.1.3 ............. ............. ............. ............. ............... .............. .......... .............. ............... ....... 183.2 HAZARDOUS EVENTS ....................................................................................................................................... 19

3.2.1 .............................................................................................................................. 213.2.1.1 Pca a, ea cec, aed d ad ecae .......................................... 213.2.1.2 Ccec ad bac ............................................................................................................ 223.2.1.3 Caa ae ee ...................................................................................................... 233.2.1.4 Pb e ad ec e ae a e ce eace ........................................ 243.2.1.5 Cc , ea ad ea .......................................................................................... 27

3.2.2 ............. ............. ............ .............. ............. ............... ........... .............. ............. ...... 283.2.2.1 Cae ae de ee ae ....................................................................... 28

3.2.2.2 Cae ae de ae ce .......................................................................... 293.2.3 .............. ............. ............ ............... .............. ........... ............. ............... .......... 303.2.3.1 Reeae aad aea ad , cd c ad ca ................................... 303.2.3.2 Teae ce cae a ac db .................................................................. 343.2.3.3 Mcba ad b ............................................................................................................... 373.2.3.4 Wae ae .......................................................................................................................................... 38

3.3 RISK ASSESSMENT ........................................................................................................................................... 403.3.1 ................................................................................................... 403.3.2 ........................................................................................... 40

4. DETERMINE AND VALIDATE CONTROL MEASURES, REASSESS AND PRIORITIZE THE RISKS .............. ............. 42

4.1 DETERMINE CURRENT CONTROL MEASURES .......................................................................................................... 424.2 VALIDATION OF CONTROL MEASURES .................................................................................................................. 474.3 REASSESS AND PRIORITIZE THE RISKS ................................................................................................................... 48

5. DEVELOP, IMPLEMENT AND MAINTAIN AN IMPROVEMENT/UPGRADE PLAN .............................................. 51

6. DEFINE MONITORING OF THE CONTROL MEASURES ..................................................................................... 52

6.1 SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE OPERATIONAL MONITORING PARAMETERS ..................................................................... 526.1.1 ......................................................................................................................... 586.1.2 ....................................................................................................... 58

6.1.2.1 Deca eda ............................................................................................................................... 58 6.1.2.2 F ........................................................................................................................................................ 586.1.2.3 H ........................................................................................................................................................... 586.1.2.4 Pee .................................................................................................................................................. 59


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6.1.2.5 Teeae ........................................................................................................................................... 596.1.2.6 Tbd ................................................................................................................................................. 596.1.2.7 Ceca aaee .............................................................................................................................. 596.1.2.8 Bca dece ................................................................................................................. 60

6.2 REVIEWING OPERATIONAL MONITORING DATA ...................................................................................................... 60

7. VERIFY THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE WSP ....................................................................................................... 61

7.1 VERIFICATION MONITORING .............................................................................................................................. 617.1.1 ....................................................................................................................... 627.1.2 ....................................................................................................................... 63

7.1.2.1 Heaeaed ceca ........................................................................................................................ 63 7.1.2.2 Mea a ece acceab ........................................................................................................ 63

7.1.3 ................................................... 63 7.1.4 ............................................................................................................ 64

7.1.4.1 Dea a e ................................................................................................................... 647.1.4.2 Seec a e ..................................................................................................................... 64

7.1.5 .......................................................................................................................... 657.2 CUSTOMER SATISFACTION ................................................................................................................................ 657.3 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL AUDITING .................................................................................................................... 66

7.3.1 .................................................................................................................................. 667.3.2 ................................................................................................................................. 67

8. PREPARE MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES ......................................................................................................... 68

8.1 STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES .................................................................................................................. 688.1.1 ............................................................................................. 698.1.2 ............................................................................................................................ 698.1.3 ................................................................................................... 708.1.4 ....................................................................................................................... 708.1.5 / , ........... 71 8.1.6 ........................................................................................................... 738.1.7 ........................................................................................................................ 738.1.8 ....................................................................................... 73 8.1.9 ( ) ....... 748.1.10 ............................................................................................................ 75

8.1.11 ............................................................................... 768.1.12 ............................................................................... 778.1.13 ....................................................................................................................................... 778.1.14 (, , , ) ................................ 778.1.15 ..................................................................................................................... 788.1.16 ....................................................................................................................... 78

8.2 INCIDENT CRITERIA AND PROTOCOLS ................................................................................................................... 78

9. DEVELOP SUPPORTING PROGRAMMES ......................................................................................................... 81

10. PLAN AND CARRY OUT PERIODIC REVIEW OF THE WSP................................................................................. 83

11. REVISE THE WSP FOLLOWING AN INCIDENT .................................................................................................. 85

12. ENABLING ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................................................. 87

12.1 REGULATORY AND POLICY FRAMEWORKS ............................................................................................................. 8712.1.1 .................................................................................................................. 8712.1.2 ......................................................................................................................... 88

12.2 INDEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE,AUDITS AND INSPECTIONS ........................................................................................ 8912.3 DISEASE AND OUTBREAK SURVEILLANCE .............................................................................................................. 89

12.3.1 ......................................................................................................................... 8912.3.2 ................................................................................................. 9012.3.3 , ........................................................................................ 9112.3.4 ................................................................................................................................... 91

12.4 STANDARDS,CODES OF PRACTICE AND CERTIFICATION ............................................................................................ 92


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12.4.1 ..................................................................................................... 9212.4.2 .................................................................................. 92

12.5 CAPACITY BUILDING ........................................................................................................................................ 9312.5.1 ............................................................................................................................................ 9312.5.2 ............................................................................................................................ 9412.5.3 ................................................................................................................. 9412.5.4 .............. ............. ............ ............... .............. ............ ............ ............. ..... 95

12.5.5 ................................................................................................................................... 95

EFEECE ............................................................................................................................................................ 96

CAED AEE ........................................................................................................................................... 108

CASESTUDY 1: APPLICATION OF A PREDICTIVE MODEL FOR WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RISK ASSESSMENT

IN INDIA ..................................................................................................................................... 108

CASESTUDY 2: DISTRIBUTION NETWORK MANAGEMENT UTILIZING THE BLOCK SYSTEM TO REDUCE NON

REVENUE WATER IN PHNOM PENH, CAMBODIA ...................................................................... 113

CASESTUDY 3: WATER SAFETY PLANS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS THE CASE OF SPANISH TOWN, JAMAICA .

................................................................................................................................................... 116

CASESTUDY 4: DRINKINGWATER CONTAMINATION INCIDENT IN JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA ............. 120

CASESTUDY 5: INCIDENT MANAGEMENT IN THE WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IN JOHANNESBURG, SOUTHAFRICA ....................................................................................................................................... 124

CASESTUDY 6: BLACK WATER COMPLAINTS FROM WESTERN PARTS OF SINGAPORE IN THE 1980S ............... 127

CASESTUDY 7: IMPLEMENTATION OF MASSIVE REPLACEMENT PROGRAMMES FOR UNLINED GALVANIZED

IRON CONNECTIONS AND UNLINED CAST IRON MAINS IN SINGAPORE IN RESPONSE TO POOR

WATER QUALITY AFTER COMMISSIONING OF THE KRANJI/PANDAN SCHEME (19831993) ... 130

CASESTUDY 8: CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLY INCIDENT IN BUKIT TIMAH PLAZA/SHERWOOD TOWER

CONDOMINIUM IN SINGAPORE IN 2000 ................................................................................... 132

CASESTUDY 9: INTRODUCTION OF THE TOKYO HIGH QUALITY PROGRAM (TOKYOS VERSION OF THE WATER

SAFETY PLAN) ............................................................................................................................ 135

CASESTUDY 10: INCIDENTS FROM LESSONS LEARNT FROM PLUMBING INCIDENTS RESPONSES AND

PREVENTIONS, JAPAN WATER PLUMBING ENGINEERING PROMOTION FOUNDATION (2011)

................................................................................................................................................... 140


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A

Te Wd Hea Oaa (WHO) e ee aeca a e e

ade dc be. I aca, WHO ae acede e cb

e eaa ee, cbed ad eeed e bca:

L

Dad CUNLIFFE, S Aaa Deae Hea, Aaa

A

Jaa BHAGWAN, Wae Reeac C, S Aca

Lee DANGLADA, Ued Sae Eea Pec Aec, Ued Sae Aeca

Aa JAYARATNE, Yaa Vae Wae, Aaa

Naa KALEBAILA, Wae Reeac C, S Aca

Paa LABHASETWAR, Naa Eea Eee Reeac Ie, Ida

Edad OHANIAN, Ued Sae Eea Pec Aec, Ued Sae Aeca

Da SIMAZAKI, Naa Ie Pbc Hea, JaaDae VIOLA, Ieaa Aca Pb ad Mecaca Oca, Ued Sae

Aeca

Kee We WONG, PUB, e aa ae aec, Sae

A

Nca ASHBOLT, Sc Pbc Hea, Ue Abea, Caada

Dad CUNLIFFE, S Aaa Deae Hea, Aaa

Lee DANGLADA, Ued Sae Eea Pec Aec, Ued Sae Aeca

Pee GREINER, NSF Ieaa, Ued Sae Aeca

Rae GUPTA, Veaaa Naa Ie Tec, Ida

J HEARN, ALS Wae Rece G, Aaa

Aa JAYARATNE, Yaa Vae Wae, Aaa

Ka Ce LAI, PUB, e aa ae aec, Sae

Nca OCONNOR, Ec Eea C, Aaa

Dae PURKISS, NSF Ieaa, Ued Sae Aeca

Iee TOH, PUB, e aa ae aec, Sae

Dae VIOLA, Ieaa Aca Pb ad Mecaca Oca, Ued Sae

Aeca


C

Jaa BHAGWAN, Wae Reeac C, S Aca

BUREAU OF WATERWORKS, T Mea Gee, Jaa

Rcad J. GELTING, Cee Deae C ad Pee, Ued Sae Aeca

JAPAN WATER PLUMBING ENGINEERING PROMOTION FOUNDATION, Jaa

Paa LABHASETWAR, Naa Eea Eee Reeac Ie, Ida

M NCUBE, Jaeb Wae, S Aca

Aaba SARGAONKAR, Naa Eea Eee Reeac Ie, Ida

Da SIMAZAKI, Naa Ie Pbc Hea, Jaa

Iee TOH, PUB, e aa ae aec, Sae


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WATER AND SEWER BUREAU, C Ka, Jaa


Nca ASHBOLT, Sc Pbc Hea, Ue Abea, Caada

Mce GIDDINGS, Hea Caada, Caada

Ke HELLIER, Mebe Wae, Aaa

Da JACKSON, Ca, Nea

Ca JRGENSEN, DHI, Dea

Haa KASAN, Rad Wae, S Aca

Ma W. LECHEVALLIER, Aeca Wae, Ued Sae Aeca

Face LEMIEUX, Hea Caada, Caada

Nca OCONNOR, Ec Eea C, Aaa

Aea RINEHOLD, Ca e Wd Hea Oaa, Ued Sae Aeca

Dad SUTHERLAND, Wd Hea Oaa, Ida

Jab VAN ZYL, Ue Cae T, S Aca

Gd YASVINSKI, Hea Caada, Caada

Te ee aca ad ecca e ae aceded: e

Ued Sae Eea Pec Aec; e M Hea, Lab ad Weae

Jaa; PUB, e aa ae aec, a a bad de e M e

Ee ad Wae Rece Sae; e Aaa Deae Fe Aa

ad Tade.

