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1 Jan Kubik Rutgers University What’s the situation of East Central Europe (ECE) ten years after accession? A glass half full, half empty? Reflections for “An Awkward Anniversary? Ten Years of Central and Eastern Europe in the EU” conference, Princeton University, April 1819, 2014. The first version of the opening paragraph of this brief read: Political “backsliding in the region” needs to be carefully compared to and separated from two other processes: (1) the worldwide decline of public assessment of the “situation” and trust in various institutions, 1 and (2) the pancontinental crisis of confidence in the EU. The funk observed among the ECE elites and publics seems to be the result of a combination of these three processes and we do not have good tools to separate out their respective influences and consequences. After reviewing several studies and sources of data I decided to rewrite it, as I am no longer sure that the initial pessimistic assessment is completely accurate. The picture seems to be more complex. Here is a new version: Political “situation in the region” needs to be carefully compared to and separated from two other processes: (1) : (1) the worldwide fluctuations of public assessment of the “situation” and trust in various institutions, and (2) the pancontinental state of confidence in the EU. The mindset observed among the ECE elites and publics seems to be the result of a combination of these three processes and we do not have good tools to separate out their respective influences and consequences. The state of public opinion (the intensity of “mindset” or “funk”) has something to do with the “political sliding” we are interested in. And the picture is mixed. For every “pessimistic” bit of data one can find something more “optimistic.” Moreover, the state of public opinion fluctuates. I suspect I would have struck a different tone sketching these remarks several months ago. For example, Eurobarometer 80 shows modestly revived optimism about the future of the EU. Such optimism increased between the spring and fall of 2013 in 22 countries, including Poland (by 3points) (66% of the surveyed are optimistic), Estonia (+3, 66%), and Lithuania (+2, 66%). “Pessimism is the majority view in eight Member States: Greece, Cyprus, Portugal, France, Italy, Hungary, the UK and Czech Republic.” Optimism has decreased in four Member States: France (40%, 4), Italy (40%, 4), Austria (47%, 1), and Greece (29%, 1) (Standard Eurobarometer 80, Autumn 2013, 10). Observe that optimism 1 Various polls measure the assessment of different aspects of the “situation:” political, economic, personal, etc.
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What’s the situation of East Central Europe (ECE) ten years after accession? A glass half full, half empty?

Mar 10, 2023

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Page 1: What’s the situation of East Central Europe (ECE) ten years after accession? A glass half full, half empty?

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Jan  Kubik  Rutgers  University    What’s  the  situation  of  East  Central  Europe  (ECE)  ten  years  after  accession?  A  glass  half  full,  half  empty?    Reflections  for  “An  Awkward  Anniversary?  Ten  Years  of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe  in  the  EU”  conference,  Princeton  University,  April  18-­‐19,  2014.    The  first  version  of  the  opening  paragraph  of  this  brief  read:  

Political  “backsliding  in  the  region”  needs  to  be  carefully  compared  to  and  separated  from  two  other  processes:  (1)  the  worldwide  decline  of  public  assessment  of  the  “situation”  and  trust  in  various  institutions,1  and  (2)  the  pan-­‐continental  crisis  of  confidence  in  the  EU.  The  funk  observed  among  the  ECE  elites  and  publics  seems  to  be  the  result  of  a  combination  of  these  three  processes  and  we  do  not  have  good  tools  to  separate  out  their  respective  influences  and  consequences.  

 After  reviewing  several  studies  and  sources  of  data  I  decided  to  re-­‐write  it,  as  I  am  no  longer  sure  that  the  initial  pessimistic  assessment  is  completely  accurate.  The  picture  seems  to  be  more  complex.  Here  is  a  new  version:  

Political  “situation  in  the  region”  needs  to  be  carefully  compared  to  and  separated  from  two  other  processes:  (1)  :  (1)  the  worldwide  fluctuations  of  public  assessment  of  the  “situation”  and  trust  in  various  institutions,  and  (2)  the  pan-­‐continental  state  of  confidence  in  the  EU.  The  mindset  observed  among  the  ECE  elites  and  publics  seems  to  be  the  result  of  a  combination  of  these  three  processes  and  we  do  not  have  good  tools  to  separate  out  their  respective  influences  and  consequences.  

 The  state  of  public  opinion  (the  intensity  of  “mindset”  or  “funk”)  has  something  to  do  with  the  “political  sliding”  we  are  interested  in.  And  the  picture  is  mixed.  For  every  “pessimistic”  bit  of  data  one  can  find  something  more  “optimistic.”  Moreover,  the  state  of  public  opinion  fluctuates.  I  suspect  I  would  have  struck  a  different  tone  sketching  these  remarks  several  months  ago.  For  example,  Eurobarometer  80  shows  modestly  revived  optimism  about  the  future  of  the  EU.  Such  optimism  increased  between  the  spring  and  fall  of  2013  in  22  countries,  including  Poland  (by  3points)  (66%  of  the  surveyed  are  optimistic),  Estonia  (+3,  66%),  and  Lithuania  (+2,  66%).    “Pessimism  is  the  majority  view  in  eight  Member  States:  Greece,  Cyprus,  Portugal,  France,  Italy,  Hungary,  the  UK  and  Czech  Republic.”  Optimism  has  decreased  in  four  Member  States:  France  (40%,  -­‐4),  Italy  (40%,  -­‐4),  Austria  (47%,  -­‐1),  and  Greece  (29%,  -­‐1)  (Standard  Eurobarometer  80,  Autumn  2013,  10).  Observe  that  optimism  

                                                                                                               1  Various  polls  measure  the  assessment  of  different  aspects  of  the  “situation:”  political,  economic,  personal,  etc.  

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has  not  decreased  in  any  ECE  member  state  and  in  only  two  –  Hungary  and  Czech  Republic  –  there  are  more  pessimists  than  optimists.2    As  a  result  of  this  first  lesson  I  decided  to  be  careful  with  generalizations  and  to  rely  as  much  as  possible  on  explicit  comparisons.  A  comparison  needs  a  yardstick,  however.  The  post-­‐communist  members  of  the  EU  can  be  compared  to  various  general  standards  or  sets  of  countries:  “old”  EU  members,  other  post-­‐communist  states,  other  “democratizing”  countries  of  the  world,  various  past  signposts,  and  even  selected  idealized  futures.  I  will  use  some  of  them.    I  will  begin  with  some  numbers,  illustrating  both  the  political  and  economic  situation  of  ECE.  Then  I  will  sketch  several  remarks  on  two  topics  I  study  up  close:  civil  society  and  (political)  culture.    Progress  of  democratization  25  years  after  the  fall  of  communism.    The  Bertelsmann  