Where Refrigerants are Heading in NZ? Don J. Cleland and Richard J Love Centre for Postharvest and Refrigeration Research Massey University, Palmerston.

Where Refrigerants are Heading in NZ?

Don J. Cleland and Richard J LoveCentre for Postharvest and Refrigeration Research

Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

NZ Coldstorage Association ConferenceWellington, 17 August 2014

• Context• The Perfect Refrigerant• Alternative Refrigerants• Alternative Technologies• Future Options• Lessons from the Past• ETS Impacts & Challenges• Conclusions & Recommendations

Overview

2

• Enhanced work Health & Safety compliance after Pike River disaster and Christchurch earthquake

• Environmental pressures– growing population– urban migration– resource depletion– standard of living expectations

• Ozone depletion– caused by man-made chemicals including refrigerants– response exemplary– Montreal Protocol (MP)– on track to solve – phaseout of CFCs & HCFCs– effectively no new HCFC imports from 2015

Introduction

3

• Evidence not certain– is there GW?– anthropogenic or natural effect?– magnitude & timeline of impacts

• Scientific proof growing• Potential impact huge• Precautionary principle

adopted– minimise and mitigate

Global Warming

4

Proof that the World is getting warmer

5

After a new research project with substantially increased budget the result was essentially the same:

• Basket of 6 gases– CO2: fuel use

– CH4: decomposition

– N2O: agriculture

– SF4: electrical switchgear

– Perfluorocarbons:fire extinguishers & foams– HFCs: refrigerants & foams

• Does not cover MP gases• Stablise emissions for 2008-2012 to 108% of 1990 levels

• GWP quantifies impact relative to CO2

Kyoto Protocol

7

• Direct emissions (≈ 1%)– many refrigerants have high GWP – e.g. HFC-134a has GWP of 1300

• Indirect due to energy use (≈6%)– refrigeration about 15% of electricity

demand– electricity generation about 40% of

emissions

– ≈0.6 kg CO2/kWh

• ETS– 2 tonnes per unit in transition

– ETS of initially $25/tonne CO2 equivalent

– actual 2014 CO2 unit price of about $2-5/tonne CO2

Refrigeration & GW

80

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Emiss

ions E

quiva

lent M

t CO

2

Domestic Refrigeration

Split Stationary AirConditionerssPackaged Air Conditioners

Refrigerated Air Conditioners

Light Vehicle AirConditioningHeavy Vehicle AirConditioningTransport Refrigeration

Commercial Refrigeration

Commercial Air Conditioning

Foam

Fire Fighting Equipment

Aerosol

Refrigerants

9

Source: Danfoss

The Perfect Refrigerant

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Planet (Environment)- zero ODP- low GWP- energy efficient- low toxicity- unstable (short atmospheric life)

Prosperity (Economic)- low cost- high performance- energy efficient- safe- stable- wide material

compatibility- low cost equipment- low GWP  

People (Society)- safe

o non-flammableo low pressureo distinctive colour or

smell- low toxicity- energy efficient- low cost equipment 

Criteria HCFCs HFCs HFOs NRs

Refrigerant Cost (no levy) low/medium medium high low

System Cost medium medium medium high

Capacity good good good very good

Energy Efficiency good good good very good

ODP yes no no no

GWP (ETS) high high low very low

Safety (e.g. flammability, toxicity, high pressure) good generally

goodgood except flammability

often significant

risks

Oil Compatibility traditional synthetic synthetic wide

Refrigerant Families

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Refrigerant Formula ODP GWP Oil Compatibility Levy($/kg)

Other Weaknesses

CFCsR11 CCl3F 1.0 4000 M - MP phaseout R12 CCl2F2 1.0 8500 M - MP phaseout R502 115 (51%), 22 (49%) 0.23 5590 M - MP phaseout

HCFCsR22 CH Cl F2 0.055 1700 M,AB - MP phaseout R123 C2H Cl2F3 0.02 93 M,AB,POE - MP phaseout

HFCsR32 CH2F2 0.0 650 POE 15 A2LR125 C2HF5 0.0 2800 64 R134a C2H2F4 0.0 1300 POE,PAG 30 R143a C2H3F3 0.0 3800 87 A2LR152a C2H4F2 0.0 140 3 A2LR245ca C3H3F5 0.0 560 13