Te deee ad dc dce ee cdaed ad aaed b a

e Wae, Saa, Hee ad Hea (WSH) WHO, cd M Bce Gd

(Cda), M Jee De Face, M Se B ad M Ka Ce La.

Te ea ed ece M Maa See Oaa, Caada, ad e eceaa

ded b M Pe Wad ae a ae aceded.


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1

Te e e aaed db e e e a bae a

ec dae caa. Hee, aaee db e

e ecee e ae. Db e ca cec be eed a ae

e e eee be a dae e e eae a ce.

Tee eee edece a adeae aaee dae db

e a ed bea e b deeed ad dee ce. Te

cae ee bea ad e ae ceca ad cba aad ed ae

dee. Beee 1981 ad 2010 e Ued Sae Aeca (USA), 57 bea ee

acaed db e a, ead 9000 cae e (CDC, 1981, 1982,

1983, 1984; S L, 1988; Lee, See & Ca, 1990; Head e a., 1991; Me

e a., 1993; Kae e a., 1996; Le e a., 1998; Bac e a., 2000; Lee e a., 2002;

Bacb e a., 2004; La e a., 2006; Yde e a., 2008; Bad e a., 2011; Hb e

a., 2013). Te c a ee ccec ad bacae; e acded b ea ae a, caa d ae, acce d

ae a ea ad aa e ae a, ee ca ad eac

e; a ca a ae (F. 1(a)). Eeee,

bea e ae bee acaed ae ee ad ee

(He e a., 2005).

Te c cae e ee eec ae, cd bacea (,

, , O157), a (, ) ad

e (N) (F. 1(b)). Ceca, cd ce, ce ad ead, ee acaed

e bea (14%) (CDC, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984; S L, 1988; Lee, See

& Ca, 1990; Head e a., 1991; Me e a., 1993; Kae e a., 1996; Le e a.,

1998; Bac e a., 2000; Lee e a., 2002; Bacb e a., 2004; La e a., 2006; Yde e

a., 2008; Bad e a., 2011; Hb e a., 2013).

F. 1. Waebe bea acaed db e e USA, 19812010, b (a)

e a ad (b) caae ae

M

11%

M

11%

1%

C

42 %

L

9 %

7%

19 %

B

33%

25%

9%

AGI

4%

M

M

5%

C

14%


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2

Obea ae e ceabe ce db e ae, b eee

a a ac caa ee. Ccec, ea ad ae a

bea ad ae ae ee ae c ee; a d cae

eed bea, e a e cd cae adc cae e a

deeced (F, Ca & Cade, 1996). A e cdced N Aeca eed

a aeae ee bea e 100 ae a e ea (Fa, 2012); Aaa

20112012, e ae a 13 bea e 100 ae a (Naa Wae C,

2013). We aaed e ae adad cede dea ea ad ae a

bea; e ea a cae, bea ae eaed e abece eed e.

I e Neead, 50 adee ae a ee, acaed a bea, ee

eed beee 1993 ad 2004, baed eeaed deec c

eea c (Va Lee e a., 2006). Oe a e ee ee acaed

ae a eacee ea. D ed, e bea a deeced,

ad a caed b ccec beee a dae ad aa

eaed e ae (Va Lee e a., 2006). Tee edece a e a caed

b a e e ee, b cd be cee ed .

I e ccace, ee ca ae e abece ca a. Paec

ca c a ad e aeba ca b,

aca db e a ae cebe a. a

caed dea Aaa, Paa ad e USA aa ee dae

ca e a (Dc, Cae & Rb, 1983; Sa e a., 2011; CDC,

2014).

Iadeae aaee db e ca be eced b a ae ac,

cd a ac dead e caee a ca eae dae ae

d dee ce. Tee ca a be e ad acce e. C

cec ad bac bd ad ace ceced db eeee a c caa ea ad ae ed caa db

e (Je & R, 1996; USEPA, 2002a) b ae e ca ae ed

acce ee a e ea b ad ae ceced bd

de adeae ec e e.

Iee e ad e a eee eee aca caee.

L ee d e eacebae e ac e a, c

a bac ccec ad e a ad bea db

e. Ia eee ae c ecded, aa; eaae

, eace ca ac ad aeace .

Te ea ce db eeaed bea ca be eee, b ae

eeabe, d ce ae ad ee caa. Eece

eea e Wd Hea Oaa (WHO)

(WHO, 2011) ee aca a eaed aaee ae baed

a ebae aac a eed cace ce. T cde

ec ae ce, e eec ad ea eae cee ad

aaee db e. I ece ea, c ae a bee ad


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ee caa ae ce a a e, ed b eec ad eab

ea eae cee. Edece e USA a a bee cce

edc aebe bea acaed adeae eae, aca ace

ae e (Ca e a., 2006; Ca, 2012). Dee e, e ea ccece

bea acaed db e e a e ae be

ad d aaee ee e (Ca & Cade, 2001; Ca e a., 2006).

Caa db e cc ae eae, ea a, e

ece eda deca, c de e ec aa bacea ad a

aad, ee ae e c eae caa a a e

db e ae eeaed e aea. Haad dced a

db e ca dec ce. Ie db e

eee e a bae bee dee dae ce, ad aaee

ee e d be caed e deed ae ae a (WSP).

Te e aa ae ae db e a deed a a ca

cce a a ee ee ceed b WHO J 2011 Sae. T a baed

e edece a adeae de, cc ad aaee cbe a

ca d aebe deae. I add, ee caed b adbaa, a ad ae ace cd e eacebae be

db e. I a aeed a adda dace e aca d

aaee acce db e a eed.

Te dace ded dce ce a e ae ae d

ae (ee F. 2), cd WSP, a decbed e ed e

(WHO, 2011). Te ce dce cde a ae

ed ae e b deeed ad dee ce. I ae e e

a eae cee dee ce, cd a ade, b de

cde e bd ee bee ae e dee. T e

bec e ceea e B(Ce e a., 2011).

T dce bd eae dace ded e dce

: (A, 2004) a

e a e e, cd:

A (WHO & WPC, 2006);

(Baa e a., 2003);

: A ,

(Pede e a., 2004);

(Baa e a., 2009); ad

: (WHO, 2012).

T eeece dce eded be ed a a eea dce e ae

e ad ea ae aead aa e WSP aac, a deaed e

(Baa e a., 2009) (.e. ae e ee e

ecc ecca aace dee ad ee e WSP aac e


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db e ad ea ad WSP eea). T

d be acabe b ad ece e.

F. 2. Te ae ae dae, a deaed e WHO

(GDWQ)

Te a e dded 12 ec e dec e

(WHO, 2011) ad baed e 11 de cded e

(Baa e a., 2009), a adda ec decb e eabee (c ad ea, deede eace ad deae eace) (F.

3). I a ea ad c ae e eea

WSP ee e cce aca. A be caede ae ded a

aee ae e caee a ca c dae e ad ea

ece ee caee.


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5

F. 3. Wae ae a e ad eab ee. M1, M2, ec. dcae e eea de

e (Baa e a., 2009); GDWQ 4.1, 4.2, ec. dcae e eea

cae e (WHO, 2011).

Assemble WSP team

Describe the water supply system

Identify hazards & hazardous events & assess risks

Determine & validate control measures, reassess & prioritize risks

Develop, implement and maintain an improvement/upgrade plan

Define monitoring of the control measures

Prepare management procedures

Develop supporting programmes

Plan and carry out periodic review of the WSP

Revise the WSP following an incident

Enabling environment

M1a GDWQ 4.1b

M2 GDWQ 4.1

M3 GDWQ 4.1

M4 GDWQ 4.1.7-8, 4.2

M5 GDWQ 4.1.8

M6 GDWQ 4.2

M7 GDWQ 4.3

M8 GDWQ 4.4

M9 GDWQ 4.4.5

M10 GDWQ 4.7.1

M11 GDWQ 4.7.2

GDWQ 1.2


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Te eece ea ce e e ae dae e

e e a ceee aee ad aaee aac

caed a WSP a ae a e a ae , cd e db

e. Na acce dee a eaed WSP a a ce, cace eae ad db. Hee, dce, e dace

ce aca db e . Te a WSP aad:

ce ee e ae ad acceab dae e. I e cae

db e, aed a ae ae d a e e, e a

bece aa ae b ee caa ae eae. I e e,

cde:

cc e aea a eac aad ceca e

dae;

aa e ee e e eea caa;

aa e dae ce; ad aa cd e e cba ae (e.. )

ad b, ca ad acca ede.

Gdace acee ad e ee ce eeed e de

deed e (Baa e a., 2009). Eac e de

e dced e dea e ec.


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7

1.A

Aeb a aed, dedcaed ea a ce eaa e e deee ad

eea a WSP. Te ea d ae ede e ae db e

ce e ae c ad e e ae aad be

acaed, a e a e a ee e ecea cae ee a ae

ae dced ad ed. Te ea a a cde eea aede, c abc ea aece, adade bde ad a de, a a a

e e ae dae. Te ebe e ea d be

edca eeed, e eacee ebe b eed.

Te e ac e cce a e cde:

ea e aaee, ad ec aca ad ece ;

de e eed eee ad aae e e ea;

a a ea eade;

de ad ecd e e ad ebe e dda e ea; ad

de e e ae dee e WSP.

2. D

Te a e WSP ea decbe e ae e de

e bee aee ce. Decb e ae e e e

e:

ae a e e;

ea a ca ce ce ad cd e eee decbed

be;

ec e e e a e ca accae; ad

de ea ae a be.

Te dec e db e de e da deee e

WSP. I a e WSP ea de ee e e eabe aad

ee, eea e aad ad c eae.

2.1

Ua, eaed ae ceed ece ee db ce. Iba e, a ae a e a a be ecea ce ae a

eae a a be ece ee caed a dee cee e

c. I e ce, ee a be a be ce ad ae eae a

ece ee ad ae db e. Tee db e a be eaae

ed.


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B ae a e ad ae db e ae e e.

Hee, ae a e ae a eee ca, eea ae

db e a ae . See, ae e cea ae a

a e eae a a ece ee b a (F. 4(a)). Oe, eaed

ae ee ed dec a ee (F. 4(b)) ed a a

baac ee, c, , e ae a ece ee b a (F.

4(c)). Sc e ae eed , ad

,eece.


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9

F. 4. Te ae a e: (a) cee a; (b) dec ; ad (c)

cbed a ad

Te e a baac ee a ae/ ee a be dec,

a F. 5(a). Sc e a be eed . See, e a

baac ee a eea a baac ee, c, , a eea ae ee, a F. 5(b). Sc e a be eed

.

