Who is Maha-Raja of Persian Texts

Historical relations between Iran and India date back toa long time ago. In the era of Iranian ancient and Middlelanguages, as well as in Post-Sasanian texts thetoponym "India" with the help of texts has beenunderstood to be one of the most recognizableterritories.

In Post-Sasanian texts Sumatra and especially Javaappear geographically not only as a part of India, butalso as a cultural and religious part of Indian territories.King of the Java region is called Mahraja.

~ • Maha-Raja 's territory takes most interf!.st!ngpart in the(£,. t?' Persian texts where this term (aaN~1 Maha-Raja)\ l/-, /~ appears as King of kings Java, an fnaian king, finally

. . as a Hindu king.

I'd like to identify Mah-Raja of the Persian texts asRajaRajathe Great (based on the 8-9AD Persian texts);however, one can suggest Raj~ndra-colad~va I as themost important part of this event in Persian text(especially in the texts of 11-12 AD).

Keywords: Post-Sasanian texts, Maha- Raja, RajaRaja the

Great, Raj9ndra-c6lad9va I.

Historical relations between Iran and India date back to a longtime ago. The term "Indo-Iranian Languages' as one of the most

* Director, Iranian Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization(ICHHTO), National Museum of Iran; Fellowship ICCR/IIC, India.

important group in "Indo-European" languages is a witness to such

a claim. In the era of Iranian ancient languages (1000-331 B.C.E.), in

Achaemenid Inscriptions (southwest texts) and in Avestan (northeast

texts), the toponym OP. hindav-, Av. Hindu- has been interpreted as

"on the upper of Hindus River" (Kent: 1953,214).

In the middle Persian languages (331 BC-651 AD), the toponym

"India" with the help of texts has been understood to be one of the

most recognizable territories (Akbarzadeh: 2007, 152).

In the late Sasanian era, especially under Khosrow I and

Khosrow II, Indian texts (Sanskrit) were translated into Pahlavi and

later to Arabic by Iranian scholars (ct. Tafazzoli: 1997, 296ft). In short,

India is a well-known toponym in Sasanian texts.

I (Akbarzadeh: 2010) have also previously shown two meanings

of Hindugan in Sasanian and Post- Sasanian texts; I have explained

that the term means "India" (proper country of India) and can also

mean "East Asia 1, Southeast Asia, Buddhists region".

Post-Sasanian texts give us detailed information about India, its

boundaries, cities and neighbors... Some Iranian scholars (Islamic

period) visited India2 and particularly focused on Indian culture,

sciences, cities and borders ... Moreover the commercial seawayfrom the Persian Gulf to China is one of the important reasons that

India and its neighbors appear as well-known toponyms in Persian

texts.

It is obvious that Indonesia is one of India's neighbors in thecommercial route towards China (Sastri: 1955, 85). Indonesia was

one of the most important harbors on the way to the Far East for

commercial ships. Nevertheless, historical relations between India

and Indonesia date back to ancient times and cover such areas astrade, culture and religion in particular.

"The Dipavamosa and the Mahavamosa give us theearliest glimpse about the sea-journey from Bengal.Apart from the case of Prince Vijay, the Mahavamosasays that the Ceylonese king Devanampiyatissa (B.C.247-207) sent a mission to patoaliputra".

Indian colonies in Indonesia also are well-known tales in historyof two sides, India and Indonesia. It is also likely that the sea routewas more convenient with the growth of Indian colonies in Indonesiaand other contacts. The old literature of Indonesia is full of Indianmyth and legend.

Most of the Post-Sasanian texts explain Indonesian islands, Javaand Sumatra, as parts of Indian border. Meanwhile, I doubt that thisconfusion by Islamic writers is just a simple mistake. I would rathersuggest other reasons such as "religious boundary" and "invasion ofIndia" for this error.

