WHENELEPHANTSFIGHT
AdrianandJimmycatchup,talkingfamily,footballandthefuture.
WHENELEPHANTSFIGHT
THELIVESOFCHILDRENINCONFLICTINAFGHANISTAN,BOSNIA,SRILANKA,SUDANANDUGANDA
ERICWALTERS&ADRIANBRADBURY
Thisbookisdedicatedtothosemostinnocentvictimsofwar:children.—EW
ForIsaacandOwen.YouarewhyIamchangedandwhytoday,Iremainthesame.—AB
Textcopyright©2008EricWaltersandAdrianBradbury
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recordingorbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystemnowknownorto
beinvented,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.
LibraryandArchivesCanadaCataloguinginPublication
Walters,Eric,1957-Whenelephantsfight/writtenbyEricWaltersandAdrianBradbury.
ISBN978-1-55143-900-61.Childrenandwar.I.Bradbury,Adrian,1970-II.Title.
HQ784.W3W352008305.23086’949C2008-903027-3
FirstpublishedintheUnitedStates,2008LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2008928576
Summary:ThelivesofchildreninconflictinAfghanistan,Bosnia,SriLanka,SudanandUganda.Portaitsoffivechildvictimsofconflict,includingregional
history,mapsandthecausesandresultsoftheconflict.
OrcaBookPublishersgratefullyacknowledgesthesupportforitspublishingprogramsprovidedbythefollowingagencies:theGovernmentofCanada
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CoverphotoandallphotosintheUgandasectioncourtesyofColinO’Connor.PhotosfromMyChildhoodUnderFire:ASarajevoDiarywrittenbyNadjaHalilbegovichusedbypermissionofKidsCanPressLtd.,Toronto;photos©HalilbegovichandMorrisonfamilies.KimPhucphotocourtesyofKimPhuc.
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION
UGANDAJIMMY:WALKINGAWAYFROMDANGER
FOLLOW-UPJIMMY
REPUBLICOFUGANDAHISTORYTHECONFLICTCHILDSOLDIERS
SRILANKAANNU:BORNINAWARZONEFOLLOW-UPANNU
DEMOCRATICSOCIALISTREPUBLICOFSRILANKAHISTORYTHECONFLICTTAMILTIGERS—TERRORISTSORFREEDOMFIGHTERS?INDIANCONNECTIONRELIGION
AFGHANISTANFAROOQ:HOMEUNDERFIREFOLLOW-UPFAROOQ
AFGHANISTANHISTORYSOVIETINVOLVEMENT1979–1989
AFTERTHESOVIETWITHDRAWAL1989–1992THETALIBANTHETALIBANINPOWER1998–2001SEPTEMBER11,2001NATOETHNIC,RELIGIOUSANDLANGUAGEDIVISIONSPOVERTY
BOSNIANAJDA:LIFEINSNIPERALLEY
FOLLOW-UPNADJA
BOSNIAANDHERZEGOVINAHISTORYOFBOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA1945-19811991–2007RELIGIONDIFFERENCES/SIMILARITIESCLEANTHEFIELD
THESUDANTOMA:HOWCOULDSOMUCHBELOSTSOQUICKLY?
FOLLOW-UPTOMA
REPUBLICOFTHESUDANGEOGRAPHYHISTORYRECENTHISTORYTHECRISISINDARFURANIMISMCOLONIALISMANDITSONGOINGINFLUENCEINAFRICA
AFTERWORD
FOREWORD
byKimPhuc
Therecanbenodoubtthatinanywarthemostinnocent,thosewhohavehadnopartinthecreationoftheconflict,arethechildren.Itisequallyclearthattherehasbeennowarfoughtinwhichchildrenwerenotthosewhosufferedthemost.Unabletoflee,unabletodefendthemselves,unabletoevenunderstand,theyhavebeentheoneswhohavefelttheeffectsofwarthemost.IknowthisbecauseIwasoneofthosechildren.
IgrewupinVietnamatatimewhenthecountryhadbeenatwarmuchlongerthanIhadevenbeenalive.Theviolenceandconflictwerealwaysapartofourlives,eveninthetimesofcompletecalmandquiet.Youtriedtoliveanormallife—goingtoschool,workingthefields,playingwithyourfriends,eatingwithyourfamily—butknewthatlifecouldinstantlybealteredorended.Youcouldonlyhopeandpraythatyouandyourfamilywouldbespared.
FormethatveneerofnormalcywasshatteredforeverwhenIwasnineyearsold.Ourvillagewasatthecentreofapitchedbattle.Aswewereseekingshelterfromthefighting,wewereaccidentallyhitwithatypeofbombthatcontainednapalm—chemicalsthatcausethingstobreakintoflames.Myclothes,andthenmybody,caughtfire.AllIrememberclearlyisthepain.Over65percentofmybodywasburned,andIwassupposedtodie.Iwashospitalizedforfourteenmonths,undergoingseventeensurgicalproceduresandextensiveandpainfultherapyandrehabilitationbeforefinallyleavingthehospitalbehind.
Myplight,mypersonaltragedy,wascapturedbyphotographerNickUt.Thispicture,whichwonthePulitzerPrize,becameavisualimageofthehorrorofwarandtheeffectsonthemostinnocent,children.WhenElephantsFightisdedicatedtoallowingthereadertolookintotheeyes
offivechildrenwhohaveexperiencedwarandtoheartheirpersonalstories.Jimmy,Nadja,Annu,FarooqandTomahavelivedthroughthetraumaandtragedyofwar.Theirstoriesaretakenfromfivedifferentplacesaroundtheworld—Uganda,Bosnia,SriLanka,AfghanistanandtheSudan.Theyarealldifferent,buttheyarethesameinthattheyarethestoriesofindividualchildren.Waraffectsmillionsofpeople,buteachofthosepeopleisanindividual,andthemostvulnerablearethechildren.
Alongwiththepersonalaccountsofthesechildren,theauthorshaveprovided
Alongwiththepersonalaccountsofthesechildren,theauthorshaveprovidedthebackgroundtothesefiveconflicts—thehistoryofthecountryandtheconflict—thatledtotheunfortunatecircumstancesthatalteredthelivesofthechildren.Byunderstandingwhatcausesconflict,wearebetterequippedtounderstandhowfutureconflictsmaybeavoided.
Itishumannaturetowanttoturnawayfromtragedy,butwemustrememberthewordsofDr.MartinLutherKing,whosaid,“Darknesscannotdriveoutdarkness;onlylightcandothat.”Iaskyounottolookaway.Lookintotheeyesofthesefivechildren—heartheirstoriesandappreciatethatthesechildrencouldbeyourchildren,couldbeyou.Letinthelight.
Istillbearthescarsofwhathappenedtome.Istillfeelthephysicalpaindaily.Thepastremainspartofme.Ifeelitisimportantnottopretendthatterriblethingsdon’ttakeplace.Weshouldnotforget,butwemustalsolearntoforgive,andtakeanactiveroleinhelpingthosewhohavesufferedandtrytoeasetheirpain.
Withlove,KimPhuc
KimPhucBioKimwasbornandraisedinTrangBang,asmallcommunitynorthofSaigon,duringtheVietnamwar.In1972,attheageofnine,whilefleeingforsafety,she
duringtheVietnamwar.In1972,attheageofnine,whilefleeingforsafety,sheandothersweremistakenlybombedwithnapalmbyaSouthVietnameseairplane.
KimremainedinVietnamafterthefallofthecountrytocommunism.Asanadultsheandherhusbanddefectedin1992,takingrefugeinCanada.In1994shebecameaGoodwillAmbassadorforUNESCO,travelingtheworldtospeakoutabouttheterribleeffectsofwaronchildrenandtheneedforpeace,loveandforgiveness.
ShefoundedtheKimFoundation,whosemission“istohelphealthewoundssufferedbyinnocentchildrenandtorestorehopeandhappinesstotheirlivesbyprovidingmuch-neededmedicalandpsychologicalassistance.”Herfoundationfundsprojectsaroundtheworld.
KimresidesinAjax,Ontario,Canada,withherhusbandandtwochildren,ThomasandStephen.Sheisalivingsymbolofthestrengthofthehumanspirittoovercometragedyandisashiningexampleofthepoweroflove,forgivenessandreconciliation.
Forfurtherinformationvisit:www.kimfoundation.com
ForamoredetailedlookatKim’slifeandtheimpactofthefamousphotograph,seeTheGirlinthePicture:TheStoryofKimPhuc,WhoseImageAlteredtheCourseoftheVietnamWar,byDeniseChongandpublishedbyPenguin.
INTRODUCTION
Whenelephantsfight,itisthegrassthatsuffers.ThissayingisanancientproverboftheKikuyupeople,atribalgroupinKenya,Africa.Whilethesourceofthisquoteislostinthedistantpast,thewisdomisastruetodayaswhenthosewordswerefirstspoken,perhapsthousandsofyearsago.Itsessenceissimplicity.Whenthelarge—thestrong,thedominant—fight,itisthesmall—theweak,theleastpowerful—whosuffermost.Regardlessofwhichelephantwins,orloses,thegrassbeneaththeirfeetwillalwaysbetrampledanddestroyed.
JosephStalin,formerSovietleader,stated,“Thedeathofamillionisastatistic,thedeathofone,atragedy.”Wewillstartwiththeone.WhenElephantsFighttellsthestoryoffivechildren,onefromeachoffive
verydistinctconflictsaroundtheworld—Afghanistan,Bosnia,theSudan,SriLankaandUganda.Wehopethatthesefivestorieswilldemonstratethedevastatingimpactthatwarcanhaveonyounginnocentbystanders.Throughtheseverypersonalaccountswehopeyouwillnotonlyfeelthepainthesechildrenhavesuffered,butalsobothsympathizeandempathizewiththem.Afterall,butfortheaccidentofbirth,thiscouldbeyou.Alongwitheacheyewitnessaccount,wehavetriedtobrieflypresentsomethingofthehistoryandgeopoliticalbackgroundoftheconflictsineachcountry.
Therehasneverbeenawarfoughtthatwasstartedbychildren—oronethatfailedtoharmthem.Childrenarethegrassbeneaththefeetofthemen,thetribes,thearmiesandthenationsengagedinarmedconflict.Regardlessofthewinner—andthereisastrongcasetobemadethatwarproducesnowinners,onlygreaterandlesserlosers—thechildrenalwayssuffer.
Althoughitmightbearguedthatinsomewarseffortsaremadetosparechildren,thisis,infact,animpossibletask.Childrenmustalwayssuffertheconsequencesofarmedstruggle.Thefactofthematteristhatweliveinaworldwithlimitedresourcesandtheseresourcescannotbeusedforboththepurposesofwarandtheprovisionsofpeace.Everyactofwarstealsresourcesthatcouldbeusedtobuildschoolsandhospitals,plantfieldsandfeedthehungry.
Ineverywarthereisalwayscollateraldamage.Thisisthepoliticallycorrecttermthatdescribesasituationinwhichanintendedtargetismissedandsomething—orsomeone—elsebearsthebruntofanattack.Amilitaryposition
something—orsomeone—elsebearsthebruntofanattack.Amilitarypositionistargeted,buttheschoolorchurchormosquenexttoitisdestroyedbyartilleryfire,bombsormissiles.Abulletisaimedatasoldierbuthitsawomanorchildhidingintheditchbehindhim.Militaryexpertsassertthatnowarispossiblewithoutcollateraldamage—itisinevitable,andbybeinginevitable,somehowitbecomesacceptable.Strangely,thisterminvolvesbothpropertyandpeople,asifoneisnomoreimportantthantheother.
Collateraldamagecaninvolvethedestructionofahospital,aschool,anorchardoracrop.Thedamagesdonetothesepropertiesmightultimatelycausethedeathofmorepeoplethanthebattleitself.Aschoolisdestroyed,andfuturedoctorsandengineersandteachersarenevertrained.Ahospitalisdestroyed,andthesickdieanddiseasesspread.Afield,croporwellisdestroyed,andmalnutrition,deprivationandstarvationtakelives.Inalmosteverywareverfought,thereweremoreliveslostbecauseoftheeffectsofthewarthanthoselostonthebattlefield.Starvationanddiseaseultimatelykillandmaimmorepeoplethanthoseclaimedbydirectconflict.
Insomeconflictschildrenarenotcollateraldamage,notasadsecondaryeffectofwar,butthespecifictargetsofwar.Theyareseenasequallyvalidtargetsofdeathasanyarmedcombatant.Perhaps,bysomesickandtwistedlogic,theyareevenseenasbettertargetsthananarmedcombatant.Theycan’tfightback.
Inthegreatestofhumanatrocities,armedcombatantsactivelyseekoutanymemberofagroupinanattempttoeradicate,eliminateandannihilatethatgroup.Weare,ofcourse,talkingaboutgenocide.Genocidebydefinitionisthedeliberateandsystematicdestructionofagroupbasedonrace,religionorculture.
ThegenocidemostknowntothemodernWesternworldistheHolocaustthattookplaceinEuropefrom1939–1945,whenNaziGermanyattemptedtoeliminateallJewishpeopleandcertainotherethnicminorities.Thisatrocityresultedinmillionsofmen,womenandchildrenbeingsystematicallyidentified,captured,transportedandslaughtered.
ItwouldbetemptingtoviewtheHolocaustasjustatemporaryinsanitythatinvolvedonegroupofpeople.Thisisnotthecase.Withinthelastonehundredyearsalone,genocidehastakenplaceinArmenia,Cambodia,Rwanda,Yugoslavia,Russia,theSudanandChina.Itwouldbeanunderestimationtosaythatoveronehundredmillionpeoplewerekilledintheseperiodsofgenocidalinsanity.Andeachofthosevictims,regardlessofthespecificconflict,wasequallyhumanandequallyimportant,andthelossoflifeequallytragic.
equallyhumanandequallyimportant,andthelossoflifeequallytragic.Therearetimeswhenchildrenarenoteventargetedbecauseofanyethnic,
racialorreligiousreason,butsimplybecausetheyarechildren.Theyarethemostvulnerableaswellasthemostimpressionabletargets.Theyareremovedbyarmedmenfromthesafetyoftheirhomesandthecareoftheirfamiliessothattheycanbeusedasservants,slavesorsexualpartners,ortheyareforcedtobecomecombatantsintheconflict.
Thelegacyofchildsoldiersisoneofthegreatesttragediesofthispastcentury.Youngchildrenaretakenfromtheirfamiliesbyarmedcombatants.Familymembersareslaughtered—sometimeschildrenareforcedtotakethelivesofmembersoftheirownfamilies.Youngchildren,someyoungerthantenyearsold,becomeindoctrinatedandtrainedinthewaysofkilling.Theybecomeefficientkillersforthesamereasonthatchildrencanbecomesuchagentsforgood—theyareimpressionable,openandtooyoungtounderstandtheultimateconsequencesoftheiractions.
Oneofthefirststepsintrainingforarmedcombatistodehumanize,minimizeanddistancethosebeingtargetedfromthosewhowilldothekilling.ThismayseemasomewhatunlikelypropositionfromourvantagepointintheWesternworld.Nevertheless,weknowithappens.Althoughwemightbegeographicallyandpoliticallydistancedfromthewarzonesoftoday’sworld,wemustneverassumethatwearesomehowsuperiortopeoplewhofindthemselvesinthemidstoftheseconflicts.
SomereaderswillalmostcertainlyclaimthatWhenElephantsFightpresentsabiasedviewofthestoriespresented.Despiteourbesteffortstopresentthefullpicture,thisisaninevitablereality.Thesecriticismswillbefoundednotsomuchonthevalidityofoureffortsasonthepersonalpassionsthattheseconflictsarouse.And,equallycertain,sinceweviewourworldthroughtheeyesofourownpersonalhistory,someofthiscriticismwillbevalid.Weacknowledgethatweenterthisprojectwithaclearandstatedbias.ThisbiasisbestputintowordsbyformerUnitedStatespresidentandhumanitarian,JimmyCarter:“Warmaysometimesbeanecessaryevil.Butnomatterhownecessary,itisalwaysanevil,neveragood.Wewillnotlearnhowtolivetogetherinpeacebykillingeachother’schildren.”
Childrenaroundtheworldsufferfromtheconsequencesofwar.Weliveinatimeandplacewhereourchildrenhaveescapednotonlythedirectconsequencesofthesewarsbuteventheknowledgeoftheseconficts.Forthefuturetobebetterthanthepast,betterthanthepresent,wemusthelpequipourchildrenwiththeawarenessandunderstandingoftheworldaroundthemandtheirabilitytobring
aboutchange.Gandhistated,“Ifyouaregoingtochangetheworld,startwiththechildren.”Withthepurchaseofthisbookyouhavehelpedchildrenwhohavesuffered
fromwar—royaltiesfromthisbookarebeingdonatedtoGuluWalktohelpchildrenaffectedbythewarinUganda.Formoreinformationvisitwww.guluwalk.com.
JIMMY
WalkingAwayfromDangerItistime!”
IStartledoutofhisthoughts,Jimmylookedupathisgrandmotherstandingontheedgeofthefield,waving.
“Itistime!”sheyelledagain,notsureshe’dbeenheardorseen.Jimmywavedbacktoacknowledgeher.Helookedupatthesun.Hecould
tellfromitspositioninthesky,startingtosinktowardthetrees,thatshewasright.Itwastimetogo.Jimmy’sbrothers,Christopher,JuliusandDouglas,workingawayinthefieldbesidehim,hadheardheraswell.Theynoddedtheirheadsinagreement.Jimmyswungthehoeoverhisshoulder.ForDouglas,onlysixandsmallforhisage,thehoewasasbigashewas,anditweighedheavilyonhisshoulders.MaybeJimmycouldhavehelpedbutheknewhislittlestbrotherhadtolearntobearhisshareoftheload.Therewasnochoice.
Astheywalkedthroughthefield,Jimmythoughtabouttheircrop.Thefieldwasplantedinrootvegetables,mainlycassava,withonlythetopsshowingthroughthesoilsofar,butitlookedliketherewasgoingtobeagoodharvest.Heprayedforagoodharvest.Withoutthatthere’dbemoretimeswhenhungerwouldbewiththem.
Todaythefourbrothershadfinishedweedingfourrows.HeknewthatChristopher,theoldestatfourteen,hadhopedformore,buttherewasn’ttime.Therewasneverenoughtime.
Bythetimetheyreachedtheirhome—twosmallhuts,withthecharredremainsofathirdbesidethem—theirgrandmotherwaswaiting.Onehutbelongedtotheboys.Thesecondhutwastheirgrandmother’s.Thethirdusedtobetheiruncle’shome.
Grandmotherhadpackedthemasmallclothbag.Insidewasalittlebitoffood.Notmuch,butenoughtogivethemsomethingtoeatontheroad,and,iftheyrationeditout,perhapsabiteforthemorningbeforetheysetoutagain.Christopherwouldcarrythefoodanddecidewhentheywouldeat.Jimmydidn’tknowwhenhewouldchoosetoletthemeatsomething,buthedidknowitwouldbedonefairly,eachreceivinghisshare.Maybetherewasn’tenough,but
whatevertheydidhavewassharedequally.Thathadalwaysbeenthewayinhisfamily.
Jimmyposesnexttotheprintsofhismother’shandsonthewalloftheroomwherehenowsleeps.
Jimmyalsowantedtotakeonemorethingwithhim.Heranintothehutandfounditrightwherehe’dsetitdown—onthelittlewoodenstoolthathisfatherhadmade.Itwasabookwithdog-earedcorners,thecoverpartiallyrippedandthepagessoiledfromsomanystudentshavinguseditovertheyears.Butitwasimportantthathebringitalong.Therewasatesttomorrow,andhe’dalreadymissedadayofschoolthisweektosellvegetablesbytheroadside.Heknewthatheneededtostudy.Hopefullytherewouldstillbeenoughlighttoseethebookwhentheyarrived.
Itwouldbesomucheasieriftheycouldjuststayontheirland.Therewouldbemoretimetoworkinthefields.Timetostudy.Timetosleep.Butnottonight.Infact,notanynightforaslongasJimmycouldremember.Itseemedlikeforeversincehe’dbeenabletosleepinhisownhouse.
Therewasatime,morethanayearago,wheneacheveninghisgrandmotherandolderbrotherwouldmakeadecision—wasitsafetostayordidtheyhavetogo?Whiletheywereatschoolorworkinginthefields,Grandmotherwould
go?Whiletheywereatschoolorworkinginthefields,Grandmotherwouldlistentotheradio,ortalktoneighborsorrelatives,peoplewholivedinthevillage,andfindoutiftherehadbeenanyattacksinthearea.Somenightstherewasnoword;nothinghadhappened.Thentheymightriskstaying.Butitwasalwaysarisk.Therewerenoguarantees.Jimmyknewthatbetterthanalmostanybody.
IthadbeenquietthatnightwhentheLord’sResistanceArmyhadcometohisvillage.Therebelsoldiersorderedeverybodyoutofthehutsandmadethemallkneelonthehard-packedearthoftheyardand—hedidn’twanttothinkaboutitanymore.Therewasn’teventimeformemoriesorgrief.Therewasjusttimetowalk.Itwasalmostcomfortingtorealizethattherewasnodecisiontomake.Now,everynightwastoodangeroustostay.
Grandmothergaveeachboyahug.AsJimmywrappedhisarmsaroundher,hefeltnothingbutbones.Shewasn’twellandshedidn’teatenoughtogetbetter.Whateverscrapsoffoodthatwereleftweremeantforhergrandsons.Eachevening,ashesaidhisgood-byestoher,hewonderedifhewouldseeherwhenhereturnedinthemorning.Hewishedthatshecouldcomewiththem,butheknewshewastoooldandtoosicktomakethetrip.
Besides,thesoldiersleftoldwomenalone.Shewasn’tstrongenoughtoworkoryoungenoughtobearchildren.Shewasn’tsomebodytheycouldmakeintoasoldier,orsomebodythattheyhadtofear.Shewasjustanoldwoman,agrandmother,andshewasofnousetothem.Notevenworththepriceofabullet.Buthestillworried.Therewasnocostintheblowofamachete.
Someofthesepeople—andJimmyhardlyevensawthemaspeople—didn’tneedareasontokill.Maybetheywerehighondrugsorsimplylustedforbloodanddidn’tneedareason.Hecouldonlyhopethattheydidn’twanttoevenwastetheenergynecessarytostrikeherdown.Theyleftoldwomenalone...theyleftoldwomenalone...that’swhathe’dheard.Thatwasthethoughtthatkepthishopesalive.Theydidn’tbotherwitholdwomen.
Hehadtohopethat’showshewasseen:aworthlessoldwoman.ButtoJimmyandhisbrothers,shewasalltheyhad.Ifsomethinghappenedtoher,whowouldcooktheirmealsforthem?Whowouldhelpworkthefieldsorbringwater?WhowouldChristophertalktowhenheneededtomakedecisions?Jimmyknewhisbrotherwassmartandhetrustedhim,butstill,hewasyettoturnfourteen.Hestillneededtheadviceofhisgrandmother.
“Wehavetogo,”Christophersaidsoftly.Withoutanotherwordtheystartedoff.Itwasalongwalk,butthefirststeps
werealwaysthesameandprovidedthemwithavividreminderofwhyitwas
werealwaysthesameandprovidedthemwithavividreminderofwhyitwastheyneededtowalk.Therewerethreemoundsbehindthehuts,justoffthepaththeytook.Jimmycastonlyasidewaysglanceastheypassed—maybeitwasn’trespectful—buthejustdidn’twanttolook,couldn’tdwellonwhathadhappenedandhowmuchhemissedthem.Toomanymemories.
Jimmyenviedhislittlestbrother.Hewasonlytwoatthetimeandwastooyoungtorememberit.Allheknewwerethestoriesthathe’dbeentold.Jimmywouldneverforget,nevergetthoseimagesoutofhismind.