(a) (b)

F. 5. Wae a e: (a) e ee; (b) ee

2.2 C

Wae db e ca eea ce. Eac e e ce,

a, a e ece aea, e aea, ae ad ee, ad ce

cec. Te dec e e d be a deaed a be ad cde a

ea e ca a a ad db a, ae, ecdaeae dece (e.. be dec), , ae ad e ad ade

( e).

A a db e a ae a e ce de, c a a eeaed ece

ee aaee dec ae e (ded

ae) a e eae a e e. A ae e, ee, a ae eea

ce de ece ad baac ee ad a.

VRMBR

VR

VR

CWT: cea ae a; MBR: a baac ee; SR: ece ee

VR

VR

VR

VR

VR

ZBR

VRZBR

MBR

MBR: a baac ee; VR: ae ee; ZBR: a baac ee

CWT

P

(b)

SR

CWT

(a)

P

CWT

MBR

(c)


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10

Te a a db e deed e e ae ee ad a,

e ad aed bd e ece aea, e a, be e

d ad eeaed ece ee, ad ca ad de dead cee.

Te a e ece aea a be a ee. I a ee ea, be

a be ecea ae aea e e. Sa,

a be ecea de eeedc ae aea e eea

edce ee. Cec ae a a be ecea aa e eeced

dec ad ec e e dec.

Pe e db e a be ca dce , d ee, ccee ad

eeed ccee, abe cee, cde (PVC) ad de

eee. Pe a be ed ed cee a.

Vae ae ded db e c , ae ee d ea

ad eacee, da ee d cea, edce ee aea,

aa eeced dec, e ae ae eec, a a eeee e e, ad eeae a a e ad d . Mee ae

ded eae ae e ce, ae ae beee e ad

e ae ce. Hda e e e ae ded e

e ae e e e.

Wae e a ce a be dec dec. F dec ,

ce ee eed e e a a a dee eea e

ae. F eed ad e bd, ee, e dec e

db e e ae a e d ee, eea ae

ee e dda a ad eead a e e ce. Te

e ce ced a b a ee e a, c edce dee e eed a ae a aed ee.

2.3

Aa e dec e ae e, ae a a ad

eace dca ca be ceced a e WSP ea ca

aee eabe e db e. F eae, e a eaed

ae ae ea e eae a ca deeae a ae ae e e

e. Se e ac a ece cae ae a beee e eae

a ad e ce a cde:

ceca ad bca a e ce ae;

eecee ad ecec eae cee;

e e eae a, ae ad dec ace ad e db

e;

ae, e, de ad aeace e db e;

e ae b e ae ae e ce ce a ad eece

dead ed;


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11

ae ee;

a eaed ae; ad

ae dee ce a db e ad e dac

cd (Ca, 1995).

C ae a eed e ce ce , ad

deea ae a ca be aded b ae a ad ae

db e. Ue a a ca be ceced cde e :

a ab e aea, e ad ea aa;

e beaae ad eaae daa;

eaa aaee, c a eec , ee daa ad eee

ae;

eea aaee, c a a, bedd cd ad ac;

ce ca ead e bea, a ae ad

caa;

a ae a a ce, ae eae ad a ce ca adae ae;

e , e caa , ee ee ad ee eee ae;

a e daae ad ee e;

a ab eeae ad daae e;

d ae d ; ad

a ab ea b ce.

Te ca aaee (e.. e ae, aea, daee), eaa aaee (e..

eec , be bea ad b, eaae e e) ad

eea aaee (e.. a, bedd cd, ac) e deee

e eab e caa . Te e caa ed e ea e da ad ee c a aad. Te caa

ca be aeed a a c eab ad aad.

Te e (c ee), ae ee, a eee ae, e

caa ad ee ee cd be cdeed a eace dca ae

e.

Fa, ae ae, deed a e e ae e ae ae ce ce,

a ac ec ae a deea e db e. Wae ae

a dac aaee ad deed a ae dead, e ea ad e

de. Wae ae ca aeced b ae, ecee caace e dbe ee eeec eee ad dead d a ed de.

Hdac aa a eeded ed ca be eed de c a EPANET

ba ae ae (Ra, 2000).

Tabe 1 de a cec caacec a cd be cded cdeed

decb a ae db e. Te cec dcae, ad a caacec

a a e. Te a eae, ad e ac a eed be

cdeed decb e e.


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12

2.4

Ia eee eee aca caee, a dee,

aa, ae ad eaae ae, ad ca dead e ee

db e. Te eece a eee db e d

be deed, ee a eea a ab:

e ee db e;

ae aaab ad e ;

e be ad ca ade ad ;

ee ee;

ae eaae ad eee ae; ad

ee eeae ad daae e ad aeae aa e.

1. Cec caacec db e

C C

Pca ce Wae a a

Pe aea

P

Teae cee (e.. eea ca)

Mee

Sade ad ae

Wae db a

Sece ee (ae a)

Vae

Hda

Ae ace

Wae a Ceca ad bca a ce ae

M

D ae (bac ae, , bd), ce ca

Te ce ae

Wae a daa

Cae db e (e.. dec bdc)

Peea eda deca

Pca ac ec ae

a

Ccec c ae

Feec ae a bea

S cd a cd ece ae a bea

Leaae (eee ae)

H eea c

Hdac (eace) ac

ec ae a

Wae

Iee c

Wae ee (cd aa)

Dee e (ae ae)


23/157

13

C C

Eea ac Tea

Daae e

Sd ae d

Seeae e (, e ced e)


24/157

14

3.

Haad ae, cd cba ae ad ceca caa, a e acce

dae ad db e cd aec e a e ae ad ae a

adee ac a ea. T ec decbe e dee cba, ceca ad

ca aad a ca aec e ae dae db e. I a

dee e a aad ee a cd aec e ae a ad e caad dac e e db e, ead ae db e

bec caaed be eed. T ec a cde e ce

b c ae ea a ea ce e aad ad aad ee ae

deed.

3.1

Te ec decbe e a cba, ceca ad ca aad

db e, a aed Tabe 2.

2. Mcba, ceca ad ca aad a ca be d ed dae, e

b ad db e.a

M

B F

/. ,

(e

a)

Oe .

.

Nbec

.

Ne

Rae

Eee

Adee

Hea A

Hea E

Sae

/

A

Se eebae,

cd ae e,

cadcea ad ced

A

C

D ,

Te (Baa e a., 2009) ad e WHO

(WHO, 2011) dee aad, aad ee ad a :

A a bca, ceca, ca adca ae a a e ea cae a.

A a cde a a ca ead e eece a aad (a

ca ae ad ).

e ed deed aad ca a eed a a eced

e ae, cd e ade a a ad/ e ceece.


25/157

15

A, a, aec, ba, be(a)ee, cad, c, ce, cade, dec b

dc (cd aeae, aacec acd ad deae), de, , ead,

ec, ce, ecde, ee dcab, ee, e, ee, , a, cde

Tbd, ee d, , c, c cae, ede eea T abe de eee a eae aad dae, e b db e.b

F e a e a ea eec, ce, ccece, e a ad cace

dae a a ce ec e cba ae ed ee, ee Cae 11 e WHO

(WHO, 2011).c F e a ceca ad e a ce, ee Cae 8 ad 12 e WHO

(WHO, 2011).

3.1.1

M ca ee dae db e ae ae. Hee,

ec ca a ee e db e ad ca e ad e

cae e db e, cea e ea aebe deae

bea (ee Tabe 2).

Faeca caa a c ce ec ca. Tee cde

bacea, e ad aae a cc aa e a ad e a

bded aa. Faeca caa db e ae a cc e a

aa c a be a, , ccec e ae a

a bee eabed aeca caa e (USEPA, 2006). I add, cc,

e e aa ad ea ce ee e ca dce caa e

db e. Te eece aeca ae aeed b dca

bacea. Te WHO (WHO, 2011) ece . a

e dca cce, a eea c ca be ed a a aeae.

Mca a e ee a ee e dae db

e ad aac ad dae e ad e ace, b,

aca a e ed db e ee ca be (Pe & Na, 1999;

Naa Reeac Cc, 2006; USEPA, 2006). B ca a aea a ca

bd ad accae ac ad ac caa, a e a acae ad cda

ae. Tee bace, a a eacea ec bace, ec

ca bca, ca, ceca ad eea ee, cd

eda, decca, cae ad deca (USEPA, 2006; Wede & Fe,

2011). F eae, a e ad a c c eed a abe a

bded c , ca b cd e a.

B a dee e ad e ce, c a e, ae

ad ae. B ae eee dc ee a a e e ce e

ae eabed, ad e ca be ea deca. Hece, e a c

b ad eae b a.

Te ea a b a ae aec, b e ca cde ee

ad c ae (Naa Reeac Cc, 2006; WHO, 2011) (ee Tabe 2).

A ee eec bacea, , a, eade ad cacea

b ae e be e dae ce, e ace ca

dce ae ad d be, ceae deca dead ad cbe c


26/157

16

(Naa Reeac Cc, 2006). Fee ae ed aeeaed deae

cce cde , , ad

. (Naa Reeac Cc, 2005; WHO, 2011; Wede & Fe, 2011; CDC,

2014). O ee, cea cce. F eae, e cae Leae

deae e USA ae ed e a decade 1110 2000 3522 2009 (CDC,

2011). Te cdece ae ceaed 0.39 1.15 e 100 000 ee d a e.

Te ceae a be de a e e be e ad e ee a

ec. Aca ccea bd b e a

a cb ceaed , b db e ca eee e ce e

a c (WHO, 2011).

Te ee ae ca a e ad b,

aca db e a ae cebe a. a

caed dea Aaa, Paa ad e USA aa ee dae

ca e a (Dc, Cae & Rb, 1983; Sa e a., 2011; CDC,

2014).

Mca b ca bee deac e a e aede a ccace, c a cae e ae, ad eee a ea

ce ae caa.

3.1.2 C

Tee ae a ceca aad a cd caae ae db e. Se

e c ceca caa ae aed ede ceca ed ae

eae, ceca c aea eac aea e db

e, ceca accaed ad e eeaed cae ad de, ad ceca

ee e db e a ad bea (Tabe 2).

3.1.2.1

Dec bdc (DBP) ae dced b e eac beee ceca deca

ad aa cc ac aea e ce ae (Kae, 2009; WHO, 2011;

Kae e a., 2012). Gdee ae ae bee eabed a be DBP (WHO,

2011), ad ee ccea be ee ae ecaed. Hee, d

ee ce dec. R acaed adeae dec ae e

eabed ad a eae a ea e ee DBP.

A ee a de ae DBP, aeae (THM) ad e aacec acd

(HAA) ae eea cdeed be d dca ca bdc (WHO,

2011). Hee, e DBP, c a bae, cae deae (NDMA),a eed be cdeed e e e deca, c a e, ce dde

ad cae, ae ed (WHO, 2011). Rece, abee ae bee deed

a ea badde cace (D e a., 2013), eea daed DBP ae ee

ee (Kae, 2009). T a e e DBP aad e deed b

THM HAA a a be ca ad a ee a eed a ce eeac

d.