In this series of texts Sumatra and especially Java appeargeographically not only as a part of India, but also as a cultural andreligious part of Indian territories. King of the Java region is called

<PJ '1!0 Mahraja ~ which is evidently a kind of modification for Skr. Maha-~/1i~ Raja. Maha-Raja3 is a powerful, rich, benefactor king who is a unique

Hindu among all Indian kings according to Post-Sasanian texts. I willfocus on Post-Sasanian texts to eventually suggest "who is Maha-Raja" of the Persian texts.

Ibn Ra/usteh (1986:158) in "The Great Indian Idol Temple ofMultan" writes:

"There are many kingdoms in the districts betweenMultan and Maha-Raja territory. The Greatest King ofthe Java region is called Maha-Raja aaN I whichmeans "King of Kings'. He is the most powefful andgreatest king among Indian kings who dominates overmany islands; he is a wealthy and benefactor king.Solahet Island (Sumatra, see: Situdeh: 1983, 19) issituated in front of this kingdom whose product isamber." Masudi (2008, 75):

: c. , l.J

"India has joined the Java territory where Maha-Raja King aaNQI b I r I

- /7governs; Java is located between India and China; it is said that Java •has always been a part of India." (ibd. 78).

~ / L~./7

Qumar's land is located in opposite side of Maha-Raja's territory;Maha-Raja is the king of the Java, Ka/olah and Sar-andib (Sari-Lanka,ct. Sastri: 1955, 172,223) ... (ibd. 94 v.i)

There are whales in the seas ... , like Java Bay, in Maha-Raja's •territory. Masudi (1991, 54) writes:

"Some of the islands of Sar-andib (Sari-Lanka) are located inHarkandSea (>Bengal Bay). It is possible to go to Maha-Raja's cities(territory) from here; king of the Islands - which are located in thissea, is called Maha-Raja who has many islands and cities undercontrol. His territory is the center of fragrant plants."

KaJolah Island is very large where Hindus reside; another Islandis Khaqeh where the city of Solahet is located there and there is avolcanicmountain; Frataillsland (see next) is located in Maha-Rajaterritory"(ct. ibd.56, 53).

Maha-Raja's territory is large and there is no resemblance for itwithso many islands in the Far East, among the products mention

can be made of fragrant herbals, camphor, clove gillyflower, incense

with no rivals in this field in China region. (Ibd 54)

Jam4 went with his troops; he immediately went to war with

Maha-Raja (p.738). After a long time China's king went to a revengefulconflict with Maha-Raja (p.755). The Chinese troops defeated Maha-

Rajians (Maha-Raja's troop), and all of them were killed ... (p.756).Mflhang sent a troop to conflict with Maha-Raja ... (passim) (p.823).

Mqjmal-al- Tavarikh va-al-Qasas (2010, 40), under the kingdom

of Jamshid (mythological Iranian king), writes:

"Zahhak-e Tazik revolted against Jamshid. JaiTlshid fled to Inner

Hindustan (>India), which is located in front of Solahet (Sumatra).Maha-Raja (king of this region) fought him several times with Zahhak's

command."

From Sar-andib (Sari-Lanka), Qumar, Qaysureh, Ka/olah to Inner

India Sulahaf ... where the greatest king of Hindus/Indians is called

Maha-Raja (Ibid, 422) ...

It seems that some Muslim writers have speculated India (propercountry) as "outer India"; I think the use of the term Inner India isused because of the geographical location of India in the sea route

from Iran to the Far East where Indonesia automatically appears asthe "Inner India" (ct. Ibid, 40).

"Hindus territory'king, Maha-Raja, requested Feridun to support

him against Sak/g-saran." (Ibid, 42)

Ajayeb-al- Makhlughat (2008: 150, 556) writes:~~cr ,

"It is said that once Maha-Raja King aa- aaN<;l crossed Bartail-Sea (for this name ct. Masudi: 1991,53 and Asadi Tusi, next sample)... " (Ibid, 351) Maha-Raja of India ...

1. There was a king in India by the name of Maha-Raja, whoseglory was well-known everywhere.

2. He had a close relative in the army named Bahu, who was his

representative in Sar-andib (Sari-Lanka).