R404A 125 (44%), 134a (4%), 143a (52%) 0.0 3260 POE 75

R407C 32 (23%), 125 (25%), 134a (52%) 0.0 1530 POE 35 High glide

R410A 32 (50%), 125 (50%) 0.0 1730 POE 40 High P

R417A 125 (46.6%), 134a (50%), 600 (3.4%) 0.0 1960 M,AB,POE 45 Medium glide

R422D 125 (65.1%), 134a (31.5%), 600a (3.4%) 0.0 2620 M,POE 60 Medium glide

R507 125 (50%), 143a (50%) 0.0 3300 POE 76 HFOs

R1234yf C3H2F4 0.0 4 POE 0.1 A2L, high costR1234ze C3H2F4 0.0 6 POE 0.1 High cost

Perfluorocarbons (PFs)R218 C3F8 0.0 7000 161 Long EAL

Natural Refrigerants (NRs)R170 - ethane C2H6 0.0 ~5 M,AB,POE - A3R290 - propane C3H8 0.0 ~5 M,AB,POE - A3R600a - isobutane C4H10 0.0 ~5 M,AB,POE - A3R717 - ammonia NH3 0.0 <1 M - B2L, low P, no copperR718 - water H2O 0.0 <1 0oC limit, very low P

R744 – CO2 CO2 0.0 1 M - Low critical temp., high P

R1270 - propylene C3H6 0.0 - A3

ASHRAE Classification

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Source: Reindl, 2011

Oils

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• Possibilities– acoustic– magnetic– thermo-electric (Peltier)– vortex tube– Brayton (air) cycle– Stirling cycle– absorption/adsorption

• Issues– low efficiency– low capacity– high cost

• Niche applications e.g. Peltier for low noise• Absorption if low cost heat

Alternative Technologies

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• expanders • multi-staging• heat transfer enhancement• variable speed technology• transcritical if gas cooling

matches process need• cascades & secondary

refrigerants

Improvements to Reverse Rankin Cycle

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• ETS cost for most HFCs incentivizes– reduction in leakage– reduction in charge– replacement with low GWP refrigerants

• Likely replacements have concerns– performance (e.g. CO2)

– cost (e.g. HFOs) – safety (e.g. HCs or HFOs)

• Flammability harder to avoid

Future Options

17

TEWI (kg CO2) = direct refrigerant + indirect energy use

= GWP M [x n + (1 - α)] + E n β

LCCP (kg CO2) = TEWI + emissions due to manufacture

where M = refrigerant charge (kg)

x = leakage rate (% per year)

n = equipment life (years)

E = energy consumption (kWh/year)

α = recovery factor (%)

β = electricity emissions factor (kg CO2/kWh)

• Leakage & energy use seldom known accurately when refrigerant chosen & investing

• 5-20% leakage pa (Cowan et al., 2011)• ETS converts environmental consideration into an economic one• Net loss if lower GWP refrigerant has very poor energy efficiency

Total Impact

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Leakage

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Alternative Performance

Refrigerant HFC-404A Alternative

GWP 3260 150

Charge (kg) 5 5

Leakage (% pa) 5 5

Energy Use (kWh pa) 25,000 +5%

TEWI (kg CO2) 388,855 394,388 (+1.4%)

ETS + Energy Cost ($) 656+37,500 = 38,156 30+39375 = 39,405(+3.3%)

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o 15 year equipment lifeo 90% refrigerant recoveryo Electricity emission factor of 1 kg CO2/kWho Electricity cost of $0.1/kWh

• If charge & leakage low, then GWP less important than efficiency

• Ammonia, HCs, CO2 (low temp.) often more efficient than HFCs (up to 10%) e.g.– theoretically R290 1-2% poorer than R22– drop-in field trial gave 5-10% improvement for farm milk cooling

(Cleland et al., 2009)

• HFO1234yf close match to R134a• R32 & HFOs similar to R22 and R410A (high temp.

applications)• R404A (low temp.)