27/157

17

3.1.2.2

Maea a ae cac dae bc ae db e a

eac ae e ae a ae aad bc ea. Pe, , bca,

, e ad ae a ca, ad ecaca dece ae deaed e

ea eac caa ea cce. Tee a edece a e e

1977 PVC dc eaced ca a cde ae (Fe a., 1999). Te ca cb ead dae a ce

ea e eece ead ece e e db e. Lead a eac

abe ae ead e d ae a, ead ece e, ead e

cd ad deed , ead ba ad be b , ad ead

eec, ae a ae ed ae eae a db a. Lead

a a c ce db e a ea. Te ceaed

ead dae a e 1980 deaed a ead eac ba

dece cd a be a ce ead (Le & Scc, 1996). Te eed e edce

ee ead ed e eee a ead ba aea. NDMA a

a bee eed a c aea aed e ae db e

(Ma e a., 2009, 2011).

We e ee e ea aad cde ad ead ae db

e a ae bee eaed e ccece a e dceed, a

aa ad eaa adad ad acca ceca ae ae bee

deeed ace c be. Tee aa e eab ed

ecee dc e ab add caa dae. T de a

eca ee dae caa db e

aea.

Tee ae eea adad ad aa e ac Ee a ae ceae a

aed ce (e.. Uebdea, 2012), a e a eae N Aeca

(NSF Ieaa, 2012), Aa (Jaaee Sadad Aca, 2012) ad Aaa

(Sadad Aaa, 2005). Tee adad adde b aeec eec, c a ae ad

d (B Sadad I, 2000; Sadad Aaa, 2005), a e a ea

ea eec (NSF Ieaa, 2012). Se adad adde e ea aea

cba (B Sadad I, 2000; Sadad Aaa, 2005;

DVGW, 2011). Sadad adde e ea eec ceca a a be aed

ae e aea eea dee a. Se adad e ece

eee e eece a cea ceca aea. Oe adad

ee c e ae a a bee eed e aea ae. S e

adad ee eaee e ccea caa aed ae,

c ae e caed eabed a ed ccea.

Aa e ceca cee ca cde aba e dc

e eee e adad. I add, e cee a ee a e

dc e aeace eace e dc ed e ac

(ISO/IEC, 2013; NSF Ieaa, 2013b).

Sce e dc N Aeca e 1920, cee a ae bee ed

e e ca e de a ece bae e eec


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18

c. Oe e a 90 ea, e c a ad ed aca

ae bee ed de a ea eabe ece. Cee a ca,

ee, be cebe acceeaed deada de e ae ce cd.

Ceca dae a a eac db e aea ad e

cae, ca e eeae caa. Ca e dec eae ceca

ce cae a e e ac a eed ae eeae ead

e e aea de ca e db e Wa, DC, USA,

2004 (USEPA, 2007a).

3.1.2.3

Wae eae ceca ae ed e e a dae; ee, e

ca a be aad ded a a ccea. Oe e ae

a cced a accdea add a ae e ae

Caed, Ued Kd, 1988, c eed 20 000 dda be eed

3000 e e Ued Kd ebe ee a dae (Rad

e a., 1990).

Wae eae ceca a ca ace ee aad caa. Seea

aa ad eaa adad ae bee deeed e ee caa

ae eae ceca (De & Fa, 2003). Oe 200 Eea ae

eae ceca ae eabed a ee caa a dc ae

aed cbe dae (Eea Cee Sadada, 2014).

Oe eae cde NSF Sadad 60 (NSF Ieaa, 2013a), ed b e USA ad

Caada, ad NBR 15784 Ba (ABNT, 2009). Te WHO

de ceca ad aea e ceca ae a a eea

aec ae a d be dceed a WSP (WHO, 2011).

3.1.3

Pca aad ee caa aec ca ee ae, c a c,

d ad bd.

Dae a dde cae c a dcae a aad a d be addeed.

Ce ca ee be ae ae ca acaed ce

caa b e. Ne ce aa ad e e ece

d de ae ee acaed e be. Ce b ceaed a

H a e a aa, ad c c ceca c a ae ca

deceae e eac ce (Scc, Le & Cee, 1995).

B, ed ad ae ae ca ae a e e c ee

e. Cae ae a ec e db e ae ee

acaed e ca (Bea, See & Le, 1996).

Sede db e a e ace a ee e b a a

a e e a a be acaed c eec. Sede ca ae

ae ece ad cae ca ea ea; cea ccace, ede


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19

ca dcae a beaae e ae a e, c cd e e cba

ceca caa.

Tae ad d e ce a dcae ea aad acaed

ae db e ad d be eaed; ee, e ca d eae

aca aad. We e ae ad d ed ceca ae ca e

a e ea eec ed, e USEPA (2002b) eed a a ceca e

aec ed ee ca e a e aadbaed ea .

Pea e aad cde ee caa dae. We ae,

ee ae bee ace eea dae db aea b

ee e (Gaa & Pa, 1992). Ece beee, ee ceca ae

deecabe b ae ad d a ccea a ae e be eaeaed dee

ae.

We , e e, d d d a a, ea

eaae e dae, a be a bacea caa bacea

.

3.2

Haad ee ae cde a a ca ead e eece a aad. I

ec, aad ee ae ed ee caee baed e ccace

ee a aec e e e db e ad e a e ae .

Tee caee ae:

: bea e ca bae e db e a a

eea caa aec e a e dae, cd ce

ae e db e ce (e, ae, ae ee), ccec, bac ad a ac (aa ace d cc

ada);

: ac a cd cae a ae db e e

dac e, c a cae ad ee caed b eaa

c ae ad ad ac ea ad aeace;

: a a cd cae a ae a de

cee a ae ace e db e, c a b , eac,

c, ae ae, aa/ ee e (de dead ed) ad

dca.

Tabe 3 ae e ca aad ee a db e ad eded be eae. Te e aad ed ae a dcaed ad deed a

cbca (M), ca (P) ceca (C).

3. Haad ee acaed db e

C H H


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20

C H H

Pca e Caa d cc e ae a:

cba ceca caa d cc ea de deb, e, , dae aae

ee a e e ( caed) e e e/

e c, aced e e ad, bede e ec

e ec bee cec

M, P, C

Caa db e d e aa, cd

ae ee, , ae da e

M, P, C

Caa d ae a ea:

a e a ( caed) e e ea ec; cd a

caa, cd ee dc, ed

deae

deb, dae ea e a ae ea ad

eed d e a ecae ea

M, P, C

Hdac e Sede ee, b ca ce

ca de cec ae ea (ced eed) ae

ea

M, P, C

Wae a e Caa e aea ed cc ad

aeace e, ad a (e.. ce, , ead,

ace, b )

C

Te e aae aea, cd e eac dc

a ae cabe e aea e e, ca

c

C

Pca e C ead ca e M, P, C

Hdac e Caa ea ae a aea ee

ee ae : e de bac ea ,

a ae, ea

M, P, C

Caa ea ee a aea ee

ee ae : e de bac ea ,

a ae, ea, ea ae ad da

M, P, C

Acca b, ede ad ace ae a de

ece e ad ee d ee

M, P, C

Ree b, ede, cae de eea M, P, C

Wae a e Dced ae de ea c ed ae a

(d ee, ca , dce ) ad acca ace (e..

ede, aaee de), aca a dead ed, de

aa

P, C

Sa ae, c ae ad acea b M

Eeaed DBP de ee ac ae ce ae C

Pca e Mcba caa e bd ad a aa aece

a ad a :

ace

e e ad e c ae ea ce

M


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21

C H H

a e

Ie caaed dae eaed ad cac M, P, C

Iea c ee ae ae a C

Sec beace aed acce b a, cd

ada, abae

M, P, C

Wae a e H ceae ccee a de ecee dee e P

C ea ad ace C

Sede acca ad b e b e a M, C

B

Pca e Bac edea/da/ceca ce de ac

ee dece ae dece; ed ceaed d

ee ee ae e

M, P, C

Accdea ccec beee dae ad d

ae ae d cc aeace, cd e a

a ae a eca ae ea ad a ceae ce

M, P, C

Wae a e Ecee ce abe eabaed dee ae (5 /L) C

Uded ce ead adeae ec aa e

cba caa b

M

Eeaed DBP de ee ac ae ce ae C

DBP: dec bdc

3.2.1

3.2.1.1 , ,

Pca e ee e aeace a ca bae aa eea

caa. Fae a cae e ca e ceae e

caa. A beac e e caed b c ace ca a e e

caaed dae aeae ca ae a ceca. Te

c e ae ae abed ae ad deea e

ce, abe d cd ad dde ad ecee ee ca.

Fae a caa e e e e de aec eae

ee cd, a c ee ae e, d a ae a bea

e e e de cc ea.

A ea cec e ae ca ae a deea ac e a

ae. A ea ae cec ee a dda ae , a ae a

cec a ae e e ae . Cec

ade b aed e ceec ede e ae de,

aa ad aeace e ae e ca ee eced c

cec a ca dce cba ad ceca caa. Iea cec a

e acced ae a edce e ae ee ad ceae e

caa, a ed abe.


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22

3.2.1.2

Ccec ea a aca ea cec ca aaee

beee a dae e ad a e ce e c be

dce e db e caaed ae, da d, a

bace e a e eded dae c e e ed. Ccec ce a e bc ea . Tee ae e e dceed

cae ccec a caaed dae ad eed e e

(USEPA, 2002a; Ca e a., 2006).

Caa ee e dae e e e ee e caa ce

eceed e ee e ae e. T a bac. Te e e e

ee ad/ e ceaed ace eaae e e, e eae e

bab caa e.

I add ca a e db e, e bac caa ca

ce cec abe e, a, ece, ee b

e ee adeae ccec c, cd bac ee dece,

ae bee aed ee aeace a bee adeae (ee ec 4 ad 8). Teeae a eae a ee dece ee aaed, ee e ee

baed ee e dd e eece. Oe ad aae bd ca

deeae e ea ac adeae ccec c d

ae db e.

A bac ccec ae caed a bad ad aed ae

bea e acaed dae, e ae e ae d a

C /

, F

I 20072008, aae 5000 cae aea e abed

ad ee eed a a ab 30 000 Na, Fad.

Te bea a caed b ccec e eae e ad e dae

e. Dae a ed a eae e a e eae eae a

cea e. Caa cced e a e dea ea eed aae cec e e, ad, de a ee deea, eae ed e

dae e. Te a a dceed 2 da, c e a eaed

450 000 e eae eeed e dae e. Te a e

caa ee ce ca dd c, ae ad e, c ee ed.

Te e cae ed ec e be. H ee aeca dca ee

deeced e e, ed ae b , , e ad .