3-4. (Bahu told Maha-Raja): you are king of Qenuj (Kaunauj), andthe king of kings from India to China borders.

5. You are the king of Tibet and the king of kings of India, from

Qenuj (Kaunauj) to Sind sea (marine borders) ...

There was a smart sailor, who knew seaways.

The Iranian commander was surprised to see that fish (but)knowledgeable Maha-Raja told him:

Except above samples, the "greatness and richness" (mostprobably under trade) of Maha-Raja aaN<;l of aa"ire<;aJaa"ireOECa ?affected Iranian poets?:

This physic and diadem of yours can be compared with those ofMah-Raja of India

His awe can dethrone Mah-Raja of India Tamghach-Khan fearshis solemnity Again Khaghani:

He discrowned Mah-Raja of Zang8 and plunder was portion ofTamghch-Khan.

Now I am coming to this question that "who is "Maha-Raja" ofPersian texts? It is obvious that RajaRaja was the first Indian Ruler

to establish the first Indian Naval Fleet some 1200 years back. Hehad established his rule extending from India up to South East Asiawith his Naval Fleet. His rule extended beyond the Bay of Bengal

Sea. He even ruled the Java, Sumatra Islands in Southeast Asia,parts of Malaysia, Myanmar and Brunei islands ...

Nilkantha Sastri (1966, 173) writes: "The emergence of the Cholapower from obscurity, its rise to an imperial position and its conflicts

- first with the RashtrakUtas from beyond the Tungabhadra and laterwith their successors, the Chalukyas of Kalyani form the dominantfeatures of the history of the next 350 years (850-1200). The powerof the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world, as well asby the repeated "embassies" to China."

"In the 11 century, Rajendra Goloa briefly dominated

the whole Bay of Bengal, without leaving anypermanent effect. Indonesian records speak of an

unidentified Indian King, perhaps from Gujarat, whomigrated with 5000 followers to Java at the beginningof the seventh century."

It seems the historical relationship between Iran and India is themain reason that Persian texts describe in detail some of the eventsin India. One important part of Indian history is religious and tradeties with Indonesia where Java historically appears to be veryprominent. Indo-Indonesian texts and archaeological documents

confirm this claim. Java was also an important harbor for Iranianships in the Far East. Iranian scholars who visited India (ct. Masudiand AI Biruni ... ), have given important reports on India's historic tieswith Indonesia as well as about Hindus area.

Maha-Raja 's territory takes most interesting part in the Persiantexts where this term (a~IMaha-Raja: Skr. Mahat- "great" and Raja-.."...."king") appears as King of kings Java, an Indian king, finally as aHindus king.

I'd like to identify Mah-Raja of the Persian texts as RajaRaja the

Great (based on the 8-9 AD Persian texts); However, one can suggestRaj9ndra-colad9va I as the most important part of this event inPersian text (espeCially in the texts of 11-12 AD). In short, Kingdomsof Chalukyas in the South and Southeast Asia in the Persian texts isunderstandable:

RajaRaja9 semantically means King of Kings (Sastri: 1955, 168ft;

ct. Thapar: 1989, Vol 1,136) which is just equal with: Maha-Raja

of the Persian texts.

2. The Maha-Raja's geographical scope of his power appears inSouth and Southeast Asia, i.e. Java territory (ct. Shi-Io-Io-cha

Yin-to-Io-chu-Io> Url Raja Indra Cola; see: Shastri: 1955, 215,219) which is dominated by Chalukyas.

Masudi (1991, 54) insists: There is no resemblance for thiskingdom with so many islands in the Far-East,

3. This Maha-Raja is a religious Hindu; (ct. Hodud-al-Alam: 1983,20: King of Java is Hindu.). The Cholas built great temples (ct.

Tanjore, Gangi-kondaoolapuram, Daraouram temples; forRajyndra, ct. Sastri: 1955, 200) which attest to the grandeurand the excellence of Chola architecture and sculpture. Sastri(1966, 143): "From all accounts Hinduism was the dominant

creed in this age."