– R410A promising but moderate GWP & equipment constraints

Relative Performance

21

22

Cascades & Secondaries

• Use refrigerants in optimal temp. range• Minimise & isolate charges of high GWP, flammable or toxic refrigerants• “Safe” refrigerants or secondaries in populated areas e.g. glycol• Energy penalty due to extra temp. difference and pumps• CO2 likely low stage & secondary

– safe & low cost– efficient– low pumping power/pressure drop– low mass & volumetric flows– equipment availability & cost improving

• High stage refrigerants situation specific

Frozen Warehouse Complex;19,000 m2

(Edwards, 2006, 2008)

Relative Performance

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System Capital Cost

EnergyFactor

Annual Energy

Life Cycle Costs (20 yr)

DX R404A $2,500,000 1.2 $1,00,000 $25,250,000

DX Ammonia $3,063,000 1 $813,000 $22,063,000

Pumped Ammonia $3,125,000 0.8 $650,000 $17,625,000

Secondary CO2 $3,625,000 0.87 $706,000 $19,875,000

Secondary T40 $3,750,000 +$50,000 $756,000 $20,875,000

Cascade CO2 $3,375,000 0.84 $688,000 $19,250,000

Edwards (2006)

Lessons from the Past

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• Concern that CFC alternatives less efficient & lower capacity• Reality was little difference if wise choices

– better heat transfer properties– better oils

• Initially many drop-ins but stabilized to manageable number of replacements

• Retrofits became routine• Initially little thermodynamic & equipment performance data but rapidly

rectified• High glide refrigerants more challenging• Material incompatibilities seldom acute• High pressure R410A a concern!• Extra costs passed onto customers• Familiarity bred contempt after initial fear of the unknown• Similar experience likely now but driven by cost rather than legislation• Scandinavia since 2007

– low GWP refrigerants for large systems– proliferation of low charge systems

Past Future Predictions

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Application OriginalReplacements

foreseen in 1990Replacements

foreseen in 1994Automotive Air Cond. R12 HFC-134a, blends HFC-134aDomestic appliances R12 HFC-134a, blends HFC-134a, R290Retail food low temp‑ R502 HCFC-22, HFC-125 HFC-507, HFC-404A ‑ med. temp R12, R22,

R502HCFC-22,HFC-134a HFC-

125, blendsHFC-134a, HFC-507

HFC-404AChillers centrifugal‑ R11

R12HCFC-123

HFC-134a, blendsBlends

HFC-134a ‑ reciprocating R12 HFC-134a,

HCFC-22, blendsHFC-134a

Insulating foams R11, R12 HCFC-123,HCFC-22 variousIndustrial refrigeration R22, R502, NH3 HCFC-22, NH3 HFC-507, HFC-404A, NH3

Sector Compressor Type RefrigerantDomestic Refrigerator Sealed Unit R134a, R401A, R409a, R413aCommercial Equipment Medium Temperature

Sealed Unit R134a, R22, R401A1, R404A, R407A, R409A, R413A, R507Accessible Hermetic R134a, R22, R401A2, R404A, R407C, R413A, R507

Reciprocating Open Drive R134a, R22, R401A2, R404A, R407C, R409A2, R413A, R507Commercial Equipment Low Temperature

Sealed Unit R22, R402A, R402B, R403A, R404A, R407B, R408A, R410A, R507Accessible Hermetic R22, R402B, R403A, R404A, R407B, R408A, R410A, R507

Reciprocating Open Drive R22, R402A, R402B, R403A, R404A, R407B, R408A, R410A, R507Large Commercial & Industrial

Reciprocating Open Drive R22, R134a, R401A, R401B, R402A, R403A,R404A, R407B4, R407C4, R408A, R409A,R410A, R413A, R507, R717

Centrifugal/Screw R134a, R123, possibly R1243 , R22, R407A4, R401A4, R717Mobile Air Conditioning or Refrigeration

Reciprocating Open Drive R22, R134a, R401C, R402A, R403A,R404A, R407C, R408A, R409A, R409B,R416A, R507, possibly R22

Air Conditioning Reciprocating Open Drive R22, R134a, R401A, R409A, R410A,R413ACentrifugal/Screw R134a, R123, R22, R410A