Heca ad ee ed decaae e e. Te F Deece

Fce aed ae ca ad dee bed ae d e b ae ad,

c eaed ace 10 ee. Te bea ad eeda ac c a eaed 3.7

e.

Sce: Ceae Reeac Cee Wae Qa ad Teae (2007a,b)


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23

a d ae ec ae ae ae a ae ce

de ec aa ccec (USEPA, 2002a).

3.2.1.3

A decbed ec 2, ae e bad c ae ee a ca

be ed ae ad baac ae , a ad db e,

ad caed ee be e.

Sae ee e ae a ae db e ae cca ae, a

e ca e ae e dae, c cd bed a da a

ae ce bae. Ree e a e a ce ee

bd a a e e e e ea aa ae dead, a e a

cae ad dead eeece, c a e ae, e ad

bead e a e e eae a. Te e

ea, c ad eab . I add, eeaed ae ee ee

a ee ae a e e ee, c ee e e dae, ee

e ee d d e eae a.

W e cca e a ae ee a ae , a a be

acce ae caed e de ad cc ee cba ceca

caa dae e ee a aeca

caa aa, bd ad ec. Ia de ac cde ae

ee, edece e ae, eeae, deca eda, ae,

aca ad ae ad aa, eae ee cd, bac

ad e e ae e ae (A, 2004).

Se eae be aad ee a a e a dae a

ae ee cde ede, a aa ec a c

a:

daae , cd a ace ad ce;

a beee e ce ad e a a;

cac ccee a a c ea a;

a a e e cabe; ad

ebae e.


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24

I add, ca, ceca bca caa ae ee

cd a be a e abae ce b de a caa

e ae.

A ae ae ee ca ed a ae ce bae, caa

e eaed ae e ae ee, ee ea accdea, cd e

ca bc ea ceece.

3.2.1.4

Pec e a ae e a ae db e e eb

e ae . Hee, ce ae e a ae db e ae

e e a dda e, e e e e a a

cee be ec e ae e ee. A ae

ae bd eea e ce bca, a bd

e ca ae ac ae a db e bac.

Dae , ae e ad ee ad ad bd eed

be eced a caaed ed d bace a a e ad a

ace. Ccec ce caa, c a ceca ae adabe ae e, eed be eeed.

Tee ae e ccec dec ad dec. Tee ae e

bac caed b ee ccec bacae ad bacee bac.

I a dec ccec, ee be a dec ca cec e beee e

dae ad caa ce. A eae ee a e e

A, C, A

I 2008, 434 cae e, cd 20 aa ad e dea, ee eed a

a 8900 Aaa, Cad, USA. Edeca ea eaed a

1300 ee cd ae bece . Te bea a caed b T.

Aaa a ed deced dae dee be a ad bee

ce cea aeca caa.

I ee e bea e, a decded cea, ad cae e d

ae e. T aed a a ed dee ee, c a daed eabe

ea ede ad dec. We ced cac ad e e a a, ad

ee a ee cdeed e e e caa. a deeced

e db e ed a. A e e bea cd

ae caed e e a. Te a ad bee bec e cea ad

ec.

Dec a added e ae e bea. Te c e bea a eaed

a US$ 2.6 .

Sce: Cad Deae Pbc Hea ad Ee (2009); Ae e a. (2013)


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25

dea de cec, ca a eea e a eded

dec . Bac cc e e ee a ed e eceed e

ee e dae e. T a bacee ccec. A ca

eae e ccec e e a abe e a

ccae e d. Te ae e abe e ad ceced

eee e aad. T becae e cca e d e e

cd cae a ceae ee abe e ee ad cae a bac

abe ae e dae .

Tee ae e dec ccec: de beed cec, ad

e cec. Te de beed cec ee e dae

e ce e b de a eceace ad eed a ed

caaed bace (ee D F. 6(a)). W e ec, e

e e cd cae bac e dae .

A e cec e ee e ae eae abe e dee

a e b a a e cec a ceae a ea a de

ea (ee A, B ad F F. 6(a)). I ace, e e e a bec beed e a e eae aaced.

Bac a cc e e e e ad e ae cae a eae

e ee e e ae e, c a a ae a bea da e

e e ea e ace a e. T cae a cc, da e

b caaed ae e dae . Te e bac a cc

ee ace eed bacae. See F. 6(a) e eae bac

ae.

Te c bac ee e ea e e eea ac a ca

cae e bac ae, e ca e cae e eae ee.Rea e ca ccec, c a F. 6(b), a e ea

ee bac ad e e ea ee caa. T ca a be

acced a bac ee dece a a a. Te aae eec,

aa ad e e dece ae c eea e ce a

a ad caa e dae e.

Tee ae bac ca ee bac ec aed. Te a e

cec e bc ae e ae ece e e a dda

e. T a cae bac ec, becae e bc ae

caed ad eced caa a a cc e e a dda

e.

Te e ca ee bac ec aed a e eec e d

ae ad e ea ce caa. T a a bac

ee becae ae eac ea caa ce e dae

ad a bd. A aec ac beae aed e ae

a a a eae a ec.


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(a)

: A

F. 6. (a) Ccec ad e ce caa; (b) dec ccec


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27

: A

3.2.1.5 ,

Te db e de a ece bae caa; d be eced ad e de e ee dee ae e a ad ee

caa ee e ae a.

Te ca bee (.e. bae) e ee ed b e eae a

a e dee e ae a; e ae ea e a becae e

ae de e ee a a e ee a e ae e d

. Te ad a ea caa e ee e a e e

ae ea de ee a , e dac ade e a e

.

Hee, e e ee e ae a a d e e b accde de c b e ae d cc, ea ea . I a

ced e e ed, e e ae e a daed aa ad e

e a c e a ed a ea e caa ca cc. T e

cca e ae e. I e deed, aed ad aaed, ee

cc/ea ca ead e dc cba ad ceca aad.

()


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28

A deaed dec c aad ee a cd cc d a cc,

ea ea a db e ded Tabe 3.

3.2.2 Te dac e a ae db e eee e caac de

eabe ae ae a acceabe ee. Ma ee ad a a cae

ca e ca cae dac e. Sa, e ee de

dac e ca e ac beace ca e, c a ae

a bea ad ccec. L dac e ca a ae ac ae

a b cea ae ae ad b deee. Ce a ca

ece ae ee cde , eeedc ae, e ae,

da ad ae a. Ee a ca edce ee cde ae, ,

ece a cea, cc ad ea, ae a bea ad ea, ad

e.

3.2.2.1

Te eee eae dac e cc e a a dee a

eed dae. Iee ae e ee e ea

, add be eee cee ad a cae ae. Iee

ae e ae eea ed e e aaabe e dac caace e

e ae caabe ee dead. Iee ae e ae e cebe

caa de :

157 C,

M, A

I 19891990, 243 cae e abed . O157 ee eed a a

2100 ee Cab, M, USA. Tee ee 82 cae bd daea; 32 cae ee

aed, deeed aec aec de ad ded. Cab a ed

deced dae dee be. M daa e e 10 eaced a e be ee ee aeca caa.

Te ae a caed a a cae e bea. Te db e a

aaed, 35% e ae acced , e ea ad

ee. Te eeae e a a cd, ea abe caac

ea . I Decebe 1989, Cab eeeced eee eeae, c caed

ae ae a ad 45 d ae ee a. M cae cced ae e

ecd ae a bea ad ae eacee e ae ee. Seae e

e ae a bea a eced a a a ce e bea, b a

ced b ae e. O ae ae ee aaed, ad ee a e

aea e e cdece cae. P aaed ea e a ad eacee

e ee ee eced be cb ac. Tee a ed aae ea, ee a dec ad ee a cec ae ae e

cba a ae ce e ea.

Ca e ae a dced Jaa 1990.

Sce: Hde & Hde (2004); Naa Reeac Cc (2006)


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29

e beced aec ad ac (eae ee) cd ae

, c a e e caaed dae aeae

ea e ad ;

e c ad ae caed b e e e aeae ae ad a;

ed aa a e cba ad ae ceaed dec

dc ad eece;

ca ee ad ece a cae b deace ad eeae

ca; ad

cba ae ed a e beee ee.

3.2.2.2

Se dae e ca ecee ae a be ce, cd dee

ee, cba dae ad ace ae, ad deaa

a eaed eae (dec ad dec abe ee). Cb

dda ce ca be aed eaa ea, ee ea eee

ee cac cd. F eae, deaa a

dae e a be ceaed e ee ae ee ae . Sa, ae

ee ca ead cae dee ee.

M ae e ca cae a be e, cd:

cae dec, ead dd b ad ee

ede;

L , 19961997

A edeca e Ubea 1996 ed a ed ed ae ad a

c e ae daea deae (75.5 cae e 1000 ee e ) a ed

ed ae a caed dae ed e e (28.8 cae e 1000

ee e ). Sce ae ee e ed e a bec aeca ad a cdeed e cae deae. Hee, 30% ed

ceced e ed e eceed dae ca deecabe ce

eda, ad 42% ed eed ee ae ee. I a ccded a

e e ce deae a a ccaa beee e ed ae

e ad ea eae e caaed dae de ae ee ad

cee ec e ae db e b ce eda.

Beee 1 Jaa ad 30 Je 1997, 8901 cae d ee, cd 95 dea, ee

eed Dabe, Taa. Faeca c caa a deeced 97% a

ae ae eed. P eae cbed deae a, b db

e caa a a ca. L ad ee ae ee ad aeae ee c. Se ae e ee de ae da, ad cec

ee ee ced.

Sce: Seea e a. (1998); Me e a. (1999)


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30

cae ceca a, dd de (e.. deaaed ae ad

ace ae dae);

deca eda e ae e dead ed ae

e dead e cabe deca (e.. ee ce ad cae)

ae ed;

edced eecee deca de H ad eeae cae;

cae ae; ad

ac eca e (da, ace, ec.) de cae ceca

c.

3.2.3

Wae a e ee aa a b ac caed b ea

cee ad ee d dee dae a ad db

e.

3.2.3.1 ,

Haad ceca ca be eeaed aea ad ee b eac de cac dae b c. Leac ca be edced b eec aea

ad a ae abe cac dae, eea c ca be

edced b eaa c aed b ae e. Leac ed a

edae ae aa, eea c ceae e ae e aea ad

.

A be ce ae eabed ceca ae aea ad

ed cac dae, c cde e e eeae aad

ceca (ec 3.1.2). Ne aa d e aea ad a c

ee eee. I e ce, ecc aea, c a ead e ad de,

ae bee baed de e e eac aad.

Hee, ee aea e de aa eda ceca ad ba. I

add e abece ceca ae, aea c a be ; e

cae, dee e eece ceca ae, aea c a be

ce. F eae, PVC ed dae e d be

aaced eadbaed bca ad ab aea, b ae ec

de a PVC ed a. Seec e e ca

e eac ead dae (Maa & Fead, 2003).