Astheboyswalkedtheywerejoinedbyotherchildrenleavingtheirfamiliesbehind.Therewasalreadyatrickleofotherkidsonthedirttrack.Astheypassedeachnewhome,eachclusterofhouses,eachvillage,theywerejoinedbymoreandmorechildren.Someofthesechildrenwererelativesandsomewerefriends.Nonewerestrangers.Walkingtogethereachnightandbackagaininthemorningleftlittletimeforthefieldsorforschoolwork,butlotsoftimefortalking.Itwasalmostironicthatduringtheselongwalks,withnothingelsethatcouldbedone,thechildrenwerefreetobechildren.Theysangsongs,orplayedgames,talkedandlaughedastheywalked.Theytriedtomakethebestofit.Butwhatchoicedidtheyhave?Tostayintheirhomesintheisolatedvillagesandcountrysidewastoriskbeingkilledorkidnapped.Soeachnighttheywalked,leavingtheirhomesbehind,headingforthesafetyofthetownofGulu,wheretheycouldbesupervisedbyreliefagencystaffandguardedbygovernmentsoldiers.
Thechildrenmovedtothesideoftheroadastwovehiclesrumbledupbehindthem.Onewasavandrivenbyoneofthereliefagencies,andthesecondwasabigarmytruck.Asthesecondtruckpassed,hesawthesoldiers,riflesinhand,sittingintheback.Eventheydidn’twanttobeinthecountryorontheroadswhendarknessfell.And,ifitwaseventoodangerousforthem,howmuchmoredangerouswasitforthechildrenbeingleftbehindontheroadasduskrapidlyapproached?
Jimmylookedbehindhim.Asfarashecouldseetherewerechildrenwalking.Lookingforwardthelinestretchedoutofsightaswell.Nexthelookedonbothsidesoftheroad.Hutsdottedthehills;smallstalls—roadsidestores—werefrequent.Everythingseemedasitshouldbe.Theyweresafe.Atleastfornow.Atleastuntildarknessfell.Hefoundhimselfquickeninghispace.
InsomewaysJimmyandhisbrotherswerelucky.Forthemthewalkwasonlysixorsevenkilometers.Theycouldmakethetripinlessthantwohours.Heknewofotherchildrenwhoweretravelingtwiceasfar.
Thentherewerethosewhoweretoofarawaytomakethewalk.Ratherthanseekingablanketinthetown,theysimplylefttheirhomes,lefttheirvillagesand
seekingablanketinthetown,theysimplylefttheirhomes,lefttheirvillagesandheadedintotheforest.Somewoulddigshallowdepressionsintheground,liedownandpushdirtbackoverthemselveslikeablankettoprovideprotectionfromtheelements,animalsandanypryingeyes.Othershidinthickets,whilesomebuiltcrudesheltersinthebranchesoftrees.Jimmycouldn’timaginehavingtolivelikethat,sleeplikethateverynight,butforthem,aswithhisfamily,whatwasthechoice?
EverybodyinthewholeGuludistrictknewwhatmighthappentothosewhostayedbehind.Jimmyhadmetpeoplewhohadbeenattacked,handsorfeethackedoffbyblowsfromamacheteortheirlipsandearsslicedoffwitharazor.He’dneverforgetthefirsttimehe’dseensomebodywhohadsufferedthatfate.Thentherewerethosewhoweretaken.Younggirlswerekidnappedtobesexslavesandyoungboysweretakenatgunpointtobecomechildsoldiers,leavingbehindmurderedparentsandlootedandburnedvillages.
Asdarknessstartedtosettlein,Jimmyfeltthatsenseofuneasinessthathealwaysfeltatnight.Still,hewasreassuredbywhathecouldseeahead—theglowoflightsintheskymarkingthetownofGulu.And,ontheroadallaroundhimweremoreandmorechildren.Eachlittletrickle,eachstream,comingfromalldirections,hadbecomeahumanriver,andtheyweremovingalonginthecurrent.
Thehousesandstoresbecamemorefrequentastheyapproachedthetown.Andthosebuildingsbecamemoresolid,madeofbrickandstoneandblocks,sometwo-oreventhree-storiestall.Lightsglowedfromupper-storywindowsorstorefronts.Aroundthem,standingatwatch,clusteredtogetherinlittlegroups,sittingintrucksorvehicles,weresoldiersandpolice.Strange:theyfledmenwithgunstocomeheretobeprotectedbyothermenwithguns.
Someofthosestoresremainedopenjustforthenightcommuters,thosewhohadafewshillingstopurchasefood.Here,everynightwascrowdedlikeamarketday.Thestreetswerefilledwiththousandsofpeople,mostlychildren,althoughtheyweren’theretobuyorsell,butsimplytofindaplacetoliedownforthenight,tosleep.
Mostofthechildrenhadaplacethattheysoughtout,thattheywerefamiliarwith.ForJimmyandhisbrothersitwasahostelcalledNoah’sArk.ItwasrunbyUNICEF—UnitedNationsInternationalChildren’sEmergencyFund.Thestaffwhorantheshelterwerefriendlyandtreatedthechildrenwell.Eachnighttheboysregistered,weregivenablankettouseandwenttofindapieceofgroundwheretheycouldspendthenight.Inthespacearoundthemwereotherchildren.Jimmydidn’tknowhowmany,butmostnightstherewerebetween
threeandfourthousandchildren.Andthatwasjustapercentageofthenightcommuters.Throughoutthetowntherewerehalfadozenplaces,runbyotheraidagencies,churchgroupsandthegovernment.Andevenwithallofthoseplaces,therewerestillthosewhosimplysleptonthestreets.Atleasttheyweresafe.Andwhatchoicedidtheyhave?
Jimmytookhisblanket,laiditdownonthegroundandwrappedhimselfinittowardawaythenightchill.DouglasplacedhisblanketdownnexttoJimmy,followedbyJuliusandChristopheronthefarsidesothetwooldestshelteredthetwoyoungest.
REPUBLICOFUGANDAPopulation:27,600,000Location:Latitude:3°13’60N,Longitude:31°52’0E,eastAfricaArea:236,040squarekilometersClimate:tropical,equatorialclimateLanguages:English(Officiallanguage)74%Swahili(Officiallanguage)*over30languagesusedinUganda(predominantlyBantuandNiloticlanguages)Ethnicity:Buganda16%Iteso8%Basoga8%Banyankore8%Banyaruanda6%Bakiga7%Lango6%Bagisu5%Acholi4.5%Other31.5%*over30ethnicgroupsinUgandaReligion:Christian85%Muslim12%Other3%LifeExpectancy:52yearsInfantMortalityRate:66deathsper1,000livebirths
PerCapitaIncome:$1,100Literacyrate:66.8%(male:76.8%,female:57.7%)
ChildrenatPagakInternallyDisplacedPersons(IDP)camp.Allaroundthemtheotherchildrenweresettlinginforthenight.Someofthe
youngerchildrenhadalreadygonetosleep;otherssittingontheirblanketsandtalking;whilesomewereofftotheside,talkingorplayingsimplegames.Jimmydidn’thavetimeforgames.Heneededtostudy.Hetookthebookandangleditsothathecouldcatchalittlebitoflightfromthebulbthathungoverheadinthecorner.Itwasdimandfaraway,buttherewasenoughlightforatleastafewminutestostudybeforeitwasturnedoffforthenight.
Christopheropenedthelittlesackthattheirgrandmotherhadpreparedforthem.Hetookoutthetwopiecesofbreadthatitheld,dividedthemintwoandsharedthembetweenthefourboys.Thiswouldhavetoholdthem,throughthenightandthewalkbacktotheirhome.Theirgrandmotherwouldbewaitingwithalittlemorebreakfastforthem,somecassava,maybesomemoremillet.Theboyswoulddoafewchores,andthentheywouldwalktoschool.Afterschooltheywouldgohome,helptogatherwater,workthefieldsandgetready,onceagain,towalktoGulu.Nightafternight,dayafterday,thatwasthelifeJimmyknew.Eachdaygoingtoschool,orworkingthefields,doingchores,selling
vegetablesatthesideoftheroad.EacheveningwalkingtoGulu.EachnightsleepingatNoah’sArk.Andeachmorningwalkingbackhome.Ithadbeengoingonforyears.Itwastheonlylifetheyoungerchildrenevenknew.ButJimmyrememberedadifferenttime,atimebeforetheyhadtoseekshelterinthetowneverynight,beforethedeaths.Sometimeshejustwishedhecouldforgetthatnightwheneverythingchanged.Ithadnowbeenfouryears,butinsomewaysitseemedlikeithadjusthappened.
Itwasaquietnight.They’dgonetosleep,thefourboys,Christopher10,Jimmy8,Julius6andDouglasjust2.Theynestledtogetherinoneroom,ontherightsideofthehut,withtheirparentsinanotherroomtotheleft.Itwasacomfortablehome,cream-coloredclaywalls,atinroofanddoorandadirtfloor.Acrossthewaytheiruncle,theirfather’syoungerbrother,sleptinhishut,andinthethird,theirgrandmother.Jimmywasawakenedbyscreamingandyelling.Therewaspoundingonthe
door,andthenthedoorwaskickedopen.Theywerehauledout,halfsleeping,halfinshock,crying,powerlessbeneathpowerfulflashlights,andforcedtodroptotheirkneesinthedirt,theirhandsonthebackoftheirheads.Hisparentsandunclewereknockedtotheground,theirhandstiedbehindtheirbacks.Andallthetimethemenscreamedoutthreats,sayingtheywouldkillthemallifanybodyresistedThemen—notheyweren’tallmen,somewerebarelyboys—stoodoverthem,
wavingguns,yelling,screaming.Someweredressedinuniforms,othersinnothingmorethanpantsandheavyjackets.Allworegumboots.Ontheground,notdaringtolookup,partiallyblindedbythelightsshiningintheirfaces,allJimmycouldseeweretheboots.Themen—theboys—walkeddowntheline,screaming,yelling,threateningto
harmorkillastheypassed.Jimmyknewtheseweren’tjustidlethreats.Andnowhewasontheground,kneelingatthefeetofthepeoplewhocommittedtheseatrocities,andallhecouldseeweretheirboots.Undertheglareofthebrightlights,surroundedbydarkness,hisparents
bound,screamsandthreatsrainingdownonthem,Jimmyknewthatthesecouldbethelastmomentsofhislife,orattheveryleast,thelifeheknew.Suddenlyhisparentsanduncleweregrabbedandhauledtotheirfeet,
draggedaway.Thelastwordshisfatherscreamedwere“please,Ibegyou,don’thurtourchildren!”andthentheydisappearedintothenight,swallowedbythedarkness.
Jimmytakingabreakinthetreethatprovidesshadeforthefamilyhome.Almostbeforethewordshadfaded,theboysweregrabbedandhauledto
theirfeet.Theyweredraggedbacktotheirhutandthrownthroughthedoor,landinginaheapontopofeachotheronthedirtfloor.Thedoorwasslammedshut,andallfourhuddledtogetherasthemenscreamedoutside.Theyheardobjectsbeingthrownagainstthedoortobarricadethemin.Weretheybeingleft...orweretheytrappedinside,barricaded,unabletoleavebeforethehutwassetonfire?ChristophertriedtoquietthetearsofJuliusandDouglas.Jimmylistenedat
thedoor,strainingtohearanything...buttherewasnothing.Silentlytheystayedinthehut,stillafraidtocryout,afraidtoeventrytobreakthroughthedoorandescape.Whatifthemenwerestillcloseby?Whatiftheyheardandcamebacktogetthem...tokillthem?Jimmywasn’tsurehowlongtheystayedinthehut.Hewasn’tsureifhehad
driftedofftosleep,buthedidknowwhathappenednext.FinallyChristopherfeltthatenoughtimehadpassedthatitwassafeforthemtotrytogetout.Theypoundedatthedoor,theycalledoutandtheywereheard—bytheirgrandmother.Shewasoldandhardofhearingandhadsleptinherhut,
unawareofwhathadhappened.Shepulledawaythebarricadeandopenedthedoor,andthefourboysalmosttoppledheroverastheyrushedout.ThesoldiersoftheLord’sResistanceArmyweregone.Andwiththemwere
Jimmy’sparentsanduncle,leavingtheoldwomanandthefourchildrenbehind—thechildrenwhoweretooyoungtobecomesoldiers.Atleasttooyoungthatnight.Whenmorningfinallybroke,theirgrandmotherwentinsearchofhertwo
sonsandherdaughter-in-law.Wherehadtheybeentaken?Wherewerethey?Shestartedtoaskquestionsandtosearch,butshedidn’thavetolooklongorfar.Theywerediscoveredinafieldlessthanakilometeraway.Thebodiesofthethreewerefoundbeaten,handsstillboundbehindtheirbacks,withabulletintheirskulls.They’dbeendraggedawaysimplytobekilled.Theneighborshelpedbringbackthebodies,helpeddigthegravesandhelped
putthebodiestorest.Andtheywerethere,inthosemoundsjustoffthepath,withinsightofthehomeswheretheyhadlivedtheirlives.
Sincethenitwasjustthefourboysandtheirgrandmother.Theirparentsweredead,butthepeoplewhokilledthemwerestillaround,stillkillingandkidnapping.Itwasn’tsafefortheboystoremainintheirhomeatnight,buttheystillneededtoreturneachdaytoworkthefieldstogrowfoodtolive,togotoschoolandtohaveanyhopeforabetterfuture.Soeachnightandeachmorning,theywalkedtoandfromGulu,seekingshelterandsafety.Constantlyinmotion,neverhavingtimetorestorstop.Butwhatchoicedidtheyhave?
Follow-up:JimmyJimmyisnowseventeenyearsoldandstilllivesinthethree-roomfamilyhomenearGulu,withhisthreebrothersandhisailinggrandmother.HisimpeccableEnglishhasbeenfeaturedinasegmentofthedocumentaryfilmUgandaRising.Henowventuresintotowndailytoattendcomputerclasses,andhehopestoreturntoschoolfull-timeearlynextyear.
HistoryTheRepublicofUgandaislocatedineasternAfrica.ItisalandlockedcountrythatsitsdirectlyontheequatorandisborderedonthewestbytheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,onthenorthbySudan,ontheeastbyKenya,onthesouthbyTanzaniaandonthesouthwestbyRwanda.Whilenotacoastalcountry,Ugandaissurroundedbyanabundanceofwater,includingLakeVictoriatothesouth,LakeAlberttothewestandiscutdownthemiddlebytheNileRiver.
WinstonChurchill,formerprimeministeroftheUnitedKingdom,oncepraisedUganda’sbeautybysaying,“Formagnificence,forvarietyofformandcolor,forprofusionofbrilliantlife—bird,insect,reptile,beast—forvastscale—UgandaistrulythepearlofAfrica.”
Uganda’shistorybeganabouttwothousandyearsagowhenitwasfirstpopulatedbytheironworkingBantu-speakingpeopleofcentralandwesternAfrica.TheywerejoinedfromthenorthbytheNiloticpeople,includingtheLuo,whoselifestylecenteredaroundcattle-herdingandfarminginthenorthernandeasternpartsofwhatisnowUganda.
ThefirstexternalinfluenceintheregioncamefromArabtradersmovinginlandfromtheIndianOceaninthe1830s.Theycameinsearchofslavesandivory.Theywerecloselyfollowedinthe1860sbytheBritishwhowereexploringthesourceoftheNileRiver.
Inthelate1880stheUnitedKingdomputtheareaunderthecharteroftheBritishEastAfricaCompany,whichbecamepartofthecolonial“scrambleforAfrica”inwhichEuropeannationsstakedtheirclaimsonAfricanresourcesanditspeople,fortheirowngain.Theregionwasinitiallyacollectionofkingdoms
itspeople,fortheirowngain.Theregionwasinitiallyacollectionofkingdomsledbychiefsandclanleaders.Thesegroupswerechangedforeverbythisinfluencefromoutside,butthedifferentgroupsstillareatthecoreofwhoUgandansaretoday.
In1894,Ugandawasruledasaprotectorate,andtheBantu-speakingpeopleofthesouthwereplacedincivilservicepositions,whiletheLuoofthenorth,mainlytheLangoandtheAcholi,wereforcedintolaborcampsandthemilitary.Thisdividedthenationintwoclasses,increasingthetensionbetweenthegroups.Thisdividewouldbemostevidentafterindependenceandis,toagreatdegree,responsiblefortheseeminglyendlessmilitarycoupsandrebeluprisingsthathaveplaguedthenation.
ThefirstofthosemilitarycoupscamefromthenotoriousIdiAmin.In1962,lessthannineyearsafterindependence,AminoustedUganda’sfirstpresident,MiltonObote.Aminwasresponsibleforthedeathofasmanyas300,000Ugandans,whilealsoexpellingtheIndiancommunity,whocontrolledamajorstakeinthecountry’seconomy.Originallyseenlocallyandinternationallyasawelcomedchange,Amin’sruleofbloodshedandshortsightednesssentthecountryintoadownwardspiral.Inflationclimbedto1000%andunpaidsoldiersrebelled.AminfinallysealedhisownfatebychoosingtogotowarwithTanzania.
TheTanzanianstookcontrolofUgandaandturnedonthelocalpopulation,whotheyclaimedtobehelping,whileAminfledtoLibya.Obote’sreinstallationaspresidentin1980wasshort-lived,aswasTitoOkello’smilitarycoup.In1986YoweriMusevenitookpowerwhenhisNationalResistanceArmy(NRA)claimedthecapital.
MuseveniquicklyintroducedeconomicreformsthatprovidedsomesustainedgrowthinUgandaandhewaslaudedasa“newbreedofAfricanleader,”bythenUnitedStatespresident,BillClinton.WhatcontinuedtobeignoredwasUganda’snorth-southdivide,whichprovedtobethebirthplaceoftheworstofrebeluprisings.
TheConflictTheongoingcivilstrifeinnorthernUgandaisaconflictthatcontinuestobemisunderstood.Thewarisessentiallytwoconflictsinone:first,thefightingoftheLord’sResistanceArmy(LRA),whichiswagingwaragainsttheUgandangovernmentandterrorizingthecivilianpopulationinthenorth,andsecond,therealgrievancesofUgandansinthenorthagainsttheexistinggovernment.
realgrievancesofUgandansinthenorthagainsttheexistinggovernment.ThewararoseoutoftheembeddedpolicyoftheBritishduringcolonialrule
inwhichtribalgroupsweredivided.This‘divideandrule’policywascontinuedbypost-colonialUgandanpolitics.Whenthecurrentpresident,YoweriMuseveni,andhisNationalResistanceMovementtookpowerbycoupin1986,theyworsenedthenorth-southdividebyalienatingnortherners,creatinggroundsforrebellion.
AviewsouthintoGulu,northernUganda’slargesttown.Since1986,theinsurgencywithinnorthernUgandahasundergonefour
stages,beginningwithamorepopularrebellionofformerarmyofficialsandevolvingintothecurrentpseudo-spiritualwarlordismoftheLRA.Todate,theLRAconsistsmainlyofabductedchildrenbrainwashed,brutalizedandforcedtokillviciouslyaschildsoldiers.AlienatedfromtheAcholi,theLRAwagesterroronthecivilianpopulationasameanstomaintainattentionandchallengethegovernment.
AfterattemptedpeacetalksfacilitatedbyBettyBigombecollapsedin1994,theconflictchangedintoaproxywarthatcannotbeunderstoodseparatefromthegeopoliticsoftheentireGreatLakesRegionofAfrica.
In1994,thecountryofSudanbegantoprovidemilitaryassistanceandsupporttotheLRA,whiletheUgandangovernmentprovidedmilitaryassistancetotheSudanPeople’sLiberationArmy(SPLA),arebelgroupinsouthernSudan.TheWest,particularlytheUnitedStates,sawthisasthebattlefrontofthewaragainstthespreadofIslamicfundamentalisminsub-SaharanAfricaand
waragainstthespreadofIslamicfundamentalisminsub-SaharanAfricaandprovidedsignificantamountsofaidtotheSPLAthroughUganda.Newelementsofawareconomyandarmstraffickingmadefindingpeacemoredifficult.
FollowingSeptember11,2001,theUnitedStatesincreaseditsstrategicalliancewithPresidentMuseveniandhisNRMregimeinUganda.TheU.S.quicklydeclaredtheLRAaterroristgroupandincreasedmilitaryaidtotheUgandangovernment.ThisrelationshiponlyfurthersolidifiedtheinsistenceofMusevenionamilitaryapproachtoendthewar.Unfortunately,the“militarysolution”hasworsenednortherngrievancesandprovenineffectiveovertheyears.Itisstronglybelievedthatratherthancontinuedwar,thatthekeystopeacearetonegotiateandbuildmutualtrust.
Inthesummerof2006,thenewlyformedsemi-autonomousGovernmentofSouthSudanagreedtohostandmediatepeacetalksbetweenthewarringparties.Theinvolvementofsuchastrategicmediator,coupledwithnewopennessbythepartiestonegotiationsledmanytocallthisthe“bestopportunityinoveradecadeforpeaceinnorthernUganda.”InAugust,thepartiesagreedtoaCessationofHostilities—tostopfighting—thatledtorelativecalminnorthernUganda.However,thetalkshavesincestumbledduetotherigidinvolvementoftheInternationalCriminalCourt(ICC),aweakMonitoringTeamanddivisionswithintheLRAnetworks.
ThewarinnorthernUgandahasragednowfor21years,makingitAfrica’slongest-runningconflict,andhasbeendescribedbyoneUNofficialas“theworld’sworstneglectedhumanitariancrisis.”Thewarhasledtothedisplacementof1.7millionpeople—over80%oftheregion—whonowliveincampsinsqualidconditions.Atitsworst,1,000peopleweredyingeachweekasaresultofthepoorconditionsinthesecamps.Thewarisalsoknownforthebrutalabductionanduseofchildsoldiers.TheLRAhasfilleditsranksbyabductingover50,000children.
Asthisneglectcontinues,thepeopleofnorthernUgandaremaincondemnedtolivesofdespairanddisplacement.
ChildSoldiersForover250,000childrenallovertheworld,armybarracksarehomeandmilitarycommandersarefamily.Thesearenoordinarychildren.Theyarechildsoldiers.
Thereisstillnouniversallyaccepteddefinitionforwhatachildsoldieris,butinternationalhumanrightsorganizations,includingUNICEF,agreethatachild
soldierisaboyorgirlundertheageofeighteenwhowillinglyjoinsorisforcedtobecomeamemberofagovernmentarmyorrebel-armedmilitary.Thesechildsoldiersarecommandedtoperformavarietyofduties,includingarmedcombat,layingminesandexplosives,scouting,cookingandlabor,andareoftenvictimsofsexualslaveryandexploitation.
Today,childrenaredirectlyparticipatinginconflictsinover20countriesworldwide,withmorethan100,000childrenonthefront-linesinAfrica;mostprominentlyinSudanandUganda,whereitisestimatedthattheLord’sResistanceArmyhasabducted50,000childrenandforcedthemintoconflict.
Whilethousandsofchildrenareindeedabductedorrecruitedbyforce,manymorejoinvoluntarily.However,theyoftenenlistasameansofsurvival:joiningbecauseofextremepoverty,lackofeducationorfamilysupport,alongwiththepromiseofasteadyincome,statusandpower,whichmostoftennevercomes.Themilitaryisseenastheironlyopportunitytogetaheadduringatimeofunbelievabledesperation.Themajorityofchildsoldiersarebetweentheagesof14to18,buttherearechildrenasyoungas9yearsofagewhohavebeenforcedintoconflict.
Forthosenotfamiliarwiththechildsoldierphenomenon,it’sdifficulttounderstandthevalueofanarmyofyoungchildren.Whenweheartheword“soldier”weautomaticallythinkbig,strong,adultmen.However,withlightweight,easy-to-usefirearmsreadilyavailable—bigandstrongarenolongernecessary.Evenayoungchildcancarry,anduse,agun.