Accessible semi-Hermetic R22, R123, R134a, R401B, R404A, R407C, R409B, R410A, R507

Source: Lommers, 2003

Pathways – Past & Future

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CFCs HCFCs HFCs HFOs/NRs Comments

11 123 134a 1234yf 245ca 717 low charge

12 134a 1234yf 600a low charge

502 404A 717 507 744 low stage of cascade HFO? blends? 22 404A HFO? blends? 407C 717 507 744 if water heating needed 410A 744 low stage of cascade 417A 170+290 low charge 422D HFC-32 low charge 170+290 low charge 744 low stage of cascade HFO? blends?

Pre-1990 Pre-2005 Pre-2012 Post-2012

ETS Impacts & Challenges

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• Cost will be passed onto customers• Potential for increased margins• Incentives for

– good practice (reducing charge & leakage)– life cycle costing & impacts assessment– innovative design & service practice– early replacement of older less efficient plant– development of skills to work with flammable refrigerants

• Disadvantages– higher refrigerant inventory costs– higher risk of refrigerant theft– higher business risk if ignorant about issues & alternative refrigerants– incentives to delay R22 replacement – uncertainty about availability and cost of HFOs in the short term– poorer customer relations due to poor understanding of ETS – greater number of refrigerants in short term

Barriers

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• Surveys by Burhenne & Chasserot (2011) and Colbourne (2011) – knowledge levels – technology availability– safety concerns and related psychological

factors– too restrictive regulations and standards

Conclusions

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The ETS on refrigerants will – increase costs – provide incentives for best practice – enhance commercial opportunities for well-informed

and proactive customers & service providers– increase consideration of NR options – provide the chemical industry motivation to develop

efficient & safe synthetic alternatives – provide an opportunity for the refrigeration industry

to lift its performance – not be a significant threat

Recommendations

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• Reduce refrigerant charges in new systems• Increase tightness of existing systems• Expect flammable refrigerants so understand the risks• Keep informed about environmental issues & refrigerant

options & performance• Use a life cycle costing approach so long term focus• Shift to lower GWP refrigerants when significant system

changes are needed• Carefully plan and schedule replacement of existing large

R22 systems (short term delay may be astute)• Try to use NRs if safety issues can be addressed cost-

effectively

Back to the Future?

31©2008 Risto Ciconkov

[email protected]

References

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1. Burhenne, N., Chasserot, M. (2011) Natural refrigerants in the HVAC&R industry – a study of global market and policy trends. Proceedings International Congress of Refrigeration, Prague, Czech Republic, August 2011, paper 147.

2. Calm, J.M., Hourahan, G.C. (2011) Physical, safety and environmental data for current and alternative refrigerants. Proceedings International Congress of Refrigeration, Prague, Czech Republic, August 2011, paper 915.

3. Cleland, D.J., Keedwell, R.W., Adams, S.R. (2009) Use of hydrocarbons as drop-in replacements for HCFC-22 in on-farm milk cooling equipment, International Journal of Refrigeration 32: 1403-1411.

4. Colbourne, D. (2011) Barriers to the uptake of low GWP alternatives to HCFC refrigerants in developing countries. Proceedings International Congress of Refrigeration, Prague, Czech Republic, August 2011, paper 628.

5. Cowan, D., Lundqvist, P., Maidment, G., Chaer, I. (2011) Refrigerant leakage and constainment – overview of the activities of the IIR working party on mitigation of direct emissions of greenhouse gases in refrigeration. Proceedings International Congress of Refrigeration, Prague, Czech Republic, August 2011, paper 856.

6. DCCEE (2012), Australian National Greenhouse Accounts: National Inventory Report 2010, Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency, Canberra, http://www.climatechange.gov.au/emissions

7. Edwards, B.F. (2006) CO2 refrigeration. Presented at IIR-IRHACE 2006 Conference, Auckland, NZ, 16-18 February, 2006.

8. Edwards, B.F. (2008) Personal communication; Realcold Ltd, New Zealand9. Lommers, C.A. (2003). Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Refrigerant Selection Guide

- 2003, AIRAH, Melbourne.