Haad ceca a ca be eaced aea ad ed db

e ae aed Tabe 4. O e ceca ed Tabe 4, ead a eceed e ae bc ea d de b ae ad dee ae

(10 /L). Ce c a eae c de e ee e ce

e bd. Edece ce c e aeed be beee

dca ba ad e .

I aea ee e ae ed, ed ae caed b e eeae de a a

ee ce ce ca. A ad de d eee a


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dec ea cce, dde ca adb ad cceae ceca c a aec.

A ea e cae 15 e e USA d a aec a ee

a ccea ee e ee ce ae caed aec a

ccea be 10 /L (Le, S & Fec, 2004). Aec accaed cae ca

be eeded eeaed dae ed ce cae

ae dec. I e Mde e USA, e dc ca a

ae e dae ed e eeae aec de a

ccea aac 5 /L (Rebe & Da, 2000).

4. C aad ceca a eac e aeaad

M H

Lead e Lead

Ce e Ce

Sde ad (ba ad be a) Lead, ce, cad, ce, e,

I e I, aec

Gaaed e Zc, ead

Cee e ad a ad cee a Cac dde ( H)

Peee e, e, ad ea

cd

Oac cd

Rbbe ea NDMA ( eac ce/cae)

NDMA: deae

Te ae ac a ca ece e eeae ceca aea ad

cde:

ae aea ad ;

ae ae/aa;

H;

aa;

eeae;

ce/cae eda;

cde ad ae;

aee ae ( ae, aa); ad

cae eae.

Hee, ca be dc de deede ac dda ac. F eae,

ae e ac ce ad cae eda ca be cded bcdea aa ad H. I e cae, eeaed eeae aad ceca ca

cc e ac ccde eae, e ae aa ccde ae

aea H ae (Hea Caada, 2009).

Te ae aea ca ee ceae deceae e eeae aad ceca,

deed e eca eeae a , eac c. Leac ceca

ed be eae d e ee ad aa, eea


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ccea ceca eeaed b c eea ceae ae. Lead a d

eae deea ee. Te eeae ead e aed ba a ad

de cc eae ad e e e ee ad ad e dece

(Bad, 1988; Scc & Ne, 1988), eea ead eeaed b c ead e

ceae ae (Scc, Wae & Oa, 1996). Oac ceca ed be eeaed

b eac e aed aea, c a a e ad aea. I

Aaa, NDMA a dced ccea d e ae

aa bbe aea de e eac cae e ae

ac cd e aea (Ma e a., 2009, 2011). Tee

ccea deceaed e e. Te e eece caa (.e. aea

aebaed caa e) ad ecae e a a bee eeae

NDMA (Wca e a., 2003).

Te ae e ad dac dbace ece e eeae . A cae

bd a edce c, e eea eeae cae d becaed

ca e ca e ed ae (Sa e a., 2003).

Leac e ccee e, ad a eea a edae aeaa ad deceae e e (Da & Me, 1991; Da, Me & Ca, 1996;

USEPA, 2002a). Leac ca a cc e ceebaed aea deeae (LeR e

a., 1996).

Saa ed eacebae eac ad c. I a ceae ccea

aad ceca ae b edc e ac d acaed ae .

Leac ead ad ce e ad ad e cee ca be ceaed

b aa (W & Bea, 1976; Da & Me, 1991; Scc, Le & Cee,

1995; Da, Me & Ca, 1996; S, Scc & Le, 1999; Le & Scc, 2000). I

ca, ce eac ed be caed b e ded e ee d aa ae (S, Scc & Le, 1999; Le & Scc, 2000).

Te eeae aad ceca aea ad ca be eced b H.

Geea, cea H ae ead deceaed eeae ea, ae de deceaed

b a e H.

Sba ead e ad a ad aac c ead de a

deceae a e H (Scc, 1989; Rebe, 1991; USEPA, 1992; Se, 1994). Se

ae e ae d a H abe 89 ceaed deceaed ead a ce

a (Kaaea, Ra & Ta, 1983; Lee, Bece & C, 1989; Dd & Edad, 1995;Hea Caada, 2009). A a e, a e H ae e a bee ed a a c

eae edce ead ccea.

Sa, e e 350 ae e ed a e eceeded e Ued Sae

Eea Pec Aec (USEPA) ac ee ce 1.3 /L, ded a

e ae ad a H 7.8 (Dd & Edad, 1995). Ce c cced de

e cd: H be 7.0 ad aa be 30 /L (a cac cabae) ad H


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33

be 7.8 ad aa abe 90 /L (a cac cabae). I b cae, c a

edced b cea e H (Dd & Edad, 1995).

A H ceae, c e ca ceae, b ccea d

ae deceae de e e b a e H (Kaaea, Ra & Ta,

1983; Pa & Se, 1987; B, Be & Hedbe, 2001; Sa e a., 2003).

Aa ca ae aed ac e eeae aad ceca aea ad

. He aae deceae c ad e eeae e (Pa &

Se, 1987; Ca, Pa & Vaaaaa, 2000; Sa e a., 2003) ad e cee

e (C e a., 1994). I ca, ae ad aba e a e

aae ceae ce eeae (Scc, Le & Cee, 1995; Edad, Scc & Mee,

1996; Edad, Jacb & Dd, 1999; Ca, Pa & Vaaaaa, 2000; S & Ta,

2007).

Te ea beee aa ad e eeae ead cea. T de ed

a ead eeae a edced a e aae (Dd & Edad, 1995; Ca, Pa &Vaaaaa, 2000, b a eae e aed de a ea beee ead

ccea dae ad aa (Lee, Bece & C, 1989).

Te ceae edece c acaed d deca c a ce ad

cae ce de c e ccea deca e

deca eee (e.. ce cae) ee caed. T dced

e dea ec 3.2.3.2.

Fee ce eda ae bee ceae ce eeae a H be 7.5 (Rebe,

1989; Ca, Pa & Vaaaaa, 2000; Ba & Edad, 2001), b ce eeaea ea edced eeed a e H (Edad & Fe, 1993; Edad, Jacb &

Dd, 1999; Ba & Edad, 2001). Sa, c a bee eed

ceae e eece ee ce (Pa & Se, 1987; Ca, Pa &

Vaaaaa, 2000), b cea e H abe 7.8 deceaed c (Ca, Pa &

Vaaaaa, 2000).

Edece aba de ad e dcaed ceae ead c

acaed ee ce eda (Lee, Bece & C, 1989; Ca, Pa &

Vaaaaa, 2000).

Tee e edece e ac cae c. Oe d d ac a edced caaed ae b ccded a a bab de

a ceae H ed abe e cae eda (Ta, 1990). Rebe (1993)

d a cae acceeae e c ce a H 6, b e cc

dae e, a e H ae eed abe cae eda.

Tee cc edece e ac eeae c. A e ae

e d ca cea beee eeae ad ead ce


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34

ccea dae (Dd & Edad, 1995). I ca, eaa aa

ae bee eed, e ead ad ccea be deeced ae

e ea (Kaaea, Ra & Ta, 1983; He e a., 1998). I d be ed

a eeae ece a ae aaee a a a ae a ac

c, cd ce ad cae eda, bca ac ad ae .

Cde ad ae ca ece ead eeae. A e ae e deaed a

e a cde ae a a e a 0.58 ad e ead ccea

a e a eae a 0.58 (Edad, Jacb & Dd, 1999). Edad &

Taad (2007) deaed a eeaed cde ae a ceaed ead

eeae ead de ed dae e.

S, aa ae a bee acaed eac, aca ceebaed

aea. Ceebaed e ad a eac e e ad ea ae

aa (Da & Me, 1991; Da, Me & Ca, 1996). Te ee eac

deed e a aa ad be caac e aed ae, e e cee ed, e cac e beee e ae ad e cee aea, ad e e

daee (Bd, 2005; AWWA, 2008). Pd aa ad ae ae aaed a

eaabe ee de a eaced e, eea cae be. Hee,

a ad aa, e eac ca cae ae H ceae, ae abe

11 be ecded (LeR e a., 1996; V e a., 1996).

Leac ca a eed cd caed cee ad a. Ie ad

ae a a ea da cee ee abed e eac a

cee aed dce e caed b aee (eae Laee Ide), (1520

/L ade a cac cabae), aa deaaed ae. I e 2 ae

aa e e, a ccea e dae ceaed 5 /L 690 /L; e e e 2 ea, ccea abe 100 /L ee ecded (Beed &

Tb, 1999). Wae a cee a e ca a eac baa

a ba, cad ad c e 1418 da ae aa ad

ceae H, aa ad cac ccea 4 ea (Da, Me & Ca,

1996; G, T & Ece, 1998).

Iac cae eae cee ae dced e dea e e ec,

b cae c a d H ad caa ad ca deca ca a ae

ac ae c e db e. F eae, ca

ca caa Wa, DC, USA, cbed e ceaed eeae ead e dae (USEPA, 2007a).

3.2.3.2

Cae eae cee, c a eaced caa eacee

ca caa, ca be eeed e ae a. Hee,

e ca a ae eded ceece, cd ceaed c (USEPA, 2007b).


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35

Eae be eae cae ad e ceece ae Tabe 5.

5. Adaae ad dadaae acaed cae ae eae cee

A D

Mded caa Redced ccea

ec DBP Ied ea

ad

Ied dec (e

dead)

Iceaed c acaed e

H, e aa, e aded,ceaed cde ad ae

Iceaed ac ceca

Reacee

ce

cae

Iceaed eda e

d ec aa

eea caa ad

ee ae

B c

Iceaed c

Ia eeae b a e

db e a e dd

ecee ae ca eda

deca

Nca

Pea e da ae

Deceaed a dec e

e cac e Pdc NDMA

M caed ad caaed

e

Add

eea

ca

Iceaed eda e

d ec aa

eea caa ad

ee ae

B c

Iceaed c

Ia eeae b

Iceaed DBP

Deceaed H (

caed e)

Eaced a dec b

ce

Le DBP b decea

ce de

Iceaed c

Deceaed eda db

e

DBP: dec bdc; NDMA: deae

Sce:Adaed USEPA (2007b)

Mdca caa ca be eae e ac aed ee

cae ce ae caacec aa dae a ee

eacee e dae a. Mdca ca cde cea

decea caa de, ca caa, add e, ad H ed

. Eaced caa ca ceae e ea aa ac ae,

bee edc e a DBP (Kae & A, 1995; USEPA, 2007b) ad

cea dec eecee b decea deca dead. Eaced

caa ca a ceae e ea ae c a ad (Sae e a., 2002).

Mdca caa, cd cae caa, a ee ade be

ade bee a ad dec cee. Te ade ca be deeed

b ca a e ad eaced eace eaa aaee

ee a bd ad a ac cab c aaed ad dec

adee aeced.


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Oe dadaae cde ceaed c ad ceaed ac cd

acaed e caa de ae. Md caa ca ead edced H,

cae e cde ae a (deed e cce caa) ad edced

aa (USEPA, 1999, 2007b). Ad e H ae a ad e e

eaed ae e db e ca ea edce ac c.