Alongwithbeingabletohandlegunsandammunition,childrenarealsoseenasbothphysicallyandemotionallyvulnerable.Theycanbeeasilyintimidated.Inthecaseofabduction,it’scommonplaceforoneoftheabductedchildreninagrouptobekilled.Thisexamplesendsamessagetoalloftheothersthatifyoutrytoescapeorifyoudonotobeyyourcommanders,youtoowillbekilled.Thisisthe“initiation.”Infact,childrenareevensometimesforcedtocommitatrocitiesintheirhomevillages,againstfriendsandfamily,puttingtheminanevenmoredesperatesituationbecausetheycanneverreturnhome.
Childsoldiersareoftenconsidered“cheaper”tokeep.Theyeatless,theyaremoreresilientandneedlessmedicalcare(orattheveryleastareprovidedlesscare)andaremuchmorepredictableintheiractions.
Thereismuchglobaltalkofnuclearconflictand“weaponsofmassdestruction.”Lt.General(Ret.)RomeoDallaire,commanderoftheUNforcesinRwandain1994andnowaCanadiansenator,usesthatsamelanguagewhentalkingabouttheuseofchildsoldiers.“Childrenhavebecomethenewweapons
system,”heexplains.“They’renothigh-tech,buttheyareweaponsofmassdestruction.Howdoyoufightawaragainstchildren?”
Firesareaconstantthreattofamiliesintheinternaldisplacementcamps.Thetarpedhutsareevidenceofrecentfiresintheregion.
Thatquestionalone,isamoraldilemmathatmayneverhaveanyanswers.HumanrightsorganizationsworldwideareworkingwiththeUnitedNations
andindividualcountriestoendtheuseofchildsoldiers.Muchworkisalsobeingdonetosupportchildsoldiersaftertheendoftheirtimeinconflict.Regardlessofthelengthoftimeasactiveparticipantsinwar,thetraumaislife-altering.ThecurrentstreamofsupportisthroughDemobilization,DisarmamentandReintegration(DDR)programsthatarefocusedonprovidingpsycho-socialsupport,alongwitheducation,trainingandskillsforthesechildrensotheycanmakeanattemptatlifebackhomeintheircommunities.
WhiletheseDDRprogramsdoexist,therearetoofewofthemworldwide.Andwhentheydoexist,theylacktheresourcesnecessarytoprovidefortheneedsofthesenowincrediblyvulnerablereturnees.Moreoftenthannot,thesechildrenareleftontheirowntocopewithachildhoodlostandaleveloftraumafewcanevenbegintocomprehend.Thesesoldiersareaboveallelse,simplychildren,whocontinuetosufferfromtheeffectsofthewarstheyhavebeenforcedtofight.
ANNU
BorninaWarZoneAnnuwoketothesoundsofgunfire.Itwasn’tunusual,andthatwaspartofthetragedyofherlife.Warwasallshe’dknown.Sincethetimeofherbirthhercountryhadbeenatcivilwar,andconflictwasasmuchapartofherlifeasthehugsofhermother.
Buttodayitseemeddifferent.Itwasn’tjustafewshotsanditdidn’tseemtobestopping.Infactitwasgettingmorefrequentand,morefrighteningly,louderandcloser.Sheknewshehadtoact.
Sherolledfromherbed—thebedshesharedwithhermother.Shecalledoutforhermother,buttherewasnoanswer.Shewasalone.Sheknewhermothercouldhavegonetothemarketorwasatthehomeofafriendorfamilymember.Whileshewasworriedaboutbeingalone,itwasn’tthatunusual;Annuwasn’tababy,shewasalmostsevenyearsold.Shewasoldenoughtoknowthatsheneededtoseekcover,notrunouttofindhermother.Hermotherwouldtakeshelterandshehadtodothesame—butwhere?
Shetriedtostopherheartfrompoundingsoloud.Shetriedtoslowherbreathingandherthoughts.Sheneededtolisten.Sheneededtothink.Shelistenedforthesoundsofthegunfire.Shehadenoughexperiencetoknowthatitwasgunsorrifles,andnotcomingfromahelicopteroraircraft.Thatwasimportant.Whattypeofgunfiredeterminedwheresheshouldflee.Ifitwasfirecomingfromtheskyshewouldheadtothebunker,thelittlecoveredtrenchbehindherhouse;butifitwascomingfromthegroundshehadtogetoutofthehousebutavoidthebunker.Itwashiddenfromthesky,butanysoldierswalkingalongthegroundwouldeasilyfindit—andfindher.
Annuknewshehadtofindaplacetohide.Forafewsecondsshestoodthere,frozeninplace,thinkingabouthermother,hopingshewassafe,butalsothinkingaboutwheresheneededtogotofindsafetyaswell.Sherealizedthatshecouldn’thelphermother,buttherewassomebodyshecouldhelp.Lyinginthecornerofthesmallroom,sleepingonanoldblanket,washercat,Kutti.Kuttiwasn’tverybig.Itwasjustagray-and-whiteballoffur,butshelovedAnnuandAnnulovedhercat.ShegrabbedKuttiinherarmsandranoutside.
Annuonher5thbirthday.Annu’shousewassmall.Herparentshadplannedtomakeabiggerhouse,but
thenthewarbrokeout.Therewasn’tanypointinbuildingsomethingthatmightbedestroyedordamagedoneday.Alargerhousewouldhavetowaituntiltherewaspeace.They’dbeenwaitingalongtime.
Thepropertyitselfwasn’tmuchbiggerthanthehouse.Itwasrockyroughground,andtheycouldn’tplantcrops.OnlythePalmyratreesgrew.Itwastheleavesofthesetreesthatformedtheroofoftheirhouseandthefencethatsurroundedtheproperty.Amongthetreeswasagigantichaystack.Hergrandparents,wholivedjustafewhousesaway,hadleftthestacktheretofeedtheirlivestock.ThiswastheplaceAnnuwouldhide.
Annuandherfirstcousins.Annusitsinthemiddlewearingapinkdress.SixofhercousinsnowliveinCanada,therestareinIndia,London,England,andSriLanka(Colombo).
Shemadeherwaytothehaystack,Kuttiinherarms.Thehaystacksatclosertotheroadthanherhome,butshehopeditwouldbesafe.Anysoldierswalkingdownherdrivewouldgotothehouseandthentothebunkertosearch.
Asshewalkedshestrokedthecatandquietlytalkedtoit.MaybeshewastryingtoreassureKutti.Probablyshewastryingtoreassureherself.Thegunfiregotlouderandlouder.Whoeverwasouttherewaswagingabattle.SheknewononesidewouldbemembersoftheTamilTigersandontheothereithergovernmenttroopsormaybemembersoftheIndianArmy—peoplewhohadbeensentintocreatepeacebutnowwerejustanotherpartoftheconflict.IftheTamilfighterswonanddroveawaytheotherside,sheknewshe’dbesafe.Shehopedshe’dbesafe.Astraybullet,oncefired,didn’taskwhoithitorwhoitkilled.Civilians,littlechildren,didn’thavetobetheintendedtargettobetheoneskilled.Sheknewthestories.Sheknewthevictims.Adults,women,oldpeopleandchildren,evenbabies,hadbeencaughtinthedeadlycrossfireandhadtheirlivesended.
Hidingbehindthehaystackshefeltsaferbutscaredandvulnerable.Itwassuchabigpilethatitcertainlyhidherfromanybodypassingontheroad,butsheknewthathaywouldn’tstopabullet.Shealsoknewthatshewassimplybehindthestackandthatasoldierwalkingthroughthefrontgateanddownthedrivewaywouldseeher.Sheneededtoburrowintothestackofhay.
Kuttiwasjustastray.Annuwasn’tsureifshefoundthecatorthecatfound
Kuttiwasjustastray.Annuwasn’tsureifshefoundthecatorthecatfoundher.Whatshewassureofwashowmuchshelovedthecat,andsheknewitcaredforhertoo.Theyhadaspecialbond,andAnnulovedtostrokethecatasmuchasthecatlovedtobestroked.WhenitsawAnnuitwouldruntowardher,perhapshopingforasmalltreatthatsometimescame,butmorejustwantingtobepetted,tobeshownloveandaffection.Insomewayscatsareverymuchlikepeople.
Butnow,asshetriedtoburrowintothestraw,hercatwasnothappy.Itclawedatherarms,tryingtogetfree.AndasdeterminedasKuttiwastogetfree,Annuwasdeterminedtokeepitsafe.
“Holdstill!”shewhisperedatthecatasitcontinuedtostruggle.“Ifthesoldiersseeyou,theywillshootyou!”
Annudidn’tknowthesoldiers.WhethertheywereIndian—andHindu,likemostoftheTamils—orgovernmentsoldiers,sheonlyknewtofearthem.Sheandhermotherhadbeentakenfrombusesandsearchedandquestionedandtheiridentificationchecked.Andshewouldjuststandthere,clutchhermother’shand,buryherfaceinherside,hopingthatthestoriesshe’dheardweren’tabouttohappentoher—peopletakentojailbythesoldierstobetorturedorkilled,orshotrightthereatthesideoftheroad.
She’dheardthestoryofalittleboy,noolderthanher,whowasshotdeadbecausethesoldiersheardhimsingasongcelebratingtheTamilTigers.Shehadn’tbeentherebutshe’dheardthestories.Everybodyknew.Evensmallchildren.Therewerealwayslotsofstories.
Whatshehadseenwithherowneyeswerepeoplebeingyelledat,pushedinthebackwithguns,pulledoffthebusesandputinthebacksofjeepstobetakentoplacesshehadnowayofknowing—wasitjail...wasittorture...wasittobekilled?Herimaginationwaslefttofillintheblanks.Shehadheardthecriesofherneighborsandherfamilymembers,cryingoverthedeathofsomebodytheylovedwhowasnowgone.Onestorystoodoutvividlyinhermemory.
Aneighbor,agoodfriendofthefamily,hadcomebackfromthefuneralofherdaughter.ThedaughterhadbeenamemberoftheLiberationTigersofTamilEelam(LTTE).Annuhadrememberedthefightingthedaybefore,anditwasinthatbattlethattheneighbor’sdaughterhadbeenkilled.Onlyafewhadbeenallowedtoseethebodybeforethefuneralbecausetheheadhadbeensevered.Thewholevillagehadcometotheneighbor’shometopayrespecttothefamily.Andallnight,longafterdarkhadfallenandthepeoplehadgonehome,Annucouldhearthemothercrying.Shethoughtthatthemothersoundedlikea
woundedanimal.Itwentonandon,keepingAnnuawake.Itwasthelastsoundsheheardbeforeshefinallymanagedtogettosleep.
Kutti’sclawsrakedAnnu’sarm.Herfirsturgewastojustreleaseit.Hersecondwastostrikeitforhurtingher.Shedidneither.Shehelditmorefirmlywiththeonehandwhileshecontinuedtoburythembothinthehay,usingherbodyasalittlesheltertoprotectthecat.Sheusedallherpower,pinningthecatagainstherinsuchawaythatitcouldn’tescape.Shewasnotgoingtolethercatsufferthefateofotherpets.
Annuhadagoodfriendwholivednotfar.Theywereschoolmates.Herfriendhadadog.Itwasanicedog.Itlivedoutside,tiedtoastake.Itwasapet,butitalsowasawatchdog.Itwouldbarkwhenpeoplecame,warningthemofvisitorsorstrangers.Warningthemofdanger.
Herfriendandherfamilyhadheardtheplaneupaboveandknewtheyhadtofleetheirhome.Sometimestheplanesdroppedbombs,orgunfirespewedoutandhitpeopleontheground.Thenoisewasgettinglouderandlouder,andtheyran,stumbling,jumpingintothelittlebunkerbehindtheirhouse.Thatbunker,likemost,wasn’tmuchmorethanaditch,ashighastheirheads,coveredatthetop,sometimeswithmetalandthenalayerofPalmyraleavestodisguiseitsoitcouldn’tbeseenfromtheair.Thewholefamilyscrambledinandpulledtheroofintoplace.
TherewasnodoubtthatAnnuandhermotherwereinasimilarholeinthegroundonthatnight.InsomestrangewayAnnulikedthebunker.Thewallswereonlymadeofdirtandthebottomoftenheldaafewinchesofrainwater,butitseemedsomuchsaferthantheirhouse.Herethewallsweretheearthitselfandbulletscouldn’tpenetrate.Ofcoursenothingcouldstopabombbeingdroppedfromabove,andAnnuhadseenthewallsshake—feltthegroundshake—whenabombhitcloseby.She’devenheardoffamilieswhohadbeenburiedintheirbunkersasthesidescollapsed.Shetriednottothinkaboutanyofthat.
Forherfriendthatnightitfeltlikethebombsweredroppingalmostontopofthem.Anditwasn’tjustoneblast,butasecondandathirdandafourth.Theyallhuddledtogether,waiting,praying,hoping,andthenitstopped.Nomoreblasts.Andastheylistened,thesoundoftheairplanefadedawayandwasgonecompletely.Theyliftedtheleaves,pushedtheroofasideandclimbedout.Nowthattheyweresafetheyhopedtheirhousewassafe.Theymovedslowly,stilllistening.Thehouseremained—thewallsandtheroofwereintact.
Thenthefamilysawthedog.Thecollarwasstillarounditsneck,theropestillpeggedtotheground,butthedogwasdead.Therewasnodoubt.Itwasrippedintwo,halfstilltiedup,theotherhalfadozenfeetaway.
rippedintwo,halfstilltiedup,theotherhalfadozenfeetaway.Annuhadn’tseenit,buttheimagewassostronginhermindthatshe’dnever
forgetit.And,shewouldneverletthisfatebethatofherKutti.Thecathadgivenupthestruggle.PartlybecauseAnnuhaditsotightly
pinnedtoherbodythatithadnoroomtostruggle,butpartly,shehoped,becauseitknewthatshewastheretotakecareofit.ThenKuttistartedtocallout.ThefirstplaintivecryhadalmoststartledAnnu.
“Bequiet,”shehissedatthecat.“Don’tshoutout...youmightgetusbothkilled!”
Sheputherhandoverthecat’smouth.Itstillmadelittlesoundsbutitwasn’tabletoscreechanymore.Nowshehadonehandtoholdthecatandthesecondtoholditsmouthclosed.Therewasnohandfreetostrokethecatanymore.Shelookeddown.
DEMOCRATICSOCIALISTREPUBLICOFSRILANKAPopulation:22,200,000Location:Latitude:7°N,Longitude:81°E,anislandintheIndianOceansouthofIndiaArea:65,600squarekilometersClimate:tropical,monsoonLanguages:Sinhala(OfficialandNationallanguage)74%Tamil(National)18%Other8%English(usedby10%ofthepopulation)Ethnicity:Sinhalese74%Moors7%IndianTamils4.6%SriLankanTamils3.9%Others10%Religion:Buddhist70%
Muslim8%Hindu7%Christian6%LifeExpectancy:73yearsInfantMortalityRate:13deathsper1,000livebirthsPerCapitaIncome:$4,600Literacyrate:92%(male94%,female92%)
Annu’smotherhadacamera;sheusedtodressupAnnuforpictures.Annu’sgrandfatherisinthebackground.
Thelittlecatlookedscared.Shewasscaredtoo,butthensherealizedthatKuttiwasafraidofher!Kuttididn’tknowwhyshewasdoingthis,whythelittlegirlwhohadalwaystreatedhersonicelywasnowhurtingher.Thecatdidn’tknowwhy,itjustknewthatitwashappening.
Insomewaysthecatandthelittlegirlhadalotincommon.Annudidn’treallyknowwhythewarwashappening.Shedidn’tknowaboutthebigissues,aboutpolitics,orpeaceorworldopinion.AllsheknewwasthatherfamilywasTamilandthatpeoplesheknewandlovedwerebeingkilled.PeoplesheknewhadbecomemembersoftheTamilTigers,andshewastoldtheywerefightingforher,fightingforherfuture.Whentheywonabattle,thestreetswerefilled
forher,fightingforherfuture.Whentheywonabattle,thestreetswerefilledwithpeoplecheering.TherewereloudspeakersplayingpatrioticsongsthatcelebratedTamilfighters.
Graduallythegunfirebecamelessfrequent,andthenitstoppedaltogether.Annustayedinthehaystackalittlebitlonger.Sheknewthatitwasbesttowait,tobesafeandmakesureitwasn’tjustatalullbutatanend.Finallysatisfiedshepushedasidethestrawandsteppedintothedaylight.Shereleasedhercatandbeforeshecouldreachdowntoreassureitthateverythingwassafeitranoff,racingbetweenthetrees,aroundthesideofherhouseanddisappeared.
Nowitwassafeforhertogobacktothehouseandwaitforhermothertoreturn.Ormaybeitwouldbeacousinsenttogetheroranauntormaybeoneofhergrandparents.Shehopeditwashermother.ThenAnnuwouldknowhermotherwassafe.Thatwasthemostimportantthing,hermother,becauseherfatherwasn’tthereanymore.
Annu’sfather,likesomanymeninthevillage,hadfledthecountry.Theydidn’twanttobekilledbythearmy.Alltheywantedwasasafelifefortheirfamilies,andthey’dleftthecountrytotrytoestablishalife,getajob,createahomeandtaketheirfamiliesawayfromthiswar.Annu’sfatherhadleftwhenshewaslessthantwo.Hereturnedtothefamilyforshortvisits,butmainlyhispicturewasthemostsheknewofhim.Someday,herparentshadpromised,theywouldallbetogether,anditwouldbeinaplacewheretheydidn’thavetofearfortheirlives,aplacethatwouldbesafe.
Annuwastoldstories,andpromisesweremade.Thosestorieswerejustthat—stories.Wasthereactuallyaplacewherepeopledidn’thavetoliveinfear,wheregunfiredidn’tpunctuatetheday,wherefamilieslivedtogetherinpeace?Shehoped,butshedidn’tknow.
Rightnowshewasjustworriedabouthermothercominghome.Andshethoughtabouthercat,thewayithadrunawayfromher,thelookinitseyeswhenshewasjusttryingtosaveitslife.Itdidn’tunderstandwhyshewastreatingitsoroughly.Annuunderstood.Shehadnochoice,butthecatdidn’tunderstand.
Annu’smotherreturnedshortlyafter.Kuttiwasneverseenagain.
Follow-up:AnnuAnnuandhermotherleftSriLankatobeunitedwithAnnu’sfather.ThefamilyultimatelyimmigratedtoCanada.Annuisnowtwenty-twoyearsofageandrecentlygraduatedfromuniversity.
recentlygraduatedfromuniversity.
HistorySriLankaisanislandcountrylocatedintheIndianOcean,justsouthofIndia.Itcontainsanancientcivilizationwithcontinuousdocumentedsettlementforclosetothreethousandyears.Itexistedasanumberofindependentkingdomsorterritoriesformostofthistimeperiod.
WhilealwayscloselyintertwinedwiththeIndianSubcontinent,thenorthernpartoftheislandwas,atonepoint,seizedbyasouthernIndiandynasty,andaTamilKingdomwasestablished.
ItcameundertheinfluenceofvariousEuropeancountries,beginningwiththePortugueseinthesixteenthcentury,thentheDutchintheseventeenthcentury,andtheislandwascededtoBritainin1796.TheentireislandwasunitedunderBritishrulein1815andwascalledCeylon.Itwasconsideredvaluablenotonlyforthewarmclimateandfertilefieldsthatproducednumerouscrops—especiallytea—butalsobecauseofitsstrategicpositioninthesealanes.
Withevengreaterpotentialforagriculturaluses,theBritishimportedfromsouthernIndiaclosetoonemillionIndianTamilstoworkinthelarge-scaleplantations.Thiscreateda“visitor”populationthatwascloselyrelatedtotheSriLankanTamilsbutconsideredbymany,especiallythemajoritySinhalesepopulation,asnottrulybeingSriLankan.
TheBritishEmpirecontrolledcountriesandpeoplearoundtheworld.Thepeopleinvariouscountries,includingIndiatothenorthandCeylon,beganaskingformorerightsandfreedoms.In1948Ceylonbecameanindependentcountrywithcitizensbeinggiventherighttovotefortheirgovernment.
Withtherighttovote,therewerefearsintheminoritycommunitiesthatthe
Withtherighttovote,therewerefearsintheminoritycommunitiesthatthemajoritygroup,theSinhalese,wouldestablishdominancetosuchadegreethattherightsoftheminoritieswouldbereducedorimpinged.Therewasanacknowledgmentthatthegovernmentwouldprotectminorityrightsandrecognizethecountryasbeingpluralisticinnature.
TheSinhalese,whospokeSinhalaandwerealmostexclusivelyBuddhist,composedalmost75percentofthepopulation.TheTamilswerecomposedoftwogroups,IndianandSriLankanTamils,andtheycombinedtoformthelargestminoritygroup.TheyspokeTamilastheirprimarylanguageandweremainlyHindu,buthadasignificantnumberofCatholicsaswell.Athirdgroup,theMoors,wasMuslim.Whileallthreegroupslivedthroughoutthecountry,theTamilsformedamajorityofthepopulationinpartsofthenorthandeastofthecountry.
AteaplantationinSriLanka.Teaaccountsforalmost25%ofSriLanka’sexportearnings.
Thedreamsofapluralisticcountry,representingallgroups,quicklydissolvedonceindependencewasreached.OneofthefirstactsofthegovernmentwastodisenfranchisetheIndianTamils,removingtheirrighttovote.ThiswasdonedespitethefactthatthevastmajorityofthesepeoplewereborninSriLanka,asweretheirparentsand,insomecases,theirgrandparents.
Subsequently,Sinhalawasmadetheofficiallanguageofthenewlyformed
Subsequently,Sinhalawasmadetheofficiallanguageofthenewlyformedcountry,contrarytoanunderstandingthatTamilwasalsogoingtoberecognizedasanequallanguage.
LeadersintheTamilcommunityattemptedtoundertakepoliticalactiontogetthelanguagerecognizedandtoreceivemorerightsandfreedoms,especiallyinareaswheretheTamilsformedthemajority.TheseeffortswerenotjustsupportedintheircommunitybutbymoderatemembersoftheSinhalesecommunity.But,therewerealsomembersofthiscommunitywhostronglyopposedtheextensionofminorityrights.Therewasbothpoliticalprotestandviolenceagainstthemoderates.Themostextremeexampleofthisoccurredin1959,whentheprimeminister,whowasSinhaleseandwishedtoextendfurtherminorityrights,wasassassinatedbyaBuddhistmonk.
Continuedeffortsbygoodpeopleinbothcommunitiestoresolvetheseissuestoallowminorityrightstobeprotectedwerecontinuallythwartedbyextremeelementsinbothcommunities.SomeTamilssimplywantedcompleteTamilindependenceandwouldnotconsideranythingless.SomeSinhalesewantedcompletedominationandwouldacceptnothinglessthanSriLankabeingconsideredaSinhalese-Buddhiststate.Theseextremepositionsandpeoplecontinuallypushedthemoderatemajoritiesonbothsides,andpeacefulattemptstoapoliticalsolutionwereunsuccessful.Thissituationcombinedwithhistoricalfactorsweretheprecursorsfortheeruptionofacivilwar.
TheConflictSeeingnoprogressinthepeacefulprocessofnegotiation,somemembersoftheTamilcommunitybecamemoreopentoelementswhobelievedthatviolencewastheonlysolution.Variousgroupsevolvedunderdifferentleadership,butultimatelyoneorganization,theLiberationTigersofTamilEelam(LTTE),becamethedominantmilitarygroup.ItwasadvocatingforprotectionofTamilrightsandfreedoms,adesiretocreateasemi-autonomousprovincewithinSriLankaorthecreationofacompletelyseparateTamilnationintheareasinthenorthandeastofthecountrywhereTamilsformedamajorityofthepeople.
ThisgroupwasfundedbylocalTamils,Tamilslivingabroadandsendingbackmoney,and,allegedly,bycriminalactivitiesthatincludedrobbingbanksorgovernmentinstitutions.
Whilethisconflicthadbeenongoinginsomeformformanyyears,thecivilwaristhoughttohavebeenignitedbytwosignificantincidents.TheSriLankanprimeministerwasassassinatedbyasuicidebomberbelievedtobeTamil.On
July23,1983,theTamilTigersambushedandkilledthirteenmembersoftheSriLankanarmy.ThereactioninvolvedmobsattackingandkillingTamils.Vehicleswerestoppedatintersections,andiftheoccupantswereTamils,thevehicleandpeopleweresetonfire.Tamilhousesweresetonfire,lootedordestroyed.Therearedifferentaccountsofthenumberofpeoplekilledandhomesdestroyed.Estimatesrangefrom400to3,000deathswith1,000beinggenerallyacceptedasareasonablyaccuratenumber.Therewerebetween10,000and18,000homesdestroyed,andthefirstmassexodustookplaceastensofthousandsofTamilsleftthesouthandfledtothenorth,whereTamilsfeltsafe.ThishascometobeknownasBlackJulyandiscommemoratedbytheTamilcommunityeveryyearthroughpeacefuldemonstrationsaroundtheworld.
SomemembersoftheTamilcommunitybelievethatthemobswereinstigatedbythegovernment.Whilethereisnocredibleandcertainprooftosupporttheseallegations,itisclearthatpolicemenandsoldiersstoodbyintheearlystagesanddidnotattempttostoptheviolenceorprotectthevictimsandtheirhomes.
TheconflictbetweentheSriLankanforcesandtheforcesoftheLTTEoriginatedasabattlebetweenaregularmilitaryforceandaguerillagroup.Thegovernmentforcesweremuchmorenumerous,hadthesupportofaircraft,heavyequipmentandgreaterweaponry.TheyweresupportedbythemajoritySinhalesepopulationandcontrolledthevastmajorityofthecountry.
TheLTTEutilizedguerillatechniques,includingambushes,roadsidebombings,suicidebombingsandassassinations.Thesetechniquesresultedinthedeathsofmanyciviliansandinnocentvictimsaswellasmembersofthegovernmentforces.
Asthecivilwarcontinued,theLTTEbecamebetterequipped,bettertrainedandbeganengagingtheSriLankanarmyinregularcombat.Theydroveoutgovernmentforcesinsectionsofthenorthandeast,effectivelycreatingaseparateandautonomousTamilstate.
Thegovernmentrespondedtothisbysendingoverwhelmingforces,supportedbyaircraft,toattacktheLTTEstrongholdinJaffna.ItappearedthatthesiegeandsubsequentcombatwasonthevergeofcrushingtheTigerswhenIndiaintervenedinthecivilwarbyusingitshighlysuperiorairforcetodropsuppliestotheTamils,breakingthesiege.
TheroleoftheIndiangovernmentinitsdecisiontointerveneinanothercountry’sinternalconflictwashighlyunusual.ItwasfueledbythefactsthatthereweremanyIndianTamils,thatmostTamilsareHinduandthatthesouthernpartofIndiahasalargeTamilpopulation.
WiththeinterventionofIndia,theconflictonceagainbecameastalematebetweenthetwoforces.Indiathentookthestep,withcooperationoftheSriLankangovernment,ofsendinginalargegroupoftroopstothoseareasinthenorthandeastwheretheconflictwastakingplace.Thisgroup,knownastheIndianPeaceKeepingMission,wasmandatedtosuperviseandseparatethegroups,attempttodisarmtheTamilTigers(LTTE)andprotecttherightsoftheTamilpopulation.
Whatstartedasahumanitarianeffortquicklydegenerated,andviolencebeganbetweentheIndianPeaceKeepingForceandtheTamilTigers.Thisconflictlastedfor32months,endinginMarch,1990.Inthattimetherewereover1,000Indiansoldiersandanestimated4,000Tamilskilled.Thisviolenceevencontinuedafterthewithdrawalofthetroops,whenanLTTEwomanassassinatedtheformerIndianprimeminister,RajivGandhi,inasuicidebombing.
WiththewithdrawaloftheIndianPeaceKeepingForcetherewasapowervacuum.TheSriLankangovernmentforceswerenotabletofillthatgap,andrivalTamilfactionsfought,withtheTamilTigerseventuallytakingcontrol.Theyinitiatedmanygovernmentservicesand,inessence,setupatemporaryprovisionalgovernmentinsomeareas.
Thisshiftalsomarkedanotherphase,wherebattleseruptedbetweenTamilandMuslimfactions.Itisestimatedthatuptotwenty-eightthousandMuslimswereforcedtoleavetheJaffnaareainaninstanceofethniccleansing,movingsouth,fleeinginfearfortheirlivesashomesandbusinessesweredestroyedandpeoplewerekilled.Itwasreportedthatburningbodiesonthesideofroadswasacommonsight.Thegovernmentbeganagaintouseitstroopsandairforcetobringtherebelsundercontrol.Aerialbombingwasaconstantthreattociviliansthroughoutthearea,andrunninggunbattlesbetweentheTamilTigersandgovernmentforcesoftensawciviliansandchildrenasinnocentvictimscaughtinthecrossfire.
In2001,eighteenyearsafterthecommencementofthecivilwar,formaltalksbeganaboutacease-fire.Thisagreement,brokeredbyNorway,calledforthegovernmenttodropitsbanontheTamilTigersandallowasharingofpowerandsomeregionalautonomy.InexchangetheTigersweretodroptheirdemandforanindependentTamilstate.Thisagreementcameintoeffectin2002.
Itisestimatedthatduringthecivilwaroversixty-eightthousandpeoplewerekilled,onemillionpeoplewereinternallydisplacedwithinthecountry,andhundredsofthousandshadleftthecountryandweredispersedthroughouttheworld.
world.Thecease-firewasatemporarymeasuretoallowthetwosidestonegotiatea
lastingpeacesettlementthatwouldsatisfyallparties.Whileitstartedwithhopeandgoodfaith,thenegotiationprocessfailedtofindasolutionandthecease-firewasbrokenonafairlyregularbasis.
ThecoverofanAmnestyInternationallettershowstwochildsoldiersofSriLanka’sTamilTigersguerrillamovement(LTTE)sentaspartofacampaignin
ColomboagainsttheLTTE’srecruitmentofchildren.In2006thecease-firewascompletelyvoided.Inthefirstyearoftheresulting
escalationofviolence,itisbelievedthatover1,000soldierswerekilledandanother100,000Tamilsweredisplaced.Thecivilwarisongoing.
TamilTigers—TerroristsorFreedomFighters?TheLiberationTigersofTamilEelam(LTTE)haveoperatedinsomeformsincetheearly1970s.Theyoriginatedasasmallgroup,oneofmany,whichwereattemptingtoseekprotectionfortheTamilminorityandformeitherasemi-
attemptingtoseekprotectionfortheTamilminorityandformeitherasemi-autonomousTamilstatewithinthecountryofSriLankaoranindependentstateinthenorthandeastoftheisland.Originallythisgroupwassmall,poorlyorganizedandfundedandpracticed,almostexclusively,guerillatechniquesinitsfightagainstthegovernmentforces.
Astheconflictbecameafull-fledgedcivilwarin1983,theTigersbecamethedominantgrouprepresentingthemovementforTamilindependence.Theyhadnotonlyamilitarywingbutapoliticalwingthathadinternationalcontacts.Theorganizationbecamelargerwithovertenthousandmenandwomen,wasbetterfundedandbettertrainedandacquiredmoresophisticatedweaponry.Whiletheycontinuedtoutilizeguerrillatactics,theywereabletoengagetheSriLankansecurityforcesinmoreconventionalbattles.
TheTigers,whileseenasfreedomfightersbymanyTamils,havecarriedonactivitiesthathavealsohadthemlabeledasterrorists.Theseactivitiesincludetheextensiveuseofsuicidebombingsthathaveresultedinthedeathsofinnocentcivilians;targetingpoliticalfiguresforassassination,includingaSriLankanprimeministerandaformerIndianprimeminister;killinginnocentcivilians;theethniccleansingofMuslimsinJaffna;recruitmentanduseofchildsoldiers;andallegationsofkillingotherTamilswhofosteredotherbeliefsorsupportedothergroups.
TheTigershavebeenlistedasaterroristorganizationbycountriesaroundtheworld,includingIndia,theUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,CanadaandtheentireEuropeanUnion.ThislabelisstronglyrefutedbytheorganizationandmembersoftheTamilcommunityinSriLankaandaroundtheworld.Theydenymanyoftheallegationsanddefendcertainactionsasbeingtheconsequencesofanongoingwarfortheirrightsandfreedoms.
IndianConnectionIndiaisthegianttothenorthofSriLanka.Itisthesecondlargestcountrybypopulation,havingoveronebillionpeople,andtheseventhlargestbylandmass.Thetwocountriesareconnectedbygeography—SriLankaisanislandjustoffthecoastofIndia—andbyhistory,bothoncebeingpartoftheBritishEmpireandthenbecomingindependent.
IndiaisahighlydiversecountrythatisprimarilyHindubuthaslargepopulationsofotherreligions,includingthesecondlargestMuslimpopulationintheworld.WhilethenationallanguageisHindi,therearefourteenofficiallanguagesandover400languagesspokenindifferentpartsofthecountry.The
languagesandover400languagesspokenindifferentpartsofthecountry.TheTamillanguageisspokenby61millionpeopleinIndia,primarilyinthesouthintheareasadjacenttoSriLanka.ThispopulationdwarfstheTamilpopulationinSriLankaandisalmostthreetimesaslargeastheentirepopulationofthatcounty.AtonepointtherewasadynastythatlinkedthispopulationofTamilswiththoseinSriLanka,andduringthereignoftheBritishEmpire,amillionIndianTamilsweremovedfromIndiatoSriLankatoworkintheplantations.
IndiahasalwayshadanofficialorunofficialinterestinSriLanka,whichinvolveddirectintervention—theairliftofmaterialsintoJaffnaandtheIndianPeaceKeepingForce—andindirectintervention,includingallowingTamilrefugeestosettlethere,orallegationsthattheyfundedandtrainedTamilindependencefactions.
India’sinvolvementinSriLankahashadtwoprimaryintereststhathavebeendictatedbytherealityofitslargeTamilpopulation.ThecountrycouldnotsitbackandwatchasTamilswerekilled,whichwouldriskinflamingtheirTamilpopulation,butitalsofearedthattheformationofaseparateTamilnationinthenorthofSriLankawouldinspirethoughtsofindependenceintheTamilpopulationinIndia.
ReligionThefourmajorreligionsoftheworld,Islam,Christianity,BuddhismandHinduism,allarerepresentedinthissmallislandnation.
Buddhism:TheBuddhistfaithispracticedbyover300millionpeoplethroughouttheworld,withthelargestconcentrationsbeinginSoutheastAsia.Itis2,500yearsoldandisbasedontheteachingsofSiddharthaGotama.Whileithasbeensubdividedintothreemajorfactions,allascribetoabeliefcenteredonfindingtheMiddleWay,acodeoflifethatseeksmoderation,toleranceandacceptance.Oneoftheprimarypreceptsisthatadherentsshouldrefrainfromthetakingoflifeofanylivingthing.
Hinduism:Itisthethirdlargestreligionintheworldwithoveronebillionadherents.ItiscenteredontheIndianSubcontinentandtheoldestofallmajorreligions.ItisbasedontheVedas,textswhichoriginatedinancientIndia.Withinthereligionisanacceptancethattherearemanygodsandmanydiverseroutestosalvation.
Islam:Itisthesecondlargestreligionintheworldwith1.4billionadherents.ItfollowstheteachingoftheQur’an,whichwasestablishedbytheProphet
Muhammadintheseventhcentury.Ithastwomainsubgroups,theSunniandShi’asects.ItispracticedthroughouttheworldbutcentersintheMiddleEast.
Christianity:Itisthelargestreligionintheworldwith1.8billionmembers.Itisdividedintothreeprimarygroups:theRomanCatholicChurch,theProtestantmovementandOrthodoxCatholicism.AllfollowtheteachingsoftheBibleandbelievethatJesusChrististheSavior,andhisteachingsintheNewTestamentformthebasisofreligioussalvationandpersonallife.
IslamandChristianity,whileinconflictinmanyareasaroundtheworld,sharemanycommonhistoricalroots.
FAROOQ
HomeUnderFireFarooqclimbedthestairs,shieldinghiseyesashesteppedoutintothesunshineofthecourtyard.Itwassobrightcomparedtothedimfaintlightofthebasement.Hesteppedoutandtookadeepbreathofair.Itwascleanandcool.Despitetheclearbrilliantsunlightwithnocloudsinthebluesky,itwasstillwinter,andKabulhadcoldwinters.Hewasbundledupagainsttheweather,buthestillfeltthechillagainsthisface.
Helookedupattheirhouse.Itwasspaciousandfriendly—andnowunoccupied.Theycouldgoinsideduringthedaytoretrievethings—iftherewasnosoundofshelling—buttheyhadabandonedtheirhomeandtakenrefugeinthesmallerbuilding.Itwastheonlybuildingwithabasementanditsatinsidethecourtyardoftheirhomesoitwasmoreprotected.
Beingprotectedwasimportant.Allaroundtheneighborhood—allaroundtheentirecityofKabul—houseshadbeenhitbyrocketsandcannonsandtankshellsandstraybullets.ThecapitalofAfghanistan,Kabulwasabustlingplaceofbusinesses,factories,marketsandmosquesandwashometooveramillionpeople.Now,allacrossthecity,peoplewerebeingkilledandhomeswerebeingdestroyedasrivalmujahideengroupsfoughttogaincontrol.
Ofcourse,Farooq,whowasfive,didn’tknowaboutthisconflict.Hejustknewthatthingsweredifferentforhisfamilyandinhisneighborhood.Hisfather,asuccessfulbusinessman,mostlystayedhome.Farooqdidn’tgotoschool.Theysleptinabasement,cookedinthegarageanddidn’tventureoutoftheirneighborhood.Eventhen,thewarhadcometothem.
Justdownthestreetwasasmallbakery.Hismotherwouldpreparedoughforbread,andoneofFarooq’sjobswastotakethedoughdownthestreettobebaked.Hewasproudtobeofhelptohisfamily,andsinceeverybodyintheneighborhoodkneweachothertherewasnodangerinhimbeingoutaloneevenathisage.
Afghanchildrenwalkpastthewar-damagedDarlamanPalaceinKabul.Sixty-threethousandhomesandmorethan60%ofthestreetsweredamagedinover
twodecadesofconflict.Therewasalwayssomebodyoutwalkingorsweeping,adultsgathering
togethertotalkorlookingoutwindows.Therewerealwaysfriendlyeyeswatchingoutforallthechildren.Afghanisarefamednotjustfortheirhospitalitybutfortheirloveandcaringforchildren.
AsFarooqwalkedbackfromthebakerythatday,carryingthebread,hebrieflystoppedbytheparkonhisstreet.Todaytherewerenochildrenplaying.Thebigrockinthecenterwasempty.He’dbeentoldnottoclimbitanymore.Itwasahighspotwherehecouldseeoutbutalsowherehecouldbeseen.Itwasdangeroustobeseenfromadistance.Hehurriedonhisway.
Suddenlytherewasaloudswooshingsoundandanexplosion.Farooqscreamedandtossedthebreadintotheairashewassplatteredbymudanddirt.Momentarilystunned,heranforhome,findinghismotherandthrowinghimselfintoherarms.
Herfirstquestionwasaboutthebreadandwhathadhappenedtoit,beforesherealizedhowcloseshehadcometolosingherson.Sheheldhimtightly,andheheldon,feelingsafeinherarms.
Thelittlebasementcertainlywasn’thome,butFarooq’smotherhaddoneallshecouldtomakeitcomfortable.Theyhadtakencarpetsandbedsdownintothe
smallbasement.Andbetweenthosethingsandthefire,itwaswarmandcomfortableandkeptoutthecoldwinternights.Together,heandhisparentsandsisterandauntandcousinsleptinthelittleroom.
Farooqmissedsleepinginhisownroom,butpartofhimlikedthemallbeingtogether.Ifhewokeupinthenighthecouldhearthebreathingoftheothers,andinthelightofthefirepeekingoutofthecracksinthewoodstove,hecouldseethesleepingshapesofhismotherandfather.Thosesightsmadehimfeelsafer.
“Farooq,come,”hisfathersaid.Hewascarryingthreewaterjugs.InstantlyFarooqfellinbesidehisfather.Hewasanobedientboy,buthealso
justlikedbeingwithhisfather.Gettingwaterwasadailytask.Thehousehadtapsandrunningwater,but
thathadstoppedworkingweeksbefore.Itandtheelectricitywerethefirstcasualtiesofthefighting.Luckilyforthemtherewasaworkingtapjustafewhousesuponthestreet.
AstheywalkedFarooqheldontoanedgeofhisfather’scoat.He’dbeendoingthatalotlately—sincetheexplosionthathadcomesoclosetohimonhiswalkhomefromthebakery.Hejustfeltbettertoberighttherebyhisfather’sside.WhenFarooqhadfirststartedtodothat,hisfatherhadbrushedhimaway,butnowheknewitwasimportantforhissontobeclose,thatheneededtobeclose.
Astheyapproachedtheysawthattherewasalineupwaitingtogetwater.Thatwasoftenthecase.Theysettledintothebackoftheline,andhisfatherbegantalkingtotheotherswhowerewaiting.Hekneweverybodyandeverybodyknewhim.Theylivedinabigcity,butmainlytheylivedintheirownlittleneighborhood.Almosteverybodylivedcloseby,usedthesamestoresandbusinesses,gatheredonthestreetsandtheparksandworshippedatthelocalmosque.Theywereneighbors,butinsomewaytheywerelikealargerextendedfamily,manyofthemlivingside-by-sideformanygenerations.
Themenplacedtheirwatercontainersonthegroundinalittleline,andtheyclusteredtogetheringroups.Somesquatteddown,whileothersstood.Manysmokedcigarettes,andtheyallexchangedstoriesaboutwhatwasgoingoninthecity.
Farooqwastooyoungtounderstandmuchofwhattheysaid,butsomethingsseemedcleareventoaboyofhisage.Theremighthavebeensomelaughter,butthemenweremainlysomberandserious.Whateverwashappeningwasn’tgood.Heheardstoriesaboutpeople—peopleintheneighborhood—beingwounded,orevenkilled.Theytalkedaboutfamilieswhohadleft.Theyhadgathered
orevenkilled.Theytalkedaboutfamilieswhohadleft.Theyhadgatheredwhatevertheycouldcarry,orputintheircarsorcarts,andabandonedtheirhouses,goingtostaywithfamilyinanotherpartofthecountrywherethefightinghadpassedorhadn’thappened.
Farooqknewofpeoplewhohadleft.Someofthefriendshe’dplayedwith,thematesfromhisschool,weregone.Nowhemainlyplayedwithhiscousinandhislittlesister—twoyearsyoungerandnotmuchofaplaymate.
Farooqwasafraidofthebombs,butthelastthinghewantedtodowasleavehishomeandallhisthingsbehind.Thiswastheonlyplacehe’deverlived,theonlyplacehe’deverknown.Buthealsoknewthathehadnochoice.Hewouldsimplygowhere-everhisfatherdecidedwasbest.
“Itwasbadenoughwhenwewerebeingkilledbyforeigners,”oneofthemeninlinesaidtoanother.“ButnowitisAfghaniskillingotherAfghanis.”
“Abulletdoesn’tcareaboutthenationalityofthepersonithits,”anothermansaid.
“Butitshouldn’tbefiredbyoneAfghaniatanother,”thefirstprotested.“ARussianbulletoranAfghanibulletkillsthesame.”“IjustprayedthatwhentheRussianswereforcedtoleavethatitwouldbe
different,”thefirstmansaid.Farooq’sfatherjustshrugged.Hewasnotapoliticalman.Hewasa
businessman.HehadlivedthroughtheinvasionoftheRussiansthewayhisancestorshadlivedthroughinvasionbytheBritish,andbeforethat,Darius,GenghisKhan,TamerlaneandAlexandertheGreat.ThegreatestarmiesinhistoryhadinvadedAfghanistanoverthecenturies,butnonehadeverbeenabletotameorcontrolitforlong.TheAfghaniswerestrongandtoughandpridedthemselvesontheirindependence.Theyhadalwaysthrownoutinvadersandreclaimedtheircountry.Andnowwiththelatestinvadersexpelled,acivilwarwastakingplaceasdifferentsidestriedtofillthepowervacuumleftbehindbytheretreatingRussians.
AFGHANISTAN
Population:32,000,000Location:Latitude:33°N,Longitude:65°E,southernAsiaArea:647,000squarekilometersClimate:coldwinters,hotsummers,aridtosemi-aridLanguages:AfghanPersian(Dari)(Official)50%Pashtu(Official)35%Turkiclanguages11%Ethnicity:Pashtun42%Tajik27%Uzbek9%Religions:SunniMuslim80%Shi’aMuslim19%Other1%LifeExpectancy:44yearsInfantMortalityRate:157per1,000livebirthsPerCapitaIncome:$800LiteracyRate:28%(male43%,female12%)
Slowlytheyhadmoveduptheline;nowitwastheirturn.Hisfatherfilledthreewatercontainers,givingthefirsttoFarooqtocarry.Astheystartedtowalk,Farooqheldontohisfather’scoatwithonehand.
“Usebothhandsforthecontainer,”hisfathersaid.“Ifyouspillityou’llbegoingbackbyyourselftofillit.”
Farooqdidwhathewastold.Hedidneedbothhandstocarrytheheavycontainer.
“There’snothingtoworryabout,”hisfathersaidtohim.“What?”“There’snoneedforyoutoworry,”hisfatherrepeated.“I’llmakesuremy
familyissafe.”Theydroppedoffthewaterinthegarage.Thiswastheirkitchennow,the
placewheremealswereprepared.Sometimestheyateinthere.Sometimesinthecourtyard,whentheweatherallowed.Othertimes,especiallywhentherewasthesoundofshellingorbullets,theyateintheshelterofthebasement.
Hismotherwasalreadyinthegaragepreparingbreakfast.Farooqputdownhiswatercontainerandquietlywentbackoutsidebeforehecouldbegivenmoreworktodo.Carryingwaterwasonethingbuthelpingtopreparebreakfastwasanother.
another.Ashewalkedoutdoors,hereachedintohispocketandpulledsomemarbles
out.Hehadmanytoysandgames,butplayingmarbleswasoneofhisveryfavoritethingstodo.Hestoppedinalittlepatchofsunnydirtinthecornerofthecourtyard.Hebentdownandwithhisfingerhedrewacircle.Heplacedsomeofthesmallermarblesinside—hewasgoingtousethelargerone,hisluckymarble,toknocktheothersout.
“Canweplay?”Itwashiscousinandhissister.Playingmarbleswithhiscousinwasone
thing,buthissister,Zakia,onlythree,wastooyoungtodoanythingexceptcausetrouble.Hewasn’tpositive,buthethoughtshehadactuallyswallowedsomeofhismarblesbefore.
“Youcanplay,”hesaidtohiscousin.“Andshecanwatch,”hecontinued,pointingtohissister.
Shesatdownontheground.Shedidn’tseemtoodisappointed.Shewasjusthappytobearoundherbigbrother.
Farooqhandedhiscousinoneofthebigmarbles.Theideaofthegamewastotakethebigmarbleand“flick”itsothatithitthelittlemarblesinthecircle.Ifyouknockedoutoneofthelittlemarbles,thenitwasyours.Somethebiggerkidsplayeditfor“keeps.”Theygottokeepwhatevermarblestheyknockedoutofthecircle.ForFarooqandhiscousin,theyjustdiditforfun.Theywere,afterall,justkids,andplayingwaswhattheywantedtodo.Andwhiletheywereplaying,theyforgoteverythingelse—allthosethingsthatwerehappeningoutbeyondtheirhome.
Theykneeleddowninthedirtbesidethecircleandtookturns.Hiscousinwasgood,butFarooqwasbetter.Morethanhalfthetimehehitoneofthelittlemarblesandmostofthetimeitskitteredoutofthecircle.
Suddenlythequietwasbroken.Therewasaloudsound—likeanengine—andFarooqlookedup.Justovertheirheadsstreakedasilvershape,arocket!Therewasaloudshoooshingsoundasitpassedover,andthenatremendousexplosion!
Farooqjumpedtohisfeetandstartedtorunbeforeheheardthescreaming.Hestoppedandturnedbackaround.Hiscousinwascut,bloodpouringfromhisface,andhissisterwaslyinginthedirt,facedown,bloodcomingfromherback!
Hismotherandfatherranover,screaming,andscoopedthechildrenupandcarriedallthreedowntothebasement.Quicklyhisparentslookedattheinjuries.Bothchildrenhadbeenhitbydebristhrownupintheairwhentherockethad
Bothchildrenhadbeenhitbydebristhrownupintheairwhentherockethadlanded—maybeitwasbitsofrockorconcrete.Therewasblood—comingfromthenoseofhiscousin,andfromasmallwoundonhissister’sback—buttheinjurieswereminor.Ittooklongertocalmdownhissisterthanitdidtocleanoutthewound.She’dbefine.They’dallbefine...fornow.
Follow-up:FarooqFarooq,hismother,fatherandsisterlefttheirhome.Theywalkedfortwodaysinthecoldandrain,narrowlyavoidingdeath,withonlythepossessionstheycouldcarry,totraveloutofKabulandtothehomeofarelative.Over25,000people,mainlycivilians,werekilled,andone-thirdofthecitywascompletelydestroyed.
SubsequentlythefamilyimmigratedtoIndiain1996,andthentoCanadain1998,wherehisyoungestsister,Rabia,wasborn.Farooqhasrecentlygraduatedfromhighschoolandistakingfurthercoursestopreparehimtopursueacareerineitherbusinessorlawenforcement.HeisproudofbothhisAfghaniheritageandhisCanadianfuture.
HistoryAfghanistanhasbeenhometohumansettlementforover50,000yearsandwasoneofthefirstdocumentedplaceswherefarmingtookplace.ItisatthecrossroadsofAsiaandhasbeenreferredtoasthegatewaybetweenAsiaandEurope.Ithasbeencontinuallyexposedtotravelers,traders,invadersandconquerors.ItwasconqueredbyDariusofBabylonin500BC,AlexandertheGreatin329BC,Islamicconquerorsinthe7thcentury,MuhmujdofGhazniinthe11thcentury,GenghisKhaninthe13thcentury,variousArabandPersiandynasties(includingTamerlanefromPersia),theBritishEmpireinthe1800sandtheSovietUnionfrom1979–1989.Throughouttheserecurrentinvasions,
andtheSovietUnionfrom1979–1989.Throughouttheserecurrentinvasions,theAfghanpeoplehaverepeatedlydemonstratedafiercesenseofindependence,whichhasmadeitalmostimpossibletoeffectivelycontrolandgovernthem.Inallcasestheyhaveeventuallyexpelledallinvadersandconquerors.
ThissamequalityofindependencehasmadeitverydifficultforAfghanstogovernthemselves.ThecountrywenowrecognizeasAfghanistanhasonlyexistedinitspresentboundariesforthelastpartofitslengthyhistory.Whennotunderthedominationofoutsidepowers,ithasmostlyexistedasanumberofindependentorsemi-independentcountries,states,kingdoms,tribesorclangroups,whichhaveeitherpeacefullycoexistedoractivelybattledeachother.
In1746thePashtuntribeswereunitedintoonegroup.TheyultimatelyconqueredandcreatedagreaterAfghanistanthatwascomposedofallofthepresent-dayAfghanistan,Pakistan,twoprovincesinIranandpartsofIndia.ThisgreaterAfghanistancameintoconflictwiththeBritishEmpire,thegreatestpowerofitsdayandthelargestempireeveramassed.
Therewererepeatedconflictsbetweenthetwogroups(1838–42,1878–80,1919–21).TheBritishfoundthat,whiletheycouldhaveinitialsuccessinthesewars,theAfghanswerenoteasilysubduedordefeated.Greatbattleswithheavylosses,retreatsandre-entrenchmentstakingplace—withtheAfghansregaininglostterritory—wasthepattern.Ceasefires,treatiesandaccordswereultimatelycreatedthatgaveBritainsomemarginalcontroloverAfghanistan’sforeignpolicybutnorealcontroloverthemajorityofthepeopleorthecountry.
In1921AfghanistanwasgrantedindependencefromBritain.EmirAmanullahfoundedamonarchyin1926.Thiskingdomremainedinsomedegreeofcontrolthroughoutthecountryforalmostfiftyyears,althoughtherewerecontinualinternalpowerstruggles,andmanyareasofthecountryoperatedasalmostindependentstates.
In1973thekingwasdeposed,andthemonarchywasreplacedbyarepublic.Thissetoffanotherperiodofturmoilasdifferentgroupsattemptedtogainpower.In1978therepublicwasoverthrown,andaMarxistgovernmentwithclosetiestotheSovietUnionwasformed.
Therewasagreatdealofinternalresistancetothisgovernmentanditsofficialsecularpolicy,asalmostallAfghansareMuslim.Thisresistancebecamesostrongthatitappearedthatthegovernmentwouldfall.
SovietInvolvement1979–1989ThereisdebateastowhetherthegovernmentofAfghanistaninvitedtheSoviet
ThereisdebateastowhetherthegovernmentofAfghanistaninvitedtheSovietUniontosendtroopstosupportitortheSovietssimplyinvaded.InSeptember,1979,itsforcescrossedtheirsharedborderandlaunchedamassiveinvasionofAfghanistan.Theexistingleaderofthecountrywaskilled,andanotherleaderwasinstalledbytheSovietsasthepresidentofAfghanistan.
ThelocalgroupswhohadfoughtagainstthepreviousAfghangovernmentbecameevenstrongerintheiroppositiontotheSovietinvaders.Theresistancefighters,themujahideen,pledgedajihad,orholywar,toexpeltheinvaders.
TheSovietforcesnumberedinthehundredsofthousandsandweresupportedbytanks,themostsophisticatedweaponryavailableatthetime,attackhelicopters,planesandmissiles.TheAfghanresistancewasinscatteredpockets,underdifferentleaderswhodidnotnecessarilycooperateandwere,infact,attimeshostiletoeachother.Thesegroupswerelightlyarmed,somewithoutdatedgunsfromWorldWarII,andoperatedonfootoronhorseback.Regardlessofthedifferencesbetweentheweaponry,theresistancedemonstratedthatsameleveloffierceindependenceandwillingnesstofightthathasbeenthemarkofAfghansthroughouthistory.Andwhilemanyresistancefighterswerekilled,theycontinuedtoinflictheavylossesontheSoviets.TheSovietsdiscoveredwhatallotherpreviousinvadershadlearned:thatwhilethiscountryispossibletoinvade,itisincrediblydifficulttosubdueorcontrol.
ThisinvasionwasduringatimeofgreatconflictbetweentheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica;so,theSoviets’sincursionwasprotestedbythewesternworldandclearlyidentifiedasaninvasionandnotarequestbytheexistinggovernmentfortheirinvolvement.Thiscountry,previouslyignoredbythewesternworld,becamethefocusoftheColdWarconflict.
ThroughWesterncovert—secret—programstheresistancefighterswereprovidedwithsophisticatedarms,trainingandintelligencethatallowedthemtocontinuallyevolveintoamoreeffective,cohesiveanddangerousfoe.AttemptstoexpandSovietandgovernmentcontrolintoareasoutsideofthecapital,Kabul,weremetwithtime-limitedsuccessandcameatthecostofmanydeathsandcasualties.
AlongwithAfghanfighters,therewerecallsforMuslimstocomefromothercountriestocontinuethejihadagainsttheSoviets.AmongtheseoutsiderswasaSaudimannamedOsamaBinLaden.ItisallegedthathereceivedtrainingandfundingfromtheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)oftheUnitedStates.
Equippedwithincreasinglysophisticatedweapons,includingportablemissilesthatcoulddestroyhelicopters,theresistancemovementbecamemoredeadlyaswellasmuchmorecoordinatedinitsefforts.Thewarbecame
deadlyaswellasmuchmorecoordinatedinitsefforts.ThewarbecameincreasinglyviolentastheSovietarmyattemptedtoputdowntheuprising,andtherewereenormouscasualtiesonbothsides.
Thosemostaffectedthoughweretheordinarycitizens.Theongoingwarplayedhavocwiththeeconomy,destroyedinfrastructureandmadedailyliving,andevensurvival,impossibleformillionsofpeople.Theyfledtheirhomes.ItisestimatedthatclosetofivemillionAfghansfledtheirhomes,eithertakingrefugeinotherpartsofAfghanistanorleavingthecountry.OveramillionrefugeesfloodedintoPakistanandIran,andhundredsofthousandssettledincountriesaroundtheworld.
Asthewarcontinued,itbegantotakeatollontheSovietUnion.Thewarwascostingbillionsofdollarstopursue,includingthecostofproppinguptheAfghangovernment.Therewasalsoanincreasinglossoflife.Externalworldopinion,internalpoliticalpressurewithintheSovietgovernmentaswellaspublicdisapprovalcontinuedtomount.Thewarwasbeingfoughtataterriblecostofmoneyandmenand,justasimportant,wasbeginningtoappeartobehopeless.
AftertheSovietWithdrawal1989–1992In1989anagreementwasreachedwherebytheSovietUnionwouldwithdrawitsforcesandtheWesternpowerswouldstopprovidingsupportfortheresistancefighters.
BythetimetheSovietsretreatedfromAfghanistan,theyhadsufferedthelossofoverfifteenthousandlivesandmanymoretimesthatnumberofwounded.
WiththewithdrawaloftheSovietforces,theAfghangovernmentwasinaveryweakstate.Thevariousresistancegroupswhichhadalreadyestablishedcontroloverlargeswathsofthecountrysetupprovisionalgovernmentsinmanyruralareas.ThesegroupshadcontinuedtofighttheAfghangovernment,butsomealsostartedtonegotiateandcooperate,andevenbattleothergroupstopositionthemselvestotakecontroloftheentirecountry.Asthemujahideencontinuedtogainpowerthroughoutthecountrytherebecameafeelingthatthegovernmentwouldultimatelybedefeated,andmembersofthearmedforcesbegantoplanhowtocooperatewiththosewhowouldeventuallytakepower.InAprilof1992,thegovernmentandthecapital,Kabul,fell.
TheTaliban
Whiletherewerevariousfactionsbattlingforcontrolofthecountry,onegroup,theTaliban,slowlyestablishedaplaceofdominance.ThisgroupwasdefinedbyaverystrictunderstandingofthepracticeoftheMuslimfaith.Itimposedharshfundamentalistlaws,includingstoningforadulteryandseveringhandsfortheft.Therewerepublicexecutionsandbeatings.Womenwereprohibitedfromworkandschoolandhadtocoverthemselvesheadtofoottogoinpublic,andtheycouldn’tgooutwithoutamalerelative.MusicandInternetwerebanned.Menwererequiredtowearbeards,andnopublicevents,likesoccerorkite-flying,wereallowed.By1998theyhadeffectivelygainedcontrolofover90percentofthecountry.
ThenorthernsectionsofthecountryremainedinconflictwiththeTaliban.TheNorthernAlliance,astheycametobeknown,tendedtobeShi’aMuslimwhiletheTalibanwereprimarilySunni.Aswell,theTalibanweremostlyethnicPashtun,andtheNorthernAlliancebelongedtoothertribalgroups.
Theinfrastructureofthecountrycontinuedtobedestroyedandtheeconomywasweak.Infantmortalityratesrose,lifeexpectancyfellandpeoplewerenotabletoobtainthebasicsoflife,includingfood,waterorshelter.Millionsofpeople,somewhohadreturnedhome,onceagainfledeitherinternallywithinthecountryorovertoothercountries.
AnAfghanboystandsoutsidehistentinKabul.ManyfamilieshavebeenforcedtorelocateafterfightingincreasedagainsttheTaliban.
Duringthisperiod,thewesternworldpaidlittleattentiontotheinternal
Duringthisperiod,thewesternworldpaidlittleattentiontotheinternalbattleswithinAfghanistan.Therewasnomilitaryinvolvementandverylittleforeignaidgiventothecountry.WhilemanycountrieswereappalledbythestrictinterpretationoftheQur’anandtheharshnessofpunishmentandpositionofwomen,thereweresomethingsthatwereapplauded.Afghanistanhadalwaysbeenamajorworldsourceofillegaldrugs—opiumandheroin—andthispracticewasalmostcompletelyeliminatedundertheTaliban.Regardless,thiscountrywasnownotseentohaveanysignificantmilitaryvalue,andnocountriesintervened.
TheTalibaninPower1998–2001OutsidemujahideenhadbattledalongsideAfghanstooverthrowtheSovietsandthecommunistgovernmenttheyhadleftbehind.OncetheTalibanestablishedagovernment,thesefighterswereallowedtoremaininthecountry.Oneofthesegroups,al-Qaeda,underthedirectionofOsamaBinLaden,sawlittledifferencebetweentheSovietUnionandthewesternworld.InbothcasestheywereseenasenemiesoftheMuslimfaith.Al-QaedahadtheobjectivesofeliminatingforeigninfluencesonMuslimcountriesanderadicatinginfidels.TheUnitedStateswasseenastheprimaryenemyandattackswereplanned.In1993atruckbombexplodedintheparkinggarageundertheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCity.In1998theAmericanembassiesinKenyaandTanzaniawerebombed.In2000thedestroyerUSSColewasattacked.Asal-Qaedabecamelinkedtothisattack,theUnitedStatesandtheinternationalcommunitydemandedtheTalibanturnovertheterroriststointernationalauthorities.TheTalibangovernment,whichhadbeenrecognizedbyonlyafewcountriesintheworldasthelegitimategovernment,chosetoignorethesedemands.Thiswasinpartbasedonitslackofconnectionorwillingnesstobeconnectedtotheoutsideworld,itsbeliefthattheinternationalcommunitywouldnotactandfinally,astronglyheldAfghanobligationthatthesepeoplewereguestsandthatguestsneededtobeprotected.
TheUnitedStates,actingwiththeapprovalofmanyofitsallies,launchedaseriesofcruisemissilesagainstal-Qaedatrainingcampsinresponsetothebombingoftheembassies.Thisactionhadverylimitedsuccessand,insomeways,simplyelevatedthisterroristgroupinstatusandemboldenedthembymakingthembelievethattheinternationalcommunitywouldnottakesignificantactions.
September11,2001
Themembersofal-QaedahadvowedtotakethewaracrosstheoceanandstrikeattheUnitedStatesonitsterritory.ThisthreatbecamerealitywhenfourairplaneswerehijackedonSeptember11.TheseplanescrashedintobothofthetwintowersoftheWorldTradeCenterinNewYork,thePentagoninWashington,DC,andthefourthplanecrashedbeforereachingitstarget,alsoinWashington.
Theinitialreactionofthismassiveattack,whichresultedinthelossofovertwothousandlives,wasstunneddisbelief.NotsincePearlHarborhadtherebeensuchamassiveandcoordinatedattackonAmericansoil.Andinthisattackalmostallthefatalitieswerecivilians,includingtheindiscriminatedeathsofwomenandchildren.Inthatinstanttheworldcommunitybecamegalvanized,andtheentireworldcondemnedthelossofinnocenthumanlife.
Thereactionoftheworldcommunitywasstrongandinstant.OnSeptember18,theUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilissuedaresolutiondemandingthattheTalibanturnoverthosepeopleresponsiblefortheSeptemberattack.TheTalibangovernmentrequestedproofofitsinvolvementandagainrefusedtofollowthisdirection,butsomeattemptstonegotiatethroughathirdpartywereinitiated.Theseattemptswereseenasinsincerebythewesternworld.
Whilethepoliticaldiplomaticprocesscontinued,membersoftheAmericanandBritishSpecialForcesbegantoinfiltrateAfghanistanandlinkupwiththeNorthernAlliance,agroupwithinthecountrywhichhadbeenatongoingwarwiththeTaliban.OnOctober7,amassiveaerialbombingcampaignbegan,whichtargetedal-Qaedatrainingbases,militarytargetsandairports.Nexttheytargetedcommunicationandcontrolassets.Whilethisbarragewasmilitarilysuccessful,therewereundoubtedlylargenumbersofciviliandeaths,andthecountry,alreadypoorandlackingininfrastructure,wasfurtherweakened.
AtthesametimetheNorthernAlliancebeganastepped-upcampaignagainsttheTaliban,attackingitspositions.TheseattacksgainedlimitedsuccessuntiltheWesternpowersdirectedairpoweragainsttheTalibanpositions,destroyingequipment,killingfightersandprovidingaccurateinformationtohelpdirecttheNorthernAllianceattacks.BythebeginningofNovember,theTalibanforcesweredecimated,andthecombinedNorthernAllianceforcessurgedthroughthelinesandmadetheirwaytothecapital.KabulwastakenandcitiesacrossthecountryfellfromTalibanhands,withthebruntofitsforcesretreatingtothesoutheast,surroundingthecityofKandahar.
AllthroughtheassaultUSSpecialForcestroopshadbeenonthegroundtoassisttheNorthernAlliance.AttheendofNovember,therewasamajorinfluxofUScombattroops.ByDecemberthelastoftheTalibanandal-Qaedaforces
ofUScombattroops.ByDecemberthelastoftheTalibanandal-Qaedaforceswerekilled,subdued,wentunderground,orfledthecountryandtookrefugeinthemountainareasofPakistan.ThousandsofUSandalliedtroopswerenowstationedinthecountrytotrytoprovideastableenvironmentforthecreationofaninterimgovernment.
InDecember,HamidKarzai,aPashtunandtheleaderofthePopulzaiclan,wasnamedheadoftheinterimgovernment.InJune,2002,heformallybecamepresident.ThispositionandhislegitimacywerefurtherconfirmedinOctober,2004,whenthefirstelectionswereheldandhewaselectedpresident.
ThedefeatoftheTaliban,theoustingofal-Qaedaandthedemocraticelectionofapresidenthavenot,however,ledtostabilitywithinthecountry.TheUS-ledcoalitioncontinuedtocontributelargenumbersoftroops,equipmentandexpertisetosupportthegovernment.Itwashighlyquestionableifthegovernmentcouldmaintainorderwithoutthesupportoftheseexternalforces.Attackshavebeencontinuallylaunchedongovernmentforces,andlargepartsofthecountryremainunderonlymarginalcontrolofthecentralgovernment.
In2006theUS-ledcoalitionwasformallyreplacedbyaUN-mandatedforce—theInternationalSecurityAssistanceForce(ISAF),whichiscomposedofNATOcountries.ThiswasthefirsttimethatNATO,createdforthedefenseofEurope,hadoperatedoutsideofEurope.
Over30,000NATOsoldiers,fromthirty-sevencountries,areintheISAFandareservinginAfghanistan.Theyareinthecountry,withtheapprovalofthegovernment,togiveassistancetotheAfghanistanarmytoprovidestability,fightTalibanandal-Qaedaforcesandallowthegovernmenttoretainpowerandcreateanenvironmentforthecountrytobestabilizedandrebuiltandtocontinuetodevelop.
InAugust,2006,amajoroffensiveinvolvingAfghanistanandNATOforceswasbelievedtohavekilledovertwothousandTalibanfightersandonceagainprovidedafurtheropportunityforAfghanstogovernthemselves.
WhilethefalloftheTalibanforcestookplaceoversixyearsago,thecoalitionforceshavediscoveredwhatallotherpreviousarmieshaddiscovered:takingthecountryisdifficult,butholdingitisevenmorechallenging.
NATOTheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionwerealliesinWorldWarII,actingtodefeatNaziGermany.Attheconclusionofthewar,havingdefeatedthisenemy,thetwoformeralliesfoundthemselvespoliticallyandideologicallyopposedto
thetwoformeralliesfoundthemselvespoliticallyandideologicallyopposedtoeachother.TherewerefearsinWesternEuropethattheSovietUnionanditsallieswouldturnagainstthem.Inresponse,theNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganizationwascreatedin1949.ThiswascomposedofCanada,theUnitedStatesandtenEuropeancountries—theUnitedKingdom,Belgium,Denmark,France,Iceland,Italy,Luxembourg,theNetherlands,NorwayandPortugal.
Atthecenterofthistreatywasanagreementthatanattackonanycountrywouldbeconsideredanattackoneverycountry.ThiswasconsideredamajordeterrenttoanyofthesecountriesbeingattackedbytheSovietUnionoritsallies.
In1952,GreeceandTurkeyjoinedNATO.In1955,WestGermanywasaddedandfinallySpainin1982.
WiththebreakupoftheSovietUnionin1991,theWarsawPactdissolved.Infact,manyoftheformerWarsawPactmemberspursueddemocracyandaskediftheycouldbecomemembersofNATO.
ThisshiftinpowerleftNATOwithoutapurpose.Therewasnolongeraclearlydefinedreasonforitsexistence,andwiththesubsequenteffortsofmanyformerWarsawPactcountriestopursuedemocracy,therewasnolongeramilitaryforcecapableofchallengingNATOinEurope.TherewerequestionsconcerningtheverypurposeofNATO,andwhetheritshouldalsobedissolved.However,itdidhaveadistinctpurposeinsupportingandreplacingUNforcesinbothBosniain1995andKosovoin1999inthecontinuedbattleswithintheformerYugoslavia,inpursuingapolicyofactivelyprotectinghumanrightsandcreatinganenvironmentwherepeacecouldtakeroot.
NATO’sinvolvementinAfghanistanisthefirstinstancewherethisorganizationhasleftEuropeandtakenonaveryactiveroleinanotherregion.ItsactionsinAfghanistanarenotsomuchinmaintainingpeace,butinactivelyfightingagainstanarmedforceandtryingtodestroythatenemy,andtherebycreateanatmospherewhereAfghanistancansurvive,rebuildandprosper.
ItissignificantthatwhileAfghanistanisalmostexclusivelyMuslim,allNATOmembers,withtheexceptionofTurkey,areChristiancountries.NATO’sinvolvementhasledtofurtherclaimsbyal-QaedaandotherMuslimorganizationsthatitis,insomeways,amodern-daycrusadeagainsttheMuslimfaith.
Ethnic,ReligiousandLanguageDivisionsAfghanistanisalmostexclusivelyMuslim,andtheregionisofficiallyknownas
AfghanistanisalmostexclusivelyMuslim,andtheregionisofficiallyknownastheIslamicRepublicofAfghanistan.ThevastmajorityoftheseMuslims,over80percent,areSunni,whilealmost19percentareShi’a.Theconflictbetweenthesetwogroupshasbecomeverypronounced,evenleadingtodeadlyviolenceinmanyMiddleEasterncountries.
TheofficiallanguagesofAfghanistanareAfghanPersian(orDari),whichisspokenasthefirstlanguageof50percentofthepopulation,andPashtu,whichisthefirstlanguageof35percentofthepopulation.Otherlanguages,includingUzbekandTurkmen,makeupthenextlargestlanguagegroups.Therearemorethanadozenotherlesspopularlanguages,andmanypeoplespeakmorethanonelanguage,includingeitherAfghanPersianorPashtuorboth.
AfghanwomenandchildrenoutsidetheirtentinacampfordisplacedpeopleoutsideKabul.
ThelargestethnicgroupisthePashtun,whomakeupover40percentofthepopulation;theTajikareover25percent,andlargenumbersofUzbekandHazaragroupsconstitutealmost10percenteach.Historicallythesegroupshavebeeninconflictorhavemaintainedatentativepeacewhilenotintegrating.
PovertyAfghanistanhasbeenoneofthepoorestcountriesintheworldoverthepastonehundredyears.Thealmostconstantwarsofthepastthirtyyearshavefurtherdestroyedtheinfrastructureofthecountry,killedhundredsofthousandsof
destroyedtheinfrastructureofthecountry,killedhundredsofthousandsofpeople,displacedmillions,damageditsindustrialbase,hamperedinternationaltradeandseverelyrestrictedfarmingandagriculturetothepointwherethecountryisnotabletofeeditself.
RecentmassinfluxesofcapitalandexpertisesincetheoverthrowoftheTalibanregimehavebeguntoreversesomeofthesetrends,andprogressisbeingmade.However,thisprocessisslowmoving,andformanyAfghanstheydonotseeanyprogressorhaveasensethattheirliveshaveimproved.Itremainsacountrywithanextremelyhighinfantmortalityrate,highlevelsofilliteracyandlowlifeexpectancy,andmillionsofpeoplehaveno,orlimited,accesstofreshwater,reliablefoodsuppliesorguaranteesofsecurityinthefaceofongoingconflicts.
NADJA
LifeinSniperAlleyNadjaturnedoverandopenedhereyeseversoslightly.Itwaslight,sothesunwasup,butthatdidn’tmeanshehadtobeup.Itwasn’tliketherewasmuchofareasontogoout.Therewasn’tanyschooltoday—therehadn’tbeenformonths—andshewasn’tevensupposedtogooutside.
Sheshiftedaroundtryingtogetcomfortableandgetbacktosleep,butsheknewthatwasn’treallypossible.Comfortablewouldhavebeeninherbedinherroominsteadofonthisthinmattressonthefloorbythefrontdoor.Itwasn’tsafetosleepinherroom.Therewastoomuchdangeroftheglassbeingshatteredbyanexplosionorastraybullet.Instead,herdisturbedsleepwasgoingtogivewaytoanequallydisturbingreality.
Outsidethewindowlaythecitythatwasherhome—Sarajevo.Itwasacityofnaturalbeauty.TheMijackaRiverranthroughthecore,anditwassurroundedbyheavilyforestedhillsandmajesticmountains,theDinaricAlps.
ItwasthesemountainsthatbroughttheworldtoSarajevoin1984,whenithostedtheWinterOlympics.ThatwaseightyearsagowhenNadjawasonlyfive,butshestillrememberedtheatmosphereofthecityduringthattime.Athletesandofficialsandtouristsfilledthestreets,sightseeing,singing,sharinginthecelebrationofathleticexcellence.Inalltherewere1,200athletesfrom49countries,tensofthousandsofofficials,10,000volunteersandhundredsofthousandsofvisitorstothecity.
TheOlympicswererecordedandbroadcastaroundtheworldbyalmostseventhousandmembersofthemedia.Theyreportedontheathleticeventssetagainstthebackdropofpeace,goodwill,diversityandthebeautyofthesetting.
Nadja,aged14.AllofYugoslaviacelebratedwhenoneoftheirathletes,JureFranko,won
theircountry’sfirst-everWinterOlympicmedal,thesilverinthegiantslalom.Ofcourse,thatwasbeforethewar—beforedifferentregionsseparatedfrom
Yugoslavia.BackthenSarajevowasacityintheregionofBosniainthecountryofYugoslavia.NowitwasthecapitalofthenewlyindependentBosnia-Herzegovina.Andwhileofcoursethemountainsstillremained,theyweren’thometowintersportsbuttothecannonsandtanksandsnipersthatraineddowndeathuponthecity.
Nadjaheardhermothermovingaroundinthekitchen.Maybeitwastimetogetup.Sheknewhermothermustbefixingbreakfast,becauseshecouldhearherbangingaround.Itmighthavejustbeenherimagination,butNadjathoughtthatthelessfoodthatwasavailable,themorenoisehermothermadewhenshewaspreparingit.Shewasmakingsomuchnoisethismorningthattherewasn’tmuchhopeforwhatwasbeingprepared.
NotthatNadjawouldcomplain.Shedidn’tcomplainbecausesheknewherparentsdidthebesttheycould.Asthesiegecontinued,thefoodsupplybecamelessandless,notjusttheamountoffoodbutthetypeoffood.Nadjawouldhave
lovedtohavehadsomefruit...abananaoranorangewouldhavebeenlikealittlepieceofheaven.
Whilethelackoffoodhadbeendifficultforeverybodyinthefamily,Nadjafeltitwashardestonhereighteen-year-oldbrother,Sanel.Itseemedlikehewasalwayshungry.SometimesNadjawouldtrytogetextrafoodjusttogiveittohim.ThatwasjustlikeNadja.
Nadjaclosedhereyesandthoughtaboutthesortofthingstheyusedtohaveforbreakfast.Shehadawonderfulimagination,andshecouldpicturetheminhermindsoclearlythatshecouldalmostsmellthemealcooking,thearomawaftingthroughtheair,andtastethosetender...Sheopenedhereyesagain.Therewasnopointindreamingorimagining.Notwhentherewerethingstobedone.
Nadjarolledoffthemattress,stoodupandstretched.Sheneededtogetdressedandgetreadyforschool...oratleastwhatpassedasschool.Sheopenedthedoortoherbedroomandcoldairrushedin.Itwaslikesteppingoutside.Mostofthewindowsweregone,replacedbysheetsofplastic.Itservedtokeepouttherainandsnowbutcouldn’tkeepoutthecold.Theydidn’tevenbothertotrytoheattheroom,andthewallswerepatternedwithmouldandmildew.
Sheopenedtheclosetandremovedtheclothesshewouldwearthatday.Theywereoldandcold,butclean.Attimestherewaswater,butmostoftentheyhadtocarryitupthestairs—fourteenfloors.Andeventhentheelectricitywasoffandwashinghadtobedonebyhand.Somehowdespitethesedifficultieshermotheralwaystriedtomakesurethattheyhadcleanclothes—justherwayoftryingtocreatealittlepocketofnormalinaworldthatwasfarfromnormal.
Nadjaretreatedtothebathroomtochange.Thelittleroomwasdark—therewerenowindows—andthelittlecandlewasn’tlit.Sheleftthedoorpartwayopentoallowinalittlemorelight.
Thislittlebathroomwasalsotheroomthatthefamilywouldretreattoiftherewasartilleryorgunfire.Itwasinthecenteroftheapartmentand,withnowindows,offeredthemostprotection.Itwasn’tsafe—justsafer.
Inthecornerwasalargecontainerofwater.Ithadalreadybeenusedforcookingandcleaning.Now,afteritwasusedandreusedforotherthings,itwaseventuallyusedtopourinthetoilettoflushit.
SometimesNadjabroughtthewateruptotheapartment.Onedayshemadeseventripsupthetwohundredandfifty-twostairs,eachtimecarryingaten-litercontainer.Itwassomucheasierwhenwaterjustflowedupthroughthepipes.
Nadjagavebothhermotherandherfatherakissonthecheekandthenahug.Itfeltgoodtobewrappedupinherfather’sarms—warmandsafe...atleastassafeasshecouldfeelanywhere.Shethoughtbacktoatimewhenshebelievedthatherfathercouldprotectherfromanything.Nowsheknewbetter.Herparentstriedtoactbrave,topretendthattheyweresafe,butNadjaknewbetter.Shefeltthatthewarhadturnedeveryoneintofrightenedchildren.Nobodycouldguaranteesafety.Itwassafefornobody,nowhereinSarajevo.
Nadjasatdownforbreakfast.Onceagainhermotherhadbeenasmuchamagicianasachef.Shehadtakennothingandmadeitintosomething.Notliketheoldmeals,butatleasttherewasfoodonthetable.Shealmostfeltguiltyforwantingmore,fordreamingaboutit.Thiswasenoughandmorethanmanypeoplehad.
Whateverfoodthatenteredthecityhadtocomeatahighprice,eitherairliftedinbytheUnitedNationsordriveninbytruckswhilesnipersshotatthem,tryingtokillthedrivers.
Nadjadidn’tknowthepeopleinthehillsandmountainsthatsurroundedhercity,butsheknewwhattheyweredoing.TheyweretryingtokilleverybodywholivedinSarajevo.Theyweredoingitbyfiringbulletsandbyrainingdowntankandcannonshellsontothecity.
BOSNIAANDHERZEGOVINAPopulation:4,500,000Location:Latitude:43°N,Longitude:18°E,southeasternEuropeArea:51,000squarekilometersClimate:moderatewithhotsummersandcoldwintersLanguages:Bosnian,Croatian,SerbianEthnicity:Bosniak48%Serbian37%Croatian14%Other1%Religion:Muslim40%
OrthodoxChristian31%RomanCatholic15%Protestant4%Other/Non10%LifeExpectancy:78yearsInfantMortalityRate:10deathsper1,000livebirthsPerCapitaIncome:$5,600LiteracyRate:97%(male99%-female94%)
Sometimestherewerejustafewshells—shecouldhearthemwhizzingoverheadandthentheexplosionsastheyhit.Othertimesthereweredozensanddozensofexplosions,sofastandfuriousthattherewashardlyabreakbetweentheexplosions.Andthenwhenthingsgotquietagain,shecouldgooutsideandseethedamage,thedestroyedbuildings.Someofthosedestroyedbuildingswereschoolsandchurches.Otherswerewaterorpowerplants.Thatwaswhythereweretimeswithnoelectricityorwater.Nadjahadstartedtorealizehowyoutookthingslikethatforgranteduntilyoudidn’thavethemanymore.Therewasnoelectricityforcookingortorunthevacuumcleanerorwashingmachineortv.Andthewaterhadtobecarriedupallthosestairsbecausetherewasn’telectricityfortheelevators.
OverthepastsixmonthsNadjahadcometorealizeallthesethings.Whatshereallydidn’tunderstandwaswhythiswasallhappening.Whywouldpeoplewanttokillsomebodythey’dneverevenmet?Shewantedtoknowifthosepeopleinthemountainswerehappywhentheywereshootingandkillingpeople.
Andtheydidkillpeople.Everyday.Sometimesitwasasniper’sbulletkillingsomebodyashewalkeddownthestreet.Othertimesitwasanexplosionanddozensofpeoplewerekilledorinjuredinjustaninstant.Oneminuteapersonwouldbestandinginlinewaitingforbread,orgatheringcherriesorfirewood,andthenextmomentshewaslyingdeadinthestreet.
“Areyougoingtoworktoday?”Nadjaaskedhermother.“It’saworkday,soI’mgoingtowork.”Nadjaknewwhattheanswerwasgoingtobebeforesheevenaskedthe
question,butstillshehadtoask.HermotherwasabusinessmanagerattheNationalBank.Everyworkdayshewentdowntothecenterofthecitytowork.Somedaysshecouldgetarideatleastpartwaythere.Mostdaysshewalkedalmostallofthetwentykilometerstoandfromthebank.AndeverydayNadjaworrieduntilshereturnedhome.
worrieduntilshereturnedhome.“I’llbefine,”shesaid.“Didyoulistenforthereports?”herfatherasked.Hermothernodded.Theradiowastheirlifeline.Alittletransistor,powered
bybatteries,gavereports.Intheolddays—thedaysbeforethewar—theradiomightsaywheretherehadbeenatrafficaccidentorifthetrolleywasrunningontimeoriftherewassnowcoming.Nowtheygaveupdatesonwherethesniperactivitywastheworst.Theradioreportedwhichstreetsshouldbeavoided,wherethemostshootingwastakingplace.Ofcoursethereweresomestreetsthatshouldalwaysbeavoided.Themainstreetwascalled“SniperAlley,”anditwasalwayscrossedinarushorhidingbehindavehicleforprotection.
“Iknowwhichstreetsaresafe,”hermothersaid.“Notsafe,”Nadjasaid.“Justsafer.”“I’llbefine.Areyougoingtoschooltoday?”Nadja’smotherasked.“IwishIcouldgotoschool.”“Imeaninthebasement.”“Ifthat’swhatyoucallit,thenyes,I’llbegoingtoschool.”Itwasn’tsafeforstudentstogototheirregularschool.Insteadallofthe
childrenintheapartmentbuildingmetinthebasementtotakelessons.Sincetheycouldn’tgotoschool,theschoolcametothem.
Nadjalikedschoolandshelikedbeingabletobewithfriends,butshedidn’tlikethebasement.Itwasdarkandcoldandmoldy.Thiswasalsothesameplacewhereeverybodyinthebuildingwentwhentheshellinggottoobad:twohundredandseventypeopleallcrowdedtogetherinthreesmallundergroundrooms.
Andiftheshellingdidn’tstop,theyallsleptdownthere,lyingonblankets,crammedtogetherinthatlittlespace,allpretendingthattheyweresleeping,butreally,hardlyanybodydidsleep.Whentheywentdownthereatnight,Nadjapackedabagwithsomecrackers,playingcardsand,ofcourse,herteddybear.
SARAJEVO
Population:529,000Location:Latitude:44°N,Longitude:18°EFounded:1263ADbutexistedasasettlementsinceprehistorictimes
Climate:moderatewithhotsummersandcoldwintersSetting:SurroundedbytheDinaricAlps:theMiljackaRiverdissectsthecity.Architecture:Oldbuildings,churches,mosquesonsteepnarrowstreets.
Itwashometomuseums,artgalleries,theaters,librariesandfilmfestivals.Itsresidentsincludedpoets,painters,performersandNobelPrizewinners.Itwasreferredtoasthe“JerusalemofEurope”andpeopleofMuslim,Catholic,OrthodoxandJewishfaithallpeacefullyco-existed.
Whenthebombshitcloseby,shecouldfeelthem,seetheceilingshaking,andshecouldn’thelpbutthinkaboutwhatwouldhappenifoneofthoseshellshittheirbuilding.Thebasementwasthesafestpartofthebuilding,butitcouldn’tprotectthemfromadirecthit.
NadjaintheruinsoftheNationalLibrary,Sarajevo,summer1996.“Maybeyoucouldbringdownyourguitartoday,”Nadja’smothersuggested.Nadjalovedtoplayherguitarandsing.Beforethewarshewaspartofthe
famedchildren’schoir,Palcici.ThischoirwasjustoneexampleoftheculturethatwasanintegralpartofSarajevo.
AndasmuchasNadjalovedtosingandplayandperform,shewasalsoawriter.Shewrotepoetryandkeptajournal.Theseactivitieswereasnecessaryforheraswasfood.Creativitywas,bynature,partofNadja’ssoul.Butduring
forheraswasfood.Creativitywas,bynature,partofNadja’ssoul.Butduringthewar,theyalsobecameanoutlet,awayforhertoexpressherfeelings,herfears,andtotrytounderstandwhytheseterriblethingswerehappening.Whileshedidn’tnecessarilyhaveanswers,shehadquestionsandthoughts:“Ithinkyoureallyonlyappreciatesomethingwhenyouloseit.”“Arethosepeopleinthemountainshappywhentheyshootandkill?”“Howcantheydothisandthenlookintheeyesoftheirownchildren?”“Forhowlongwillmylifeconsistofthedeadspacebetweentwo
explosions?”“Idon’tknowhowmanymoredayswillbescratchedoutofmylife
calendar.”Formonthsnowthechildreninthebuildinghadbarelygoneoutside.They
hadschoolinthebasementandplayedinthehalls.Theytriedtoneverplaytoomuchononefloor—theydidn’twanttobotherthetenants.Whattheywantedwastogooutsideandplay...nottogotoofarorfortoolong...justtogooutside—torideabikeorgoforanicecreamorplayagameoftag.Buteverybodyknewthedangers,sowhiletheydidsometimesgooutside,mostofthetimetheystayedinside.
Theradioandthenewspaperscarriedstoriesandpictures.Everydaytherewerepeoplekilled—waitinginlineforbread,tryingtogettoworkorgatheringfirewood.AndNadjaheardthereports,readthepapers,sawthepicturesintheobituaries.Menandwomenandchildren,someolderandsomeyoungerthanher—alldead.
Somedayswerebetterandsomewereworse.Onthebaddaysthesnipersseemedtofilltheairwithbullets,andtheshellswerefallingsoquicklythattherewashardlyagapbetweentheexplosionofoneshellandthenext.Ononeterribleday,overtwentythousandshellsfellonthecity.
Onthebestdays,Nadjawasallowedtoventureoutside,sometimeswithherparentsandsometimesjustoutsidethebuildingwithherfriends.Thatdidn’thappentoooften.Allofthechildrenwerepalebecausetheymainlystayedinside.
Todayhadbeenstrangelyquiet.Nadja’ssleephadbeensolid,undisturbedbyshelling.Therehadbeennoexplosionssinceshewoke,andtheradiohadn’treportedanysnipersintheirarea.Therewasbeautifulsunshinepouringinthroughthekitchenwindow.Couldtodaybeadayshecouldventureout?
“Mama...couldIgooutsidetoday?”Nadjaasked.
“Mama...couldIgooutsidetoday?”Nadjaasked.Hermotherdidn’tanswer.Shelookedanxiousandscared.“It’squietandIwon’tgofar...justoutside...justforafewminutes.”Nadja’sfatherhadjustgoneout.Itwasuptohermothertomakethedecision
alone.“Please!”Nadjapleaded.Hermotherwantedhersafebutknewthatshecouldn’tkeepNadjainside
forever.“Justforamoment,allright?”hermothersaid.Nadjaracedoutthedooranddownthestairs,takingeachflightmorequickly
thanthefirst.Shefeltlikeshewasflyingdownthestairs.Sheranoutsideandjuststoppedandstoodthere.Thewarmthofthesunagainstherfacewassogood.Shefeltlikeshewasdrinkingthesuninthroughherskin.
Theneverythingchanged.Shewasn’tsureifsheheardtheshellfirstorfeltthevibrationorwasblindedbythesmokeanddustthatengulfedher.Shestaggeredbackward,rubbedhereyesandlookedup.Thefrontofherbuildingwashangingthere—ashellhadhitherbuilding!Forabriefsecondshestoodthere,hermindnotabletobelievewhathersensesweretellingher.
Thensheranforthebuilding.Shestaggeredforward,screaming,andthenfeltasharppaininherlegs.Shereacheddown...therewasblood!Shehadbeenhitbytheshrapnel!Shekeptrunning,reachingthedoortothebuildingandthrowingherarmsaroundaneighborwhowasstandingthere.
Itwaslikethewholeworldhadchanged.Shewasontheground,andtherewassomuchconfusion.Dozensofneighborsgatheredaroundher.Somebodypressedsometowelsagainstherlegtoslowdownthebloodflow.
Shecouldhearvoicestalkingandscreamingandcrying,butshecouldn’tmakeoutwhattheyweresayingasshestartedtodriftinandoutofconsciousness.Thenfromallthevoicessheheardherfather.Hepickedherupinhisarmsandpressedhertightlyagainsthischest,herbloodseepingintohisshirt.Fatheranddaughterwereplacedinaneighbor’scarandrushedtothehospital.
“Dad,pleasedon’tletmelosemylegs,”Nadjawhispered.Heheldhertightertohischest,offeringhercomfort,reassurancesthathe
couldn’tpossiblyknow.Theyarrivedatthehospitalandherfathercarriedherinside,whereNadja
Theyarrivedatthehospitalandherfathercarriedherinside,whereNadjawastakenbyanurseandplacedonastretcher.Allaroundher,onstretchers,andevenlyingonthefloor,wereotherpeoplewhohadbeenwounded—thosewaitingtobetreatedandthosewhowerebeyondtreatment,thosewhoweredead.Everywherewaschaos:peoplescreaminginpain,crying,doctorsandnursesrushingaroundtryingtosavethelivesofthosefloodingthehospital.
Nadjatriedtoremainbrave,butitwassohardwaiting,notknowing,scared,fearfulthatshemightloseherlegs.Shehadheardaboutthishappeningtopeople.Sheknewwhatwaspossible.
Finallyanurseandadoctorcame.Theycutopenherpantsandexaminedherlegs.Thepainwassointense,shootingthroughoutherbody.Peoplearoundherwerecryingoutinpain.Shebitdownonherlip,tryinghardtostopherselffromscreamingout.Nadjalookeddownasherlegs.Shecouldseebloodandplaceswherethefleshhadbeenrippedopen.Shecouldfeelthepain.Shecouldhearthescreamsandcries.Butnoneofitseemedreal.Itwaslikeshewaswatchingitallhappen,butthatitwasn’thappeningtoher,thatitwasn’therlifeandlegsthatwereatstake.
Thedoctorexaminedherlegs.Hesaidthingstothenurse,thingsthatNadjadidn’tfullyunderstand.Whatshedidunderstandwasthatpiecesoftheshell—shrapnel—hadpenetratedherlegs.
Nadjaknewallaboutwhatcouldhappen.Shehadheardaboutpeoplewhohadbeenhitbyshrapnelandhadhadtohavetheirlegsamputated—cutoff.Thatwashergreatestfear,evenmorethandying.
Thedoctorlookedupather.“Youareaveryluckygirl.”Nadjacouldn’tunderstandhowhecouldpossiblythinkthatshewaslucky.
Unless...“Theyallmissedthebone.We’llcleanthewounds,giveyouatetanusshot
andbandageyouup,andwehopeyou’llbefine.”Nowshewantedtocryforadifferentreason.Thedoctorprobedaroundintheflesh,cleaningthewounds.Nadjatriednot
tomoveorcryout,butthepainwastremendous.Shelaybackandstaredupattheceilingandprayedforthetimetopass.Finally,afterwhatseemedlikehoursbuthadbeenonlyminutes,thedoctorcomplimentedheronbeingsobraveandleftthenursetobandagethewounds.
Asshelaythere,shelookeddownathernewlybandagedlegs,andlittleredspotsbegantoform—bloodseepingthrough.Sheknewthattheworstwasover,buttherewasalongroadaheadofher.
buttherewasalongroadaheadofher.
Nadjarecoveredfromherwounds.Itwasalongslowprocessinwhichsheneededtobegivenconstantloveandcare,andhadto“learntocrawlandwalkforthesecondtime”inherlife.
NadjaremainedlivingwithherfamilyfromthestartofthesiegeofSarajevoonApril6,1992,untilAugust28,1995,whenshewassmuggledoutofthecity,firstgoingthroughatunnelandthenbytruck,undertheever-watchfuleyeofsnipers.ShetraveledtotheUnitedStates,whereshebeganlivingwithanAmericanfamilythathadagreedtocareforher.Sheleftbehindherfamily,hercountry,hercultureandthelifeshehadknown.Shehadlivedthroughoneofthelongestmilitarysiegesinhistory.
Follow-up:NadjaNadjaisnowtwenty-nineyearsold.ShelivesinCanadawithherhusband.ShewroteacompellingbookaboutherexperiencescalledMyChildhoodUnderFire(KidsCanPress).Alongwithherwriting,sheisalsoaperformerandpublicspeaker,andshepresentsatschoolsforaudiencesofallagesaboutwar—andmoreimportantly—peace.Sheisachampionfortherightsofchildren.Shecanbecontactedtoarrangevisitsatmychildhoodunderfire@yahoo.com.
HistoryofBosnia-HerzegovinaThecountryofBosnia-HerzegovinasitsincloseproximitytothecentersofthelargeempiresthathavedominatedEuropethroughthelasttwentycenturies.Assuchithasbeenunderthedominationofoneempireoranotherforthecourseofalmostitsentirehistory.
TheRomanEmpire,centeredinItaly,dominatedtheentireMediterraneanforhundredsofyears,endinginapproximately400AD.DuringthetimeoftheRomanEmpire,Christianityspreadthroughoutmuchoftheregion,includingBosnia.
Bosnia.WiththedeclineoftheRomanEmpire,anotherpoweremergedfromtheeast
—theByzantineEmpire—centeredinConstantinople.Thisempire,whichwasdominantforclosetoonethousandyears,alsospreaditsreligiousbeliefsystem,OrthodoxChristianity,whichwasincompetitionwiththeCatholicfaithofRome.
TheByzantineEmpirestartedtofalter,andtherewerecompetingpowers,includingSerbians,Croats,HungariansandVenetians,allofwhom,atdifferenttimes,hadinfluencein,orover,Bosnia.Forbrieftimesbetweentheseinfluences,Bosniahadvaryinglevelsofindependence.
Theperiodsofindependenceanddominationbylocalpowersendedin1463,whenthenextgreatempire,theOttomanEmpire,expandedwestwardintoEurope,defeatedtheSerbsandmadeBosniaaTurkishprovince.Withthisconquestcameyetanotherreligiousinfluence—theMuslimfaith.
UltimatelythepoweroftheOttomanEmpiredeclined,particularlyinEurope,andin1878Bosnia-HerzegovinacameunderthecontroloftheAustro-HungarianEmpire.ThischangeagainallowedgreaterEuropeaninfluence,aswellasChristianity,tobecomemoredominant.Theresentmentfelttowardthisdominationcametoaheadwiththeassassination,inSarajevo,oftheheirtothethroneoftheempire.Theentirecontinentwasthrownintoconflict,whichbecameWorldWarI.AttheconclusionofthewarandthedefeatoftheAustro-HungarianEmpire,therewasanotherrealignmentofpower.
ApanoramicviewofSarajevoillustratingthevulnerabilityofthecitytoattackfromthesurroundinghills.
TheKingdomoftheSerbs,CroatsandSloveneswascreatedandBosnia-Herzegovinabecamepartofthatmonarchy.Thiscountry,whosenamewaschangedtotheKingdomofYugoslaviain1929,remainedindependentuntilitwasinvadedandconqueredbyNaziGermanyduringWorldWarII.
1945–1981Attheconclusionofthiswar,andthedefeatofNaziGermany,allofEuropewasreformed.Duringthereformation,theKingdomofYugoslaviacameunderthecontroloftheleaderoftheresistancemovement,JosephTito.Tito,whosefatherwasCroatianandhismotherSlovenian,broughttogethersixrepublics,Serbia,Croatia,Bosnia-Herzegovina,Macedonia,SloveniaandMontenegro,andtwoprovinces,KosovoandVojvodina,toformtheFederalPeople’sRepublicofYugoslavia.Underhisironrule,hewasabletokeepethnicdifferencesandnationalsentimentsincheckandcreatedapan-Slaviccountry.
TheconclusionofWorldWarIIwasalsothebeginningofafurtherconflict,whichwascalledtheColdWar.ThispittedtheforcesofWesternEuropeandcapitalismanddemocracy,unofficiallyledbytheUnitedStates,againstEasternEuropeandcommunism,ledbytheSovietUnion.ThesetwoarmedforcesbecameNATO(NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization)andtheWarsawPact,respectively.Whilethetwoforcesneverengagedinarmedconflict,theyengagedinanideologicalwararoundtheworld.AlthoughYugoslaviawascommunist,TitomaintainedindependencefromSovietdomination.Hewasabletomaintainthiscountry,whilealsolimitingtheoutsideinfluencesofbothWesternEurope(democracyandcapitalism)andEasternEurope(communism).Withhisdeathin1981,thecountrybegantounravel.
1991–2007Theethnicinterestsandnationalsentimentscontinuedtorisewithinthedifferentrepublics.WiththeendoftheColdWarbetweentheEastandWest,thedesireforindependencebythedifferentrepublics,whichhadbeenescalatingforthepreviousdecade,cametoaboil.
In1991twooftherepublics,SloveniaandCroatia,votedtoleaveYugoslavia.TherewasoppositiontotheattemptsofthesetworegionstoleavetheFederation.Sloveniawas90percentSlovenianwiththeremaining10percentrepresentingmanyothergroups,includingasmallminorityofSerbians,andtheseparationwasaccomplishedwithaminimumofviolence.
ThiswasnotthecasewithCroatia,wheretherewasmoreethnicdiversity,including12percentofthepopulationbeingSerbian—thedominantethnicgroupwithintheFederation.Croatiabecameinvolvedinasubstantialwar,withtheminorityofSerbswithintheCroatianRepublicbeingsupportedbythearmedforcesofYugoslavia,whowereprimarilySerbian.TherewasawarlastingoverfouryearswithminoritySerbianseitherfleeingorbeingevictedbyforcefromCroatia,andtheSerbianarmyexercisingitsforceandpowerintheongoingwar,tryingtobringCroatiabackintotheFederationanddriveCroatsfromterritorytheybelievedbelongedtoagreaterSerbia.
InJanuary,1992,theRepublicofMacedoniabecamethethirdrepublictodeclareitsindependencefromtheFederation.
InApril,1992,avotewasheldinBosnia-HerzegovinatodetermineiftheyshouldbecomethefourthrepublictoleavetheFederation.ThemembersofthecountrywhowereSerbianboycottedtheelection,refusingtovote.Thosewho
didparticipateinthereferendumoverwhelminglyvotedtoleave,andindependencewasdeclared.
OfalltherepublicsoftheYugoslavianFederation,Bosnia-Herzegovinawasthemostethnicallyandreligiouslydiverse.Whiletherearedifferentaccountsofthebreakdownofthepopulation,therewasnogroupthatformedaclearmajority.Oftheclosetofourmillionpeopleinthenewlydeclaredcountry,48percentwereBosniaks,37percentSerbsand14percentCroats.Thesegroups,forthemostpart,belongedtodifferentreligiousgroups,withtheSerbsbeingOrthodox,theCroatsCatholicandtheBosniaksmainlyMuslim.Tofurthercomplicatethesituation,thesegroups,whichhadpreviouslylivedinrelativepeace,werenotlimitedtodifferentgeographicareasoftherepublicbutwerelivingsidebysidethroughoutthecountry.
Bosnia-HerzegovinahaddeclaredindependencebecauseitfeareditwouldbedominatedbytheSerbs,whonowformedaclearmajorityofthepopulation,oncetheotherrepublicsdeclaredindependence.ThoseSerbianmembersofthisnewlydeclaredcountrynowfearedthattheywouldbedominatedbytheothergroupswhowouldbethemajorityofthepopulationinBosnia-Herzegovina.AwarbrokeoutwhichpittedtheSerbs,supportedbyYugoslavia,againsttheCroats,supportedbyCroatiaandtheBosniaks.Thisconflict,whichwentfromApril,1992,untilthesigningoftheDaytonaPeaceAccordinNovember,1995,effectivelydividedBosnia-Herzegovinaintotwoseparatesub-states,oneprimarilycomposedofSerbsandtheotherBosniaks.Theconflictresultedincloseto100,000deathsand1.8millionpeoplebeingdisplaced.
Sarajevobecamethecapitalofoneofthestates,theCroat-BosniakFederation.ItisestimatedthatduringthesiegeofSarajevoatleast10,000citizens,including1,500children,werekilled,tensofthousandsofotherswerewoundedandhundredsofthousandsofpeoplewereforcedtofleetheirhomestotakeupanewlifeelsewhere.
ReligionThethreeprimaryreligionsintheregionareIslam,EasternOrthodoxandRomanCatholic.
TheOrthodoxChurch—Ithasover200millionadherentsandistheprimaryreligioninmanyEasternEuropeancountries,includingBulgaria,Cyprus,Greece,Macedonia,Moldova,MontenegroandSerbia.ItconsidersitselftheoriginalchurchofChristandtheonethatmostcloselymaintainsthetraditions
andteachingsoftheearlychurch.TheRomanCatholicChurch—ItisthelargestoftheChristian
denominationswithoveronebillionadherentsthroughouttheworldandisthedominantreligioninmanyWesternEuropeancountries,includingItaly,France,SpainandPortugal.ItiscenteredintheVatican,inItaly,andisundertheauthorityofthepope.ItwascreatedafterdifferenceswiththeOrthodoxChurch,andformallysubdividedintheeleventhcentury.TherewasafurtherschisminthefifteenthcenturywiththecreationoftheProtestantmovement,whichpresentlyisthesecondlargestChristianfaithwith590millionadherents.
Islam—Itisthesecondlargestreligionintheworldwith1.4billionadherentsworldwide.ItfollowstheteachingsoftheQur’an,whichwasestablishedbyMuhammadintheseventhcentury.Ithastwomainsubgroups,theSunniandShi’asects,whichhavedividedintoothergroupings.IslamrecognizesmanyoftheprophetsoftheBible,includingAdam,NoahandMosesandbelievesthatJesuswasaprophet,butthatMuhammadwasthefinalprophet.
Differences/SimilaritiesThesimilaritiesbetweentheOrthodoxChurchandtheRomanCatholicChurcharemuchmoresignificantthanthedifferences.Infact,allChristiandenominations,aswellasIslamandJudaism,havecommonroots.AllthreereligionsshareAbraham/Ibrahimasoneofthemostimportantprophets.However,despitetheircommonthreads,thethreeconsiderthemselvestobeinherentlyandfundamentallyincompatibleconcerningtheirideasaboutGodandfaith.
CleantheFieldYugoslaviawasanethnicallydiversecountrywithnoonegroupformingaclearmajorityofthepopulation.Withinthecountry,however,thereweremanyplaceswhereonegroupdidformaclearmajority.Whendifferentregionsofthecountrydeclaredindependencethisdecisionwasbasedonthatregionfeelingthatitwasethnicallydifferentfromthecountryasawhole.Withintheseregions,therewasmostoftenonegroupthatdid,infact,formaclearmajority.Themembersoftheminoritygroupsoftenmigratedtoaplacewheretheywouldnolongerbetheminority.
Someofthismigrationcouldbedescribedasvoluntary.Priortothedeclarationofindependence,orsubsequently,thesepeopledecidedtheydidnot
declarationofindependence,orsubsequently,thesepeopledecidedtheydidnotwishtobepartofthenewlycreatedcountryorinapartofthecountrywheretheywouldbeinaminority.Itisimportanttonotethatevenifthedecisiontomovewas“voluntary,”itwasoftenfueledbyfearofpersecution,violenceorevendeath.Peoplemadeadecisiontomovebeforetheywereforcedtomove—orwerekilled.
Unlikeotherregionsthatdeclaredindependence,BosniaandHerzegovinahadnoclearethnicmajority:varioiusethnicgroupslivedineveryregionofthecountry.ClosetohalfofthepopulationofBosnia,1.8millionpeopleinatotalpopulationof3.9millionpeople,weredisplacedbythewar.
AtthetimetheconflictstartedinSarajevoin1991,thepopulationwas50percentBosniaks,34percentSerbsand7percentCroats.In1997thepopulationwas87percentBosniaks,5percentSerbsand6percentCroats.
Theterm“ethniccleansing”hasbecomesynonymouswiththeconflictinYugoslavia.Membersofminoritygroupswerebeatenandhadtheirhomes,schoolsandchurches/mosquesattackedordestroyed.The“fieldwascleaned”oftheminoritygrouptoallowthemajoritygrouptotakeoverthelandortoeliminatethepossibilityofsupportfortheopposingarmedforces.IntheBosnianconflict,therewereregularforcesmadeupofarmiesandmilitiasandtherewereguerillagroupscomprisedofcivilians.TheChineserevolutionaryleader,MaoZedong,statedthataguerillafighter“mustmoveamongthepeopleasafishswimsinthesea.”Ethniccleansingdrainedthesea,givingthefighternoplacetohide.
Whenanindividualiskilledbecauseofhisorherethnicity,itiscalledahatecrime.Whenlargenumbersofpeoplearekilledforthisreason,itiscalledgenocide.GenocideisdefinedbytheUnitedNationsas“actscommittedwithintenttodestroy,inwholeorinpart,anational,ethnic,racialorreligiousgroup.”Itisacrimeunderinternationallaw.TheUnitedNationsdeterminedthatgenocidedidtakeplaceduringtheBosnianconflict.Whiletheydidnotassignblametoanyonecountry,theyhavebroughtcriminalchargesagainstindividualmilitaryleadersoftheSerbian-supportedarmedforcesandmilitia.
TOMA
HowCouldSoMuchbeLostsoQuickly?Tomahelpedhermotherbringoutthefoodforthemiddaylunch.Astheoldestdaughterinthehome,atnineyearsofage,shewasresponsibleforhelpingwiththemeals.Theysetdownthebowlsandthebigpotonthetable,whichsatintheshadeunderthebigtreeinthecourtyardoftheircompound.
Hermother,Arbaba,beganfillingthebowlswiththesweet-smellingporridge,madewithsorghum,onions,okra,allinatomatosauce.Everythinginthemealwasgrownonthelandfarmedbyherfather.Tomapassedthebowlstoherfamilywhowerealreadyseated.
Thefirstbowl,thebiggestofcourse,wentfirsttoherfather,Khamis.Hewasnotonlyasuccessfulfarmerandtheheadoftheirfamily,buthewasthechiefofthevillage.Hewasthepersontowhomeveryonecameforadvice,tosolvedisputesor,ifanagreementcouldnotbereached,tofinallymakethedecisionthatallwouldabideby.Hewasknownasbeingfairandhonorable,andhewas,insomeways,likethefatherfortheentirevillage.
NextTomaputbowlsdownforherbrothers.First,cameSadam11,thenAmed7,andMalik,whowas6.Afterservingthemales,sheservedhersister,Sayeda,whowas8.Finallysheplacedabowlbeforehermother’splaceandthelastoneforherself.
Tomawassadthattheycouldn’tbeatschooltoday.Theyhadn’tbeentoschoolforweeks.Itwasn’tclose.Theywouldleaveatseveninthemorning,takingsomeofthefamily’sdonkeys,andridefortwohours.Then,afterbeinginschoolforfourhours,theywouldrideback.Itwasn’tthedistancethatwasstoppingthemnow,though,itwasthedanger.
Armedmen,rovinggangsofmilitia,knownastheJanjaweed,attackedmembersofthetribalgroups.Villageswereraided,burnedtotheground,peoplekilled,kidnappedorraped.Anditwasrumoredthatthesemenweresupportedbythegovernmentsoldierswhoweresupposedtobeprotectingthevillagers.
Toma,right,inForbranga,arefugeecampontheborderwithChad.ForTomathesewerealljuststories.Inhervillageallwasquietandcalmand
peaceful.Itwasasitalwayswas.Shecouldn’timagineanyofthosethingshappeninghere.Herfatherwouldn’tallowanythingbadtohappen.
Withthemealfinished,thegirlsbegancleaningupandtheboysbegantohookupthewatercontainerstothreeofthedonkeys.Theyweregoingtobringwateruptothehousefromoneofthevillagewells.That’swhentheyheardthesounds.Itwasfaintatfirst,likeapoppingsound...thenitgotlouder.Itwasgunfire.
Theystoppedandturnedtostareattheirfather.He’dknowwhattodo.Helookedscared.NowTomawasscared.
“Everybodyintothehuts!”heyelled.Tomafrozeinplace,unabletocomprehendwhatwasgoingon,unableto
move.“Everybody,hideinthehuts!”herfatheryelled.Stillshedidn’tmove.Thesoundofthegunfiregotlouder,andshecouldhearscreamsandthe
horses’hoovespoundingagainsttheground,butstillshecouldn’tmove.Tomawaspracticallyyankedoffherfeetashermothergrabbedherbythe
handandpulledherandSayedaintothegirls’hut.Theirfatherledtheboysinto
handandpulledherandSayedaintothegirls’hut.Theirfatherledtheboysintothehutwheretheboysslept.Theyweretwolittlestructures,madeofbranchesandstraw,thatsatoneithersideofasmallbuildingconstructedofbrickandstonewhereherparentsslept.
Astheyscrambledintothehut,Tomalookedback,tryingtoseeoverthefencethatsurroundedtheirwholecompound.Strawandbranchescouldkeepthechickensinandwildanimalsout...butwhatgoodwoulditbeagainstmenonhorses?
“Quickly,getunderthemattresses,hideunderthebeds!”hermotheryelled.Bothgirlsbegancrying,andtheirmothergrabbedSayedaandforcedherto
hide,pilingthemattressandblanketsandclothingontopofheruntilshehaddisappearedcompletely.Tomasuddenlyfeltsoexposed,sovulnerable,andshetooscrambledunderherbed.Shefelthermotherpilingthingsontopofher.
“Bothofyoustopcrying!”theirmotheryelled.“Iftheyfindyoutheywillkillyou!”
Hearingthosewords,thesobsgotcaughtinherthroat.Shewasterrifiedbutknewsheneededtobesilent.Sheplacedahandagainsthermouth,tryingtoforcethesoundtostayinsideofher.
Thesilenceinsidethehutonlymadethesoundsoutsideevenlouder.Thereweretremendousshrieksandscreaming,punctuatedbyrapidloudgunfire,allagainstthebackgroundofthehorses’hooves,soloudthatitwasalmostasifshecouldfeeltheearthtremblingunderher.Shetriedtopicturethesceneoutsidebutknewshecouldn’tallowthat.Sheclosedhereyestightlyandcoveredherears,blockingoutthesound,tryingtopretendthatnoneofthiswasreal,thatnoneofthiswashappening...butsheknew.
Theadultsofthevillagetriedtokeepthingsawayfromthechildren,butTomawasoldenoughtonotonlyhearthehushedstoriesbuttounderstandwhatwasbeingsaid.Evenworse,shehadseenstrangerspassingthroughhervillage—peoplewhohadhadtheirhomesburnedandtheirlivestocktaken.Justthenshethoughtofthefourfamilydonkeysthatweretiedupjustoutsidethegate.Whatwasgoingtohappentothedonkeys?No,forgetthedonkeys,whatwasgoingtohappentoherfamily...whatwasgoingtohappentoher?
Shewasn’tsureofthepassageoftime.Itseemedlikeshelaythereunderthemattressforhours.Thesoundsstartedtofade,andthentherewassilence.Finallysheheardmovementinthehutandwasrelievedtohearherfather’svoice,callingforthemtocomeout.Shepushedawaytheblanketsandcovers,andthemattresswasliftedoffofher.
“Aretheygone?”shewhisperedtoherfather.Henodded,andshefeltaninstantsenseofrelief.“Theyaregone,”hesaid.“Fornow.”Hersenseofreliefvanished,replacedbythefearshehadjustexperienced.Outsidethehut,everythingseemedthesame.Thesunwasstillshining
brightlyoverheadandthebowlswerestillthereonthetablewherethey’dbeenleft.Therewasnosightorsoundofanything...therewasnosoundatall.Itwasjustsilent,asthougheventhewindhadstoppedblowingandwasholdingitsbreath,waiting,watching,wondering.
Itwasthenthatshenoticedthesmokerisingintothesky,thickandblack.Herfatherhadnoticedaswell.Theyfollowedbehindhimashewentthroughthegateoftheirfence.Thedonkeysthathadbeentiedtothefenceweregone.Lookingbeyondthatshesearchedforthecattlethathadbeengrazing.Theyweregoneaswell.Maybethey’djustbeenspookedandhadrunoff.Shecouldhope,butsheknewthatwhentheJanjaweedcametheyoftentookallofthelivestock.Shewasgratefulthatthegoatsandsheepandchickensthatwereinsidethefencewerestillsafe,andshehopedthattheanimalsatthefarmwouldbeallright.
REPUBLICOFTHESUDANPopulation:39,000,000Location:Latitude:15°N,Longitude:30°E,NorthernAfricaArea:2,500,000squarekilometersClimate:ariddesertinnorth,tropicalinsouthLanguages:Arabic(Official)NubianTaBedowiedialectsofNiloticEthnicity:Black52%
Arab39%Beja6%Religions:SunniMuslim70%Indigenousbeliefs25%Christian5%LifeExpectancy:49yearsInfantMortalityRate:92deathsper1,000livebirthsPerCapitaIncome:$2,400LiteracyRate:61%(male71%,female50%)
Theymovedtogethertowardthesourceofthesmoke.Itwascomingfromthefarsideofthevillage.Otherpeoplecameoutoftheirhutsandastheywalkedtheirnumbersincreaseduntilitseemedlikeeverybodyinthevillagewaswiththem.Thereontheoutskirtsofthevillagewerethecharredremainsofpeople’shuts.Sittingonthegroundwerethewomenandchildren—peopleshehadknownherwholelife—crying.Themenpokedthroughtheashestryingtofindanythingthathadsurvivedtheflames.Therewasalmostnothing,justliketherewasalmostnothingthatcouldbedonetohelp.
Themengatheredtogetherandtalked.Loudangrywordswerespoken,butshewasn’twelcometohearwhattheyspokeabout.Insteadshestayedwiththewomenastheymadearrangementsforthefamiliesthathadbeenburnedouttostaywithotherpeople.Whateverwaslostwasgone.Whatremainedinthevillagewouldbesharedwiththosewhonowhadnothing.
Thewomentalkedaswell,andTomaheardthemspeak.Theysaidhowterribleithadbeen—thehutsburnedandlivestocktaken—buttheyweregratefulthatnobodyhadbeenkilledandtheJanjaweedweregone.Maybetheywouldn’treturn.Maybeseemedlikesuchasmallword.Noprotectionfromwhatmightstillhappen.Theyweregone,butwhatwastostopthemfromcomingback?
Therewasapoundingonthedoorofthehutandpeoplewerescreaming!Tomaandhersisterjumpedtotheirfeetandranouttothecourtyard.Hermotherandbrotherswerealreadythere,butwherewasherfather?Thensheremembered...he’dalreadybeatthefarm.Outsidethefence,peoplewererunningaway,ridingdonkeys,tryingdesperatelytodrivecattlethatdidn’twanttobedriven.
NobodyneededtotellTomawhatwashappening.Herfamilyranthroughthegateandjoinedthepeoplerunningfromthevillage.Assheransheheardshots.Sheturnedandlookedoverhershoulder,andherheartfroze.Comingintothe
Sheturnedandlookedoverhershoulder,andherheartfroze.Comingintothefarsideofthevillagewerearmedmenonhorsesandcamels.Theywerefiringtheirgunsandscreaming.Peoplewererunninginfrontofthem,buttheywerenomatchfortheracinghorsesandwouldbequicklyovertaken!
Thepeopleinfrontofherranoffthepathandscrambledintothetallgrass,hidingfromthepursuingmen.Stillholdinghersister’shand,hermotherholdingtheother,andherbrothersinfrontofthem,theyallabandonedthepathandfollowedbehind,hopingtohidebeforethemenreachedthem.Offtheroadtheycontinuedtorunthroughtheundergrowth,movingquickly,tryingtostaysilent.Finallythepeopleinfrontstoppedrunning,satisfiedthattheywerefarenoughtobesafe,nothearinganysoundspursuingthem.
Tomalayinthegrass,herheartpounding,strainingtocatchherbreathagain,whiletryingdesperatelytolistentoanysoundsinthedistance.Allwasquiet.
“Whatarewegoingtodo?”Tomaasked.“We’llwaitalittlelongerandthengotothefarm.”Tothefarm!Totheirfather!He’dknowwhattodo.Toma’smothergotthechildrentotheirfeet.Itwastimetomove.Thefamilyfarmwasasmallpatchoffertileland,closetogroundwater.
Theretheygrewthevegetablesandfruitsthattheyeitherateortradedtosupportthefamily.Itwasn’tfar—theycouldonlyhopeitwasfarenoughthatithadn’tbeennoticedbythearmedmen.
Someofthepeoplefromtheirvillagemovedalongwiththem.Othersbranchedoutheadingtotheirownpatchesoflandortowheretheyknewsomebodywastendingtoaherdofgrazinganimals.
Itwasn’tlongbeforetheyreachedthefarmandtoldtheirfatherwhathadhappened.Hehadn’theardanyofthesounds,butbynowtheskywasfilledwithevidenceofwhatwashappeningbackinthevillage.Theystoodtheretogether,watchingasthickblacksmokeroseupintotheair,markingthespotwherethevillagewaslocated.Morehomeswerebeingburned.
“Wehavetohide,”Toma’sfathersaid.“Everybodycome.”Heledthemintothetallgrassthatlayontheonesideoftheirfarm,andonce
againtheytookrefugewheretheycouldn’tbeseen.Aftersometimetheyheardadifferentnoise,butitwasn’thorsesandit
wasn’tfromtheground.Itwasthesoundofahelicopter.Theyscannedtheskyuntiltheycouldseeit—abigmilitaryhelicopteroffinthedistance.ForafleetingsecondTomathoughtthatmeantthatthegovernmenthadsentit,filled
fleetingsecondTomathoughtthatmeantthatthegovernmenthadsentit,filledwithsoldierstochaseawaythearmedmen—thensherememberedwhatshehadheard.Thehelicoptersandthesoldiersweren’ttheretostopanything.Theyweretheretowatch,sometimeseventohelpthearmedmenonhorses.Evenifthereweresoldiers,theyweren’tgoingtostopanything.
Theystayedinthegrassallday,eatingsomecucumbersandwatermelonsfromthefarm.Thehelicopterhadlongsincegone,andthefireshadstopped.Theevidence,theblacksmoke,hadbeenblownawaybythewinds.
Slowly,cautiouslytheymovedbacktowardthevillage.Astheywalkedtheywerejoinedbyothermembersoftheirvillage.Largernumbersseemedsafer,butreallytherewasnosafety.Theyjustpresentedabiggertarget.
Someofthemen,includingherfather,wentahead.Whenitwasdeemedsafethewomenandchildrenwerecalledtofollow.
Tomacouldnotbelievewhatshesaw.Thevillagewasgone.Allthatremainedofalmostallofthebuildingsandfenceswerecharred,still-smolderingremains.Afewdeadchickensanddogsthatlitteredthegroundwereallthatwasleftoftheanimals.Therestweregone,stolen.
Peoplemovedthroughthevillage,expressionsofstunneddisbeliefontheirfaces.Hopelessly,desperately,menpokedthroughtheashestryingtogleananythingofvaluethatmighthavesurvivedthepillagingandtheflames,butthereseemedtobenothing.Possessionsthatcouldn’tbetakenwerescatteredaboutthegroundwherethehutshadstood.
Howcouldsomuchbelostsoquickly?Whatwoulddrivethesementonotjuststeal,buttodestroy?Whydidtheyhatethemsomuch?Whycouldn’tanybodystopthem?SomanyquestionsswirledthroughToma’smind.Andthenshesawthebodies.
Lyingontheground,scatteredthroughthesmolderingremainswerethebodiesofpeoplewhohadnotbeenabletofleeintime.
“Lookaway,”hermotherwarned.“Don’tlookatthebodies.”Tomawantedtolookaway,butshecouldn’t.Theseweren’tjuststrangers.
Thesewerefriends,neighborsandevenfamilymembers.Tentativelythesurvivorsmovedaway,pickingtheirwaypastthebodies.Somelookedliketheywerejustsleeping.Others,though,boretheevidenceofwhathadkilledthem—crushedskulls,woundsandpuddlesofdarkened,blood-staineddirtflowingoutfrombeneaththem.
Theystoppedinfrontofwheretheirhomeusedtobe.Thefenceandthetwo
Theystoppedinfrontofwheretheirhomeusedtobe.Thefenceandthetwohutswerenothingmorethansmolderingembers.Allthatremainedwasthestoneandbrickbuildingwhereherparentsslept.Scatteredaboutthepropertywereafewitems—ablanket,someclothing,cookingpots.Everythingelsewasgone.
Toma’smotherslumpedtothegroundagainstthetree.Sheburiedherfaceinherhandsandbegantocry.Atfirstitwassoft,butthenitbecamelouderandlouderuntilherwholebodywasconvulsedinsobs.Tomatriedtoconsolehermother,andthechildrenallgatheredaroundtryingtoconsoleherwiththeirwordsandtouches.Neverhadtheyseentheirmotherthiswaybefore.
Finally,theirfatherappearedandspoketoher,stoppingthetears.“Adecisionhasbeenreached,”hesaid.“Tomorrow,beforelightcomeswe
willleave.”Tomawasshockedtohearthesewords.Howcouldtheyleavetheirhome,
andwherewouldtheygo?“Weshouldstayandfight,”Saddamsaid.“Fightwithwhat?”theirfatherquestioned.“Theyhavegunsandwehave
nothing.Theyhavetakenouranimals.Theyhavedestroyedourhomes.Whentheycomeback,therewillbenothingtotakeexceptourlives.Wehavetoleavebeforetheyreturn.”
“Maybetheywon’treturn,”Tomafoundherselfpleading.Herfatherplacedahandonhershoulder.“Theywillreturn.Imustprotect
myfamilythebestwayIcan.Themenofthevillagehavespoken.We’vedecided.Tomorrowweleave...allofus...thewholevillage.”
Follow-up:TomaToma,herfamilyandmembersofhervillagewalked,mainlyhidingduringthedayandmovingatnight.Atonepointduringtheirjourney,theyweremetbySudanesesoldiers.Thesoldiersbeatherfatherandsomeothermen,takingwhatlittlemoneytheyhad,beforeallowingthemtoleave.IttookfivedaysofwalkingforthevillagegrouptoreacharefugeecampontheborderofChad.
Nowthreeyearslatertheyremainthere,unabletoreturntotheirhomeduetoongoingdangerspresentedbythemaraudingmilitia.Toma’sfamily,alongwithuptothreemillionSudanese,arealiveduetothehumanitarianreliefeffortsofinternationalaidorganizations,includingtheworkoftheUnitedNations.Toma’sfather,Khamis,asarespectedelder,isresponsibleforhelpingtoensurethataidisdistributedfairlyintheircamp.
thataidisdistributedfairlyintheircamp.Despitethemassiveeffort,theaidhasnotbeensufficientandtensof
thousandscontinuetodiefromstarvation,lackofmedicalattentionanddiseasescausedbymalnutrition.
Tomaremainsanongoingvictimofwar.
GeographySudanisthelargestcountryinAfrica,aboutone-fourthofthesizeoftheUnitedStates,andstretchesfromthesub-SaharatotropicalAfrica.Itsharesborderswithninecountries(CentralAfricanRepublic,Chad,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,Egypt,Eritrea,Ethiopia,Kenya,LibyaandUganda)andtheRedSea.
TheNileRiveranditstributariescutthroughthelengthofthecountry.Despitethepresenceofthesemajortributaries,lackofwateranddroughtaremajorissuesthroughoutthecountry,particularlyinthenorth,andlessthan7percentofthecountryisarable.Thislackofwaterandarablelandhasoftenputdifferentpeopleinconflictoverthescarceresourcesavailableforfarmingandgrazing.
Thecapital,Khartoum,issituatedattheconjunctionoftheWhiteandBlueNileriversandishometoclosetothreemillionpeople.Literacylevelsarelow,especiallyforfemales,andhealth,educationandsocialservicesareverylimited.Attimesofdrought,manypeoplesufferfromfamineandareseverelylimitedintheirabilitytofeedthemselves.
HistoryThelandthatnowconstitutesSudanhasbeensettledforoversixtythousand
ThelandthatnowconstitutesSudanhasbeensettledforoversixtythousandyears.InancienttimesitwasknownasNubia.TheEgyptianDynastydominatedtheNile,andthenorthernpartsofSudancameunderEgyptiancontrol.ChristiancrusadersoverwhelmedtheareainthesixthcenturybutwereeventuallyreplacedbyArabs,whospreadtheIslamicfaith.Inthesixteenthcentury,theFungconqueredthenorthernpartsofSudanwhiledifferentAfricantribalgroupscametodominatethesouth.In1874Sudanonceagaincameunderthecontrolofitsneighbortothenorth,Egypt.Thiswasshort-lived,asitbecamepartoftheBritishEmpirein1898.
TheBritishsawSudanasbeingtwoverydifferentregionsandadministeredthenorthandsouthastwodistinctentities—thenorthwasArabicandMuslim,andthesouthwasAfricanandAnimist.
AttheconclusionofWWI,therearoseincreasedinternaldesireswithinthesecountriestoseekindependence,andtheinfluenceoftheBritishEmpirebegantowane.ThepeopleoftheSudancontinuallypressedforindependence.In1956thetworegions,northandsouth,becametheindependentcountryofSudan.
RecentHistorySudanhasbeenpoliticallyunstablethroughoutitsentirehistory,withnumerousgovernments,politicalcoups,militarydictatorshipsandalackoftruerepresentativegovernment.ItwasoftenseenasabattlegroundintheColdWarbetweentheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates.AttimesitwascontrolledbyaMarxistgovernmentandhasbeenseenassupportinginternationalterrorism.IthasbeenthetargetofWesternorUSeconomicsanctionsand,in1998,acruisemissileattackonafactoryinthecapital.
Partlybecauseofandpartlyasaresultofthislackofstability,Sudanhassufferedthroughanalmostcontinuouscivilwarthroughoutitstimeasanindependentnation.Therehasbeenaconstantconflictbetweenthepeopleandinterestsofthenorthandsouthofthecountry.
Priortogainingindependence,therewasconcerninthesouthernregionsthattheyweregoingtobedominatedbythenorth.Throughpoliticalnegotiations,andthenviolence,peopleinthesouthfoughtagainstbeingincludedaspartofthelargernationandfoughttohavegreaterpowerandwealth.Civilwarbrokeout,pittingtheMuslim,Arabic-speakingnorthernregion,againstthesouthernregion.
Whilethereweretimeswhenthewarwaslessintenseandotherswhenitwasmorelethal,itextendedfromoneyearbeforeindependencein1955andlasted
morelethal,itextendedfromoneyearbeforeindependencein1955andlasteduntil1972.Thisleftatleast1.5millionpeoplekilledandmillionsdisplacedbothinternallywithinthecountryandtocountriessurroundingSudan.
Thisconstantstateofwarleftanalreadydestitutecountryunabletoharnessitsresources,eithernaturalorhuman,aswardestroysinfrastructureanddivertsmoneyandattentionawayfromcaringforthepeoplethrougheducation,healthorgeneralwelfare,tosecurityandweapons.
ThecivilwarwasfinallyendedwhentheAddisAbabaPeaceAccordwassignedin1972.Thisallowedforthesouthernareatobecomeasingleadministrativeregionwithdefinedpowerandconsiderableautonomyinmakingmanypoliticaldecisionsthatrelatedtotheirregion.Thisagreementallowedthetworegionstocoexistinrelativeharmonywithnomajorcivilunrest.However,therewasalwaysasenseofmistrustbetweenthepeopleinthetworegions.
ThecookingareainToma’sfamily’sshelterintheForbrangarefugeecamp.UptothreemillionSudanesearedisplacedandlivingincamps,relyingon
internationalaidgroupsforhumanitarianrelief.Duringtheearly1980sitwasfeltthatthecentralgovernment,inthenorth,
wasattemptingtounderminetheautonomyofthesouthernregion.TherewereattemptstoreplacelocaladministrationandtoimplementIslamiclawsandtheArabiclanguageinthesouth.ThiswasincompleteviolationofthePeaceAccord,andtheseeffortsweremetwithprotest—bothpeacefulandviolent—in
Accord,andtheseeffortsweremetwithprotest—bothpeacefulandviolent—inthesouthernregion.
Thisconflictwasalsofueledbythediscoveryofdepositsofoilinthesouthernareaofthecountry,anddisputesoverhowtheseresourceswouldbeexploitedandhowtherevenuewouldbedividedbetweenthetworegions.
TheSudanPeople’sLiberationArmy(SPLA)becamethedominantrebelgrouptobothprotectthepeopleofthesouthfromthesoldiersofthenorthandtoadvocateforthecreationofgreaterindependenceandachangetoamoredemocraticformofgovernment.Theylaunchedattacksagainstgovernmenttroopsandfacilities.
Thissecondcivilwar—althoughsomehistorianssimplyviewitasanextensionofthefirstsinceitwasdrivenbybasicallythesameunresolvedissues—brokeoutin1983.Onceagainpeoplewerekilled,property,cropsandinfrastructureweredestroyed,millionsofpeoplefledthefightingandthelimitedresourcesofthecountryweredirectedtowarratherthanthebettermentofthepeople.Ifanything,thiswarwasevenmorebrutalandlethalthanthefirstphaseofthecivilwar.Itisestimatedthatbythetimetheconflictendedin2005,thatalmosttwomillioncivilianswerekilledandthatoverfivemillionpeopleweredisplaced,fleeingthewaranditseffects.
InJanuary,2005,apeaceaccordwassignedthatonceagainallowedthesouthernregionconsiderableautonomy,ashareofrevenuefromoilproductionandtherighttopeacefullyformaseparatecountryinsixyearsifthemajorityofthepeoplewishedthatend.Insomewaysthismirroredthepreviousagreementwiththefurtherconditionbeingtheconsiderationoftotalindependence.
TheCrisisinDarfurInacountrywithlimitedresources,waranddroughtleftitevenmoredestitute.Thisbecameacrisispointinthewesternregionofthecountry,knownasDarfur,borderingthecountryofChad.Thisconflicthadbeensimmeringforyearswithoccasionalflaresofextremeviolence.
ThemajorityofpeopleintheregionarefromthreeAfricantribalgroups—theFur,MasalitandZaghawa.Theytendtobemainlyfarmerslivinginsmallvillages,definedbytribeandextendedfamily.TheArabgroupsoftensurvivedbytendingtomigratoryflocks.ItisimportanttonotethatbothgroupsareprimarilyMuslim,soreligionwasnotseenasasourceofconflict.Instead,inacountrywhichexperiencedperiodsofdrought,thesetwogroupsoftencameintoconflictforscarceresources.
conflictforscarceresources.In1998amajorepisodeofviolenceensuedinwhichoversixtyMasalit
villagesandoneArabvillagewereburnedtotheground,andhundredsofpeoplewerekilled.Thegovernmentattemptedtoquellthesedisturbances,buttherewasalwaysafeelingthattherewasabiasagainsttheAfricantribalmembersandthattheArabic-speakingpeopleweresupportedbythegovernment.TheAfricanpeopledidnotbelievethatthegovernmentwouldsupportandprotectthem,orprosecuteArabswhowerecommittingcrimesagainstthem.Twomilitiagroups,theSudanLiberationArmy(SLA)andJusticeandEqualityMovement(JEM),actedtoprotecttheinterestsofthetribalgroupsandtoadvocateforgreaterautonomy,orevenindependence,fromKhartoum.
Outrightconflictbrokeoutin2003.GovernmenttroopsweresentinlargenumberstotheDarfurregion.Rovinggangsofmilitia,knownastheJanjaweed,beganattackingmembersofthetribalgroups.Thesemilitiasweresupportedandarmedbythegovernment.Villageswereraided,burnedtotheground,andpeoplewerekilled,kidnappedorraped.Thesemilitiamemberswereoftenaccompaniedbygovernmentsoldiersorgivenairsupport(providingreconnaissance,droppingbombsorstrafingciviliansontheground).
Internationalattentionbecamefocusedonthisconflict.Itwasidentifiedbyoutsidesourcesasbeinggenocide,andtheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilpassedaresolutiondemandingthatthegovernmentinterveneandcontrolthemilitia.Basicallythegovernmentdeniedallallegationsagainstit,refusedtorestrainthemilitiaandwouldnotallowtheinterventionofUnitedNationstroopstoprovidesecurityandprotection.TheUnitedNations,oftendividedbytheinterestsofmemberstates,wasnotabletolaunchanysortofeffectiveresponsetowhatwasclearlyseenasgenocidalinnature.
Sudandid,however,originallyallowasmallnumberoftroopsfromtheAfricanUnion(AU)tobestationedinthecountry.Thesetroopswerepoorlyequipped,underfundedandundersuppliedandwerefartoofewinnumbertoprovideanyformofsecuritytotheregion.Theywerealsogivenamandatetoonlyobservebutnotinterveneorprotectcivilians.Theycoulddocumentmassacresbutnotacttopreventthem.
Inaddition,attemptstoprovidehumanitarianaid—food,waterandshelter—tothedisplacedpeoplewerethwartedbytheongoingdangerandwarfareinthecountryandeffortsbythegovernmenttonotallowthemtointervene.Violenceandthreatsofviolencetowardinternationalaidworkerscausedgreatrestrictionsintheabilityofthesenon-governmentalorganizationstoprovideaid.Aswithmanyconflicts,thedeathtoll,especiallyforchildrenandtheelderly,washigher
manyconflicts,thedeathtoll,especiallyforchildrenandtheelderly,washigherduetotheeffectsoftheconflict—disease,famineandlackofshelter—thanfromtheactualviolenceoftheconflict.
HundredsofthousandsofciviliansfledSudanduringthisconflict,movingintoChad.ThishashadadestabilizingeffectonChad—acountryaspoorasSudan—whichdoesnothavetheresourcesorwealthtoeasilyabsorblargenumbersofrefugees.TheChadiangovernmentalsobelievedthattheSudangovernmentwassupportingandarmingrebelgroupswithinitscountry,aswellasallowingtheJanjaweedmilitiatocrosstheborderandattackChadvillages,stealcattleandkillChadiancitizens.
Children,manyorphanedandalone,remainvictimsoftheongoingcrisisintheSudan.
Throughouttheongoingconflict,therewerecontinualattemptsbytheUnitedNationstoadvocateforthedisarmamentofthemilitia,allowaidtodisplacedpeopleandpursueacourseofpeace.TheUnitedNationsissuedstatementssayingthattherewasa“scorchedearthcampaign”ofethniccleansing,thatitwastheworld’sgreatesthumanitariancrisisandcomparingittothegenocideinRwanda.
Inresponse,theSudanesegovernmentconsistentlyrefusedtoacknowledgetheextentofthecrisisoritsroleinsupportingthemilitia,orfollowthroughoncommitmentstodisarmthem,orprotectaidworkersandsupplies.Attemptstobrokeracease-firecontinuallyfaltered.Itwasonlyin2007,fouryearsaftertheconflictreachedaboilingpoint,thattheSudanesegovernmentagreedtoallowajointUNandAfricanUnionforcetobedeployedinitscountry.Thiswillprovideamorecomprehensivepeace-keepingmissionandallowforbetterdistributionofhumanitarianaidtohelpthosewhohavebeendisplaced,theirvillagesandlivelihooddestroyed.Thiseffortcontinuestobethwartedbypoliticalinterests.
Itisestimatedthatwellinexcessoffourhundredthousandpeople,mostlyblackAfricans,werekilledbytheJanjaweedmilitiaandtheconditionstheycreated,andoverthreemillionpeoplehavefledtheirhomestoseekrefugeefromthekilling.Thesepeopleremainunabletoreturntotheirhomesforfearthattheywillbekilledorbecausetheysimplyhavenoplacetoreturnto.
AnimismThetermcomesfromtheLatinwordanima,whichmeansbreathorsoul.Itisconsideredtheoldestofhumanreligions.Whilemanyreligions(Islam,Christianity,Judaism)believethatpeoplepossessasoulthattranscendslife,theAnimismbeliefisthatallobjectscontainasoulorspiritandthatthesespiritsarecontinuallyinteractingthroughouttheuniverse.Italsodiffersfromthosereligionsinbeingapolytheism—abeliefinthousandsofGods—asopposedtoabeliefinonesupremebeingormonotheism.Inthisregard,AnimismismorecloselylinkedtotheHindufaith.InAnimismthereisahighlyinterconnectedrelationshipbetweenpeople,otherlifeforms,inanimateobjectsandnaturallyoccurringphenomenon,suchasstorms,fireorearthquakes.Allthesepossessspiritsandsouls,andthesecaninteractinapositiveornegativemannerwithhumans,dependinguponthecare,circumstancesandceremoniesthattakeplace.Whileitisancientinorigin,itisstillpracticed,indifferingforms,bymillionsofpeoplearoundtheworld.
ColonialismanditsongoinginfluenceinAfricaThroughoutthecourseofhumanhistory,differentcivilizationshavebecomemoredominantatdifferenttimes.IntheeighteenthcenturytheEuropeanpowersweredominant.Theypossessedweapons,transportationandtechnologythat
allowedthemtoexerttheirinfluenceonplacesaroundtheworld.TherewasagreatdealofcompetitionbetweenEuropeanpowerstosecuretheresourcesofcountriesaroundtheworld.InAfrica,virtuallytheentirecontinentwascarvedupbytheEuropeanpowers.TheBritishEmpirecontrolledalmostone-thirdofthecontinent,andFrance,Belgium,Portugal,Spain,GermanyandItalyallhadextensivecolonies.Thecreationofthesecoloniesoftenfollowedgeographicfeatures—rivers,mountains,lakes—butdidnotalwaystakeintoaccountthecultureorlanguageofthepeople.Tribalgroupscouldbedividedamongtwoorthreecountries,andsomecountrieswerecreatedthatcontainedtribalgroupswhowereverydifferentoreventraditionalenemies.Inaddition,therewereoftendifferentrolesandpowersgiventothevarioustribalgroupswhichcausedexistingconflictstobecomemoredeeplyrootedandproblematic.
Withthecollapseoftheseempiresthecoloniesbecameindependentcountriesbasedontheartificialborderscreatedbythecolonialpowers.Thesedivisionscreatedtensionsthathaveledtocertaingroupstakingadominantpositionattheexpenseofminoritygroups,orcivilwars,orongoingwarsbetweendifferentcountriesinattemptstogainpower,peopleorland,ortoofferprotectiontotheirtribalgroupsbeingpersecutedinothercountries.
Theboundariesbetweencountriesarenotalwaysclearlydefined,andinmostcasesalmostimpossibletodefendorprotect.Peoplemovefreelyovertheseborders,attimesnotevenawarethattheyhavecrossedfromonecountrytoanother.Thesebordersarealsonotalwaysrecognizedaslegitimate,asallegiancetotribalmembers,whomayliveacrossaborder,isseenasastrongerloyalty.
Attimesofconflictorcrisisinonecountry,itiscommonfortensofthousands,orevenhundredsofthousands,ofrefugeestoseekshelterinaneighboringcountry.Thisinfluxofpeoplecreatespoliticalinstabilityandtaxestheverylimitedresourcesofthehostcountry.ThereisvirtuallynocountryinAfricawiththeresourcestoadequatelycareforhundredsofthousandsofrefugees.
Asnoted,Sudanisanartificialgroupingoftwoverydistinctpeopleswhichisarootcauseofmuchofthecivilunrestthathasdominatedthecountry’shistory.Inaddition,theboundariesbetweenitanditsneighborsare,insomeinstances,stillthesourceofconflictandcompetition.TheongoingcrisesinSudanhavehadadestabilizingeffectonitsneighbors,asrefugeeshavefledtothem,seekingprotectionandsustenance.
AFTERWORD
WhenElephantsFighttellsthestoriesoffivechildhoodvictimsofwarandconflictfromaroundtheworld.Therearecountlessotherstorieslikethese—manyotherchildrenlikeJimmy,Nadja,Farooq,AnnuandToma.Thisbookhopestogiveaface—ifnotavoice—tothesufferingthatistheresultofadultconflicts.Childrenareunwillingparticipantsintheviolencethatcontinuestorageinmanyplacesaroundtheworld,andonlywhenadultstakeresponsibilityfortheiractionsandrecognizetheincalculablecostofwarontheirchildren,canthegrassbeprotectedfromthesenselessviolenceandindiscriminatewastethatiswarfareandconflict.
FiftypercentoftheroyaltiesfromthisbookwillgodirectlytoGuluWalkandwillhelpthechildrenofnorthernUgandawhocontinuetosuffertheimpactsofwar.
Formoreinformationandtofindouthowtogetinvolvedvisitwww.guluwalk.com.
ItistheenergyandhopeofthechildrenthatinspirestheGuluWalkFoundation.