4. Time of the Post-Sasanian Texts is closely near to the time ofdomination Maha-Raja (>RajaRaja the Great: 985-1014 andRajyndra: 1012-1044; Sastri: 1955, 168, 194) to Java. Most ofthe Post-Sasanian texts are written in 8-11 AD which is closenear to Raja Raja! Rajyndra kingdoms.

5. Persian texts have underlined trade and commercial relationsbetween Java under Maha-Raja with West and the (Far) Eastof Asia. It is very clear that in 8-9th centuries, South Asia had

developed an extensive maritime commerce which brought greatprosperity. The Tang Empire in China, CEailendras and Caliphsat Baghdad were the chief states outside India that flourishedon this trade. Political issues in China can be a repetitive note toconfirm trade between Java-Sumatra and West Asia.

Wonders of India (1969, no. 89) writes: "Yunis, a trader, son ofMihran from Siraf, who visited Java Island, says: +In the citywhere Maha-Raja , king of Java, seats (as capital) there aremany big bazaars whose numbers one is not able to understand;

there are more than 800 exchange shops in Exchange Bazaarand Java is a prosperous island."

6. It is clear that Persian texts sometimes replace the titles of

foreign kings with their proper names. It seems the proper foreignnames troubled writers who can be popular elsewhere. I haveclear samples to offer regarding this claim, Le. Fa.fOr as kingsof China, a general term such as Ray (Raja) for the king ofkings of India and Qaysar as the kings of Roman Empire (ct.

ibn Faghih: 1964,34; Mojmal: 2010, 422) and Iranian kings as"Khosrow" (Yaghubi: 2003, 219).

In short, I believe Persian texts adopted a term such as Maha-

Raja to recall a great king like Raja Raja the Great or Raj9ndra-

c61ad9va I-where, most probably, events of both kings in Southand Southeast Asia could be confused by Post-Sasanian Texts.

Bibligraphy

1. Ahmad ibn Omar Ibn Ra/usteh: 1986, Al-Ala'gh-al- Nafisa, Translator: H.Qerechanlu, Tehran.

2. Ajayeb-al- Makhlughat va Ghara' b-al- Mojudat: 2008, M. ibn M. ibn AhmadTusi, by M. Situdeh, 3th edition, Tehran.

3. Akbarzadeh, D: 20 I0, Hindugan of Bundhish, Iranica Antiqva LXI, pp., Gent.4. Akbarzadeh, Daryoosh and M. Tavusi: 2007, Middle Persian (Sasanian

Inscriptions), Tehran.5. AI-Baladan (Part of Iran): 1964, Abubakr Ahmad ibn M. ibn Eshagh Hamadani

(Ibn Faghih), Translator: H. Masud.6. Dehkhoda, Loghatnameh: www.loghatnaameh.org.7. Dharrnanand Kosambi, Damodar: 1957, An Introduction to the Study of Indian

History, Bombay.8. Garshasb-nameh: 1975, AbuAli ibn Ahmad Asadi Tusi, by H. Yaghmaee, Tehran.9. Hodud-al- Alam men-al- ~ashregh-al- aI-Maghreb: 1983, Anonymous, by M.

Situdeh, Tehran. :> (".--10. KentfT953, Old Persian (Grammar, Texts, Lexicon), New Haeven.II. Kush-nameh: 1999, Iranshan ibnAbal-Khayr, by J. Matini, Tehran.12. Malekzadeh: 1969; See: Wonders of India.13. Masudi, A. Ali ibn Hossein: 1991, Akhbar-al- Zaman, Translator: K. Zamani,

Tehran.14. Masudi, A. Ali ibn Hossein: 2008, Moruj-al- Zahhab va Ma' dan-al- lohar, two

vols., 8th edition.,Translator: A. Paynadeh, Tehran.15. Matini, J: 1999, see Kush-nameh.16. Mojmal-al-Tavarikh va-al- Qasas: 2010, Anonymous, Corrector: M. Bahar,

by M. Ramazani, Tehran.

17. Sarkar: 200l.18. Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta: 1955, The C81oas, Madras.19. Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta: 1966, A History of South India (from Prehistoric Times

to the fall of Vijayanaga), Third Edition, Oxford.20. Situdeh, M: 1983, see Hodud-al-Alam.21. Taffazoli, A: 1997, Tarikh-e Adibiyat Iran-e Pish az Islam, by Zh. Amuzegar,

Tehran.22. Tarikh-e Gardizi: 2005, Abu-Saed ibn Abdol-Hay ibn Zahhak ibn M. Gardizi,

By. R. Rezazadeh-Malek, Tehran.23. Tarikh Yaghubi: 2003, Ahmad ibn Eshagh Yaghubi, i-ii vols, 9th edition,

Translator: M. Ayati, Tehran.24. Thapar, Romila: 1989, History of India, Translator: H. Sa'nati-zadeh, 2 Vols.

Tehran.25. Wonders of India: 1969, Bozorg Shahryar Ramhormozi, Translator: M.

Malekzadeh, Tehran.

1. Cf. The "Samarkand Sea -which is located near Harkand Gulf' (Wonders ofIndia: 1969, no. 55.)- can be interpreted as "Eastern Sea"? Harkand Gulf/Sea ismost popular in Persian texts which is interpreted as "Bay of Bengal"(Malekzadeh: 1969, 162). The "Samarkand Sea" can be associated with theconcept of "Harkand Gulf' or "Orient Sea" (If Samar/Shamar could be translatedas Shaman, Cf. Moruj-al- Zahhab: 2008, 155,471; Tarikh-e Gardizi: 2005, 390).Wonders ofIndia (1969,11): "Zabej Sea and Samarkand Ocean."

2. i.e. Masudi visited India, especially Saymur and Bombay in 303 Hegira (940AD) as well as Sri-Lanka and most probably Malaysia (=Malaya), see: Zamani:1991,15.

2. Biruni, great Iranian scholar, also visited India with the support of Ghaznavids;He stayed in India for more than 16 years for his research. He created hisfamous work, "India", in 1030 AD.

3. It is obvious that this title is used even for some local rulers in India, but Maha-Raja of Persian texts means "King of Kings" who is very distinctive because ofcertain characteristics such as "Geographical domination".

4. See Matini: 1999, 188, no. 4.5. There is no conjunction like "re" and" between terms "Inner India" and

"Solahet"; it can be: Inner India where Solahet is located or Solahet of InnerIndia or a sentence like that.

6. Cf. Masudi: 2008,94.7. For all samples, see Dehkhoda: www.loghatnaameh.org.8. It seems that Muslim writers widely used this term for Indonesia area where its

volcanic mountain is understandable by texts. Masudi (1991, 56) writes: "Thereis an island in Zang territory, where a volcanic mountain is located ... "This"Zang" is close near to India, located in sea (Ocean) and people are

Hindus ... Masudi (1991, 54): Zang Islands ... (Hodud-aI- Alam: 1983, 196):Zangestan is located in South of Zabaj (Java); Territories of Zangestan andEthiopia (lbd. 11); it is possible that darkness color and existence of darknesspeople (Africans because of trade) in Indonesia is a case to explain why someMuslims took Java and Zanj or Dark people in a big area; see (lbn Rasteh: 1986,100) "Zanj and Zaba territories". Sometimes texts make difference between"Zangestan/ Zangbar" and from other side "Zabaj, Jaba, Java"(Mqjmol-al-Tavarikh va-al- Qasas: 2010,478): Darkness people reside in Ethiopia, Zangand Hindu territory." Al-BaIadan (1964,122) writes: Tarnirni (in Habib-aI-Arus)explains Zanji's amber takes place after Shahari and Zanji after Indian type. Hesaid: Zanjian amber is a kind of amber which is exported from India and whichis called Karak-BaIus; Karak-BaIus is a term which is used for the Indiancommunity who export this kind of amber.

9. Furthermore Maha-Raja, as a proper name, can be interpreted as a kind oftranslation for Raja Raja.