A cae ae eae deca a ce, e c e eece

ca ea eed e db deca eda, aca ce

e. T ca ceae ec aa ecaa db e

eea caa ad edce e ee ae c a

ad (C & Rb, 1984; Ta, 1990; K, Caee & Fed,

1999; Fae e a., 2006).

Oe adaae cde bee c b ad edced dc a THM

(Kee e a., 2004; WHO, 2004). Hee, ca be e b e ceaed dc

e DBP, c a NDMA (WHO, 2008). I ca a ceae e ccece bec cbacea, c a cde c aec ece (Reea e

a., 2013).

Dadaae eac ca caa ae:

ea ceae c;

ca ad c ae (e.. bec cbacea);

e dca ae a ce a de e eeae b

a e db e a e dd ecee ae ca eda

deca;

e da ae; a dec; ad

e bed caaed ad caed ae.

I a e e, cae d cae e be c a ce, a

e ae eae d ae ad a ae ed cc e H

aa ab. Hee, e caa ed eace ca, e cae

ca ead e eeae accaed cae b cea b. Reac ce

cae a e ac a cbed e eeae ead e Wa, DC,

USA, ae (USEPA, 2007a).

Te dc caa ca cae e be dca de e aca ad eeae b aea e a e dd ecee

ae ca a eda deca.

Bca ca cc eda ae ee, a ad a e ed

caaed db e ad caed b e da aa e ad

e ae, ca b bacea (Ce, 1991; USEPA, 2002d). Nca

ead cae eda, b a ad deceaed H, aa


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37

ad ded e ccea (USEPA, 2002d). Nca ca be ed b ece

ee aa, a eeae ad cae eda (We e a., 1990; USEPA,

2002d). O d e ece aa ad aa cae eda,

aca a e ed db e, ca edce e ed ca.

O e eece ad ab dae, cae ae caed

aec aaea, eaebaea ad ae da ae (WHO, 2004).

Ae ebe da be ed e eacee ca

caa a e ca ad e eae ae ed da.

Bed caed ad caaed e ca be a caee, a e cec baace

beee aa ad ce ccea eea aa eece

dec. Oe ee ca be a ce ce eae e cae

eda (ce aa a eae a 7.6 : 1, a e e) ad ecd

de a ee ce eda.

Seea ca aa e db e ca e eaeace ee ce eda ad eace cba c. Te dadaae ae

e ea ceae ccea DBP ad ceae c caed b ce.

Redced H ca be ed a a eca e e eecee a

ca, ead e e e de ae ad deceaed THM a. A

dced e, deceaed H ca ead ceaed c ea e ad

. Deceaed H ca a edce e ea aaee (USEPA, 2007b).

3.2.3.3

Seea cd a ead e ccece cbe ad e a b db e, cd (USEPA, 2006; Naa Reeac Cc, 2006):

ce ae ded acae ac ae ce ce

aeca ae;

ae eeae c;

cae ae ad aa;

ea H dae;

cba eac ae c aA, ad

(USEPA, 2002e; Decec e a., 2009);

e;

ed db e ad cea e aea;

adeae cea ad aeace db e;

deca eda;

ae a ae ad bea; ad

cd ae ace, c a e a a aa ad

aca ceed ae ace.


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38

3.2.3.4

Wae ae a bee eed a a a ac e deea ae a

db e, ead bc ea ad aeec cce (USEPA, 2002c). I a

a dced abe ec 3.2.3.1 ead e eeae aad aea

ad . W eec ea ac, ceaed ae ae, ee a ceaed

ea e a DBP, ceaed c ad a ceaed ea

cba e, ece ad ed. Iceaed ae ae ca a ead a e

eecee c c eae a e a a ceaed ea

ca e b ae. W eec aeec, ceaed ae ae, ee ca

be a ceae ae eeae ad e acaed ae, d ad c.

Te a eca deea ae a ae eac e e

a ad e ae, ad eac e b ae e.

Wae ae ca a ca a e ad a ced b e de

ad e ae. Baed a e e a 800 e e USA, e Wae IdDaabae (AWWA, 1992) dcae a aeae db e ee e 1.3 da

ad a a ee e 3.0 da, a e eae e a ae ae ca

be ca e, eeca dead ed aea (USEPA, 2002c; Ace & Kaa, 2001).

Fac cb ceaed ae ae cde dead a ad e eee

d caac dea ee c a e ae ad e. Pa

eceae e aa ace a ae ece caac ae ae ad

F :

Ce JJ (1984). Peca db e. J A Wae W Ac.

76(11):469.

Gedec EE, LeCeae M (1999). Mcbca a c db e. I:

Leea RD, ed. Wae a ad eae, ed. Ne Y (NY): McGaH;18.118.49.

Kee GJ, Feda M, Mae KD, He D, LeCeae M, Abbaadea M, e a. (2001).

Pae e db e. Dee (CO): Aeca Wae W

Aca Reeac Fda.

Te RR (1999). Saead db e e. J A Wae W Ac.

91(1):4654.

Ued Sae Eea Pec Aec (1992). C b d

ae db e. Wa (DC): Ued Sae Eea Pec Aec

(EPA/625/R92/001).a de K D (2000). Te ed b aac: a ae adde bca

eea db e. Ieaa Db Reeac S. Dee

(CO): Aeca Wae W Aca.

a de K D, a Lee JHM, Scea J, Hea P (1999). Maa a

a deca eda. J A Wae W Ac. 91(1):5564.


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39

db, ea ee dead a a cc 20 ea e e ad e.

Bd e caac ca e e ceae ae ae, a e ae caac a

be ae ca eeda eed.

Bd caac b eee ad e dee ae e e cae e ca

a ceae ae ae, e adda eee eed, b a e

ae e daee eeded accdae e . F eae, ee e (1.6 )

4c (10.2 c) e a eaced 8c (20.3 c) e ceae e eece

e e db e b e a 10 000 a (39 000 L) (Pece, 2001).

Wae ae a be aeced b ed edced ae ae. T cde eaa

aa dead, a ae e ca ae e e ce e ea, e

dead cc e ae (Naa Reeac Cc, 2006). T a

cde ace ee daac cae cc e eca a ca

eceae ae e ce, a aeed Hcae Kaa. Ce

e e USA a e a Ne Oea a 29% e 2010 a a

2000 (Cabe, 2011).

H,

Haad, aad ee ad ae aed a eee caed ad

ba aea. Pa dee ae c e, aa ca e, e ed

eeae e, eee ae ae ae , ad ede ecee ae ae

ad ade. Maaee ae e a eee e . Hece,

e ed aad ee cc c eae.

Se e e cde:

aa de :

o e deeca ad e,o e ee, ae, be ad da,

o e daae ad

o d ae aaee;

adeae de :

o ac ae,

o eaae ae,

o ea ae ce b ce a ea ad

o c a e;

e aea;

ea cec;

adeae ec ade;

ee; e ad cca ea ad e ae;

ed acce, ec aeace ad ea;

ed eace, a ad ea;

e ece, ead e e ad .

Sce: Nab C ad Wae Seeae Ca ad A Wae Sece Bad (2009); Macaa (2012)


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3.3

Oce ea aad ad aad ee ae bee deed, e ee eed

be aeed a e aaee ca be eabed. R aee eed

cde e ee aad ad aad ee e ce ed

ccece ad ceece ee.

3.3.1

Te WHO (WHO, 2011) ad e

(Baa e a., 2009) b eced ae a a baed

ed ad ee ceece, a Tabe 6.

6. Eae aee a

L

I

deecabe

ac

1

Mac

cace

2

M

aeec

ac

3

M

ea

ac

4

C

bc ea

ac

5A cea

(ce e da)

5

5 10 15 20 25

Le

(ce e ee)

4

4 8 12 16 20

Mdeae e

(ce e )

3

3 6 9 12 15

Ue

(ce e ea)

2

2 4 6 8 10

Rae(ce ee 5

ea)

1

1 2 3 4 5

15

L M H a

Rea ac ea eceed ea ea bc ea ac.b

Caac bc ea ac cde ea bea e eee ce.

Sce: Adaed Baa e a. (2009); WHO (2011)

Te dec Tabe 6 ca be aded, a ca e be caee. I

a, bee cec a aee, e WSP ea eab a

ea b e c a , deae, a, ec. A a aad a eae

ae a, a eee a . Te a d be d beee

ad a ae ca be ced a ad e a ae

e e cae a, aca c eae (ee ec 4).

3.3.2

Qaae cba aee (QMRA) a ce b c e ac ee

c a e , aa cac ae dae ca be


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aeed. QMRA ae cdea e ce ae, ae ad a

e db e ad ee aa. We e a QMRA be ed

a e ba, a be a aabe eea ae ae a,

e dead eabe dae db e, ae

acaed aad ee ad aaee.

QMRA a bee ed ae cba caa db e,

e d d a eee cd eee a e a

dae caaed db e, eea a be a

caa a caed b ace ae eae (a Lee, Be & Medea,

2007). A ecd ea d a a a e ce caa

ae ee (Wee e a., 2003). Sc ea ece e eed

eee eae, c a e deed e e ad dae

d aeace ace e caa ae ee.

F. 7. Fae aeeaed QMRA (WHO, eaa)

Te dce A : A

A A (WHO,

eaa) decbe e e a QMRA ad acae e dead ee e

e acca eea QMRA ae ae aaee (F. 7).


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4. D ,

4.1 D

C eae ae bae ecea ee edc ca ae a. Te eed be deeed, eeed ad ed eac aad ee

deed a ca e aee. I e ce e db e

ce, c eae ae deed a e eae eed dae

db e a dec aec e ae aeec dae, ee b

ee e ccece aad b aca, e edc e

acceabe ee.

C eae ca cde a de ae ace ad cee. Te ca be:

eee (ad caed de, a ad cc cee ad eea

ace); eae eaed (e.. ecda dec);

ecca (e.. eaa ad aeace cede); ad

beaa (e.. ce aaee ae).

C eae be deed ecca ad ece eac ca aad

ee ad adaed e ca cd. Te d ee be ece ae. Weea

e e ad be c eae a eac e, e cece

eea ad aeace ae eea ee a ae a ced

eece. O e ce c eae be eeed b e ae e

d be cded e aee.

Tabe 7 de a c eae ca aad ee e db

e. Se e c eae ae aed d e de ad cc e

ae db e, eea e e a ae eaa, eeec ad

aed ea cede (e.. ae a bea ea cede, ae a

cea, a aeace ad cea, ecda dec, ce ca

aaee ad e e ea cede) (ee ec 8).

7. Eae c eae

H C

Caa d cc e ae

a:

cba ceca caa d

cc ea de deb, e,

, dae aae ee a e

e ( caed) e e e/

e c, aced e e ad, bede

e ec e ec bee cec

Cc adad ad ecca

(cd aea ae, ad, a,

, abb, dec, cac e ad

ae a e)

Fed cace ad


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H C

Caa db e d e

aa, cd ae ee, , ae

da e

Cde acce

Cc adad ad cede

Dec acce c

Caa d ae a ea:

a e a ( caed) e e eaec; cd a caa, cd

ee dc, ed

deae

deb, dae ea e a

ae ea ad eed d e a

ecae ea

Deae ec cec ea

Pee caa e aead ae, a ad ea

F ae a ec da baed

e e a ad ae

Pe cea (abb) ad dec ae

ea

Wae a e (a/bd)

e ae a

Sede ee, b ca

ce ca de cec ae ea

(ced eed) ae ea

Sadad ea cede ea

ae ae ea

Caa e aea ed

cc ad aeace e, ad

a (e.. ce, , ead, ace, b

)

Aed dc adad aea

cac ae

Aed dc

Cace ad ad aea cec

Reacee ead ece e

Te e aae aea, cd e

eac dc a ae cabe e

aea e e, ca c

Aed dc adad aea

cac ae

Aed dc

Cace ad ad aea cec

C ead ca e Aed dc adad aea

cac ae

Aed dc

Lea deec ae

Pe ad eacee ae

Caa ea ae a aea

ee ee ae : e de

bac ea , a ae, ea

Maa e ee, de c

Maa ce eda e

db e; ecea, a

ecda/be ca

Lea deec ad ea ae

Pe ad eacee ae

De ad cc ecca ad

adad

Caa ea ee a aea ee ee ae :

e de bac ea , a

ae, ea, ea ae ad da

Maa e ee, de c

Maa ce eda e

db e; ecea, a

ecda/be ca

Lea deec ad ea ae (ee ad

ae a)

Pe ad eacee ae (ee

ad ae a)

De ad cc ecca ad


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H C

adad

De ad cc adad aaeaa beee ae ad ee a

Acca b, ede ad ace

ae a de ece e ad

ee d ee

De adad acee ecea e

ece

Oeae ae ad ad ad e

Re ae a cea ae ( aea

ee ecea ece ca be aceed)

Maa ce eda edb e; ecea, a

ecda/be ca

Ree b, ede, cae de

eea

Oeae ae ad ad eea

ee be

Re ae a cea ae

Maa ce eda e

db e; ecea, a

ecda/be ca

Dced ae de ea c ed ae a (d ee, ca , dce

) ad acca ace (e.. ede,

aaee de), aca a dead ed, de

aa

Re ae a cea aeWae a cd ad cca aee

ad ec ae e

eacee ae

Wae a eea ae

I caa edc a eae

a (e.. e aaee ee e be

aeec ee)

Sa ae, c

ae ad ace a b

C ee ae de

eece eae db e

e beace (e.. eae ae, a

ea cede)

Maa ce eda e

db e; ecea, aecda/be ca

Reacee ca caa

Redc ee b

e aeace

Eeaed DBP de ee ac ae

ce ae

Adda eae ee ec

ded ac ae ce ae (e..

caa, aec ecae)

Aeae dec caa

Redc dee e (e.. ea dead

ed, cea e ae a

d ed b d ae

ee, a a ece d )

Mcba caa e bd ad a

aa aece a ad a :

ace

e e ad e c ae

ea ce

a e

Ree ec ad aeace ae,

cd ea a/a

Dec a ae ea

Maa ce eda e

db e; ecea, a

ecda/be ca

De ad cc adad

Ie caaed dae eaed Ree ec ad aeace ae


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H C

ad cac De ad cc adad

Iea c ee ae ae a Cadc ec

Re ec ad aeace ae

Sec beace aed acce b

a, cd ada, abae

Sec ec, ced ae, acce ace,

aa, e ec a, cedcc

ee caea

H ceae ccee a de ecee

dee e

Oeae e ad ecee dee

Le e ae a ceae

e d ed

C ea ad ace De ad cc adad

Ree ec ad aeace ae

Sede acca ad b e

b e a

Ree cea ae cded eec ad aeace ae

B

Bac edea/da/ceca

ce de ac ee dece ae

dece; ed ceaed d ee

ee ae e

Iaa aae bac ee

dece baed ee (, ed ad

) e.. ae ee b da cec

ae edea ce, eabe bacee dece da ce

Aa ec ae (e.. e e,

ecd dece ae e daabae)

Bac ee cde/adad

Maa e ee db e

Accdea ccec beee dae

ad dae ae d cc

aeace, cd e a a ae

a eca ae ea ad a ce

ae ce

Cc adad ad ecca

ecca e eae ee

ccec, c a ae deca

a/eac a e

Ta eaa a

Adeae deca a e ad

a

Ecee ce abe eabaed dee ae

(5 /L)

M ce eda ad a de a

ce eda a

Uded ce ead adeae

ec aa e cba caa

b

Eeaed DBP de ee ac ae

ce ae

Adda eae ee ec

ded ac ae ce ae (e..

caa, aec ecae)

Redc dee e (e.. ea dead

ed, cea e ae a

d ed b d ae

ee, a a ece d )DBP: dec bdc

A ceee e beca ec eae ae ae ee ad aace

ceece a eeed e

(AWWA, 2004).


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46

Weea c eae ae deced a e ae a, ee a a be

eee ac ad ee aed aa cac . Tee cd

cde e e ade ee c aea ee

ee .

C

Tee a ae c eae a ca be aed deceae ad e ae

a. Hee, e caee ae ca, ad eea e be dead.

Ied aa:

o Seeed ab bc, ed ae, cc be

o Maa ee ad da edce e

o Cea ad aa e da

o C d ae cec e

Ied :

o P ae/a

o Iceae be o Cdae cae ad e

Ad e, e ee ad ee ead, ee ae ea cec

Rea ea ade, ee a e aea ad e ade eced

eae ad ded ae, ee a e ae e cea

Pbc ea edca e ee

Rae bc aaee ac a, eab cca cede, ee ace edce e

Eab cdaed ea ad aeace ae

Eab a eace ce b ea ad ea

Te eecee ee c eae ca be ed b ae:

ceae aea;

cdece deae;

eec eae ad ae da e;

edced eaae ad eee ae, ee ee ead;

be ae ad ae a; ad

bc aaee.

Sce: Nab C ad Wae Seeae Ca ad A Wae Sece Bad (2009); Macaa (2012)


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47

4.2

A c eae d be adaed ee e eecee. Vada e

ce ba edece a c eae be eece ad acee e

eed e. I e d, ada ae e e, W e c eae

? Vada e e eda aee ce aed ae cdea

e eecee e c eae, a Tabe 9 e e ec. Vadaca ae e :

aa ae e ca daa (e.. eaa ad eca ae a

daa ad ed ad aa c a e ce ae a ea acce

adeae ee caa ae a ae a ea, aa ca aa

bac e e da/ceca ce);

eae d a eea a e ded c

eae (e.. aba ae a e e e aea c e

c eea adad); ad

ad ecca daa bed de, cd edece e eecee

eabed d be acce (e.. edece a aa ae ee da cec ae ee bac edea ce).

Vada eaed ca ca ee a eaa cca

, eaa ad cece ac a cca , a

decbed ec 6 ad 8. I eea adae e cca ee a e

ae c eece c e ca , ad a cca

be ca bc ea.

I d be ed a ada e dee eaa (ec

6) ad eca (deaed ec 7). Oeaa deee

ee c eae ae , eea eca eed c eae a e ae a deeed ce ae ad aeeca acceabe.


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8. Eae ada c eae

H H C

Sec beace

a ae

ae

M, P, C Sec ec, ced

ae, acce ace,

aa, e ec

a, cedcc

ee caea

Hca ec ec ecd dcae

ec beace e a 2 ea

Mcbca

caa

ae a

de a

, ace,

e, ec.

M, P, C Aa ec

ae

Hca ae a daa (. e)

ad ec e dcae

beace e a ae a

e a 12

Caa

d ea

150 a

M, P, C Deae ec

cec

ea

Pee

caa e

aea d ae,a ad ea

F ae a

ec da

baed e e

a ad

ae

Wae a e

(a/bd)

e ae

a

Fed ad e e a 12

ad cec ecd dcae cace

e ea cede

Wae a daa dcae a ae

ced bd eee ad

caed . ae ce ea

A d ae a ea acce acded cbca e ae 50

a bea dcaed a e b ea

cede eece ced

cbca caa

Mcba

caa,

ba

M Maa ce

eda

N . deeced ae ae,

eec ae c be

Pbed edece e eecee ce aca a ad bacea

ae ad c b (Oe

e a., 1986; USEPA, 2002e,)

C: ceca; M: cbca; P: ca

Te ae e be abe deae, ca ae a daa, e

daa ad eaa cede, a ce c eae ae eece

c e acaed aad ee. Tca, e c eae ae adaed

e e WSP deeed e e ad bee eeed d aa ad

ceded ad e WSP. Eae Tabe 8 deae adae c

eae.

4.3

M ae e ad a e eaae aac (ec 3.3) e

aee. I c, b eea, ae e cde e eec

ce c eae. T a aee de a e

aad ee a ca be a ca ea bc ea adeae ced.


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49

Te e e e aee ce eae e cde e

eecee ce c eae. T ea deed a e eda .

Te bece eaee deee e eecee e c

eae ee e ca . Reda d be ed

e e e e :

H eda a de ac adeae c eae I a c

eae adeae, ee d be eaed, cd eaced

aaee e c, c a e cca , bee aa e ad

ce ee e. Adda c eae d be cded a

ee a (ec 5).

Med ad eda a Oeaa c eae

ee ee eea ee a e ee ea . Te eecee

ee c eae eea ed a e eaed adad

ea cede.

Eae e eaee ae Tabe 9, a a e c

eae ae eece. Te e ec dea ee eaa

dcae a e c eae ae eece.

9. Eae eaee ae aca c eae

H

H

I (

)

C (

)

Le

d

See

R

c

e

Ra

Le

d

See

R

c

e

Ra

Caa eaed

ae ae ee

bd ad aa

M 3 5 15 H Pee

caa ad

aeace ce

eda a decbed

Tabe 2.4.1

2 5 10 Med

Sec beace a

ae a

M, C 4 5 20 H Sae aea ec

(ced ae, aa,

ee caea, e

ec)

1 5 5 L

Caa ae a bea

M 3 5 15 H Pee caa

a aae

cede ea

a ad e e

a ece (ee Tabe

7)

1 5 5 L

E ae

bac

M 2 5 10 H N ce c 2 5 10 H


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50

H

H

I (

)

C (

)

ea cec

Eeaed DBP C 3 3 9 Med N ce c 3 3 9 MedTae ad d

ca de

b

ae a

P 2 3 6 L Re ae a

ae

1 3 3 L

Iceae H

ccee a

C 1 5 5 L Ree ea e

eaa aa

ee a 48

cce

1 5 5 L

C: ceca; DBP: dec bdc; M: cbca; P: ca


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5. D, /

I e e e dee a e c eae ae eece a

ecea c eae ae ee, e a ee ade a eed

be deed. Iee a ca cde ee e ea cede

ace, eea e ea cede , e cae, ace

cae ade c eae, c a dec aeace eee.

who water distribution guideline.pdf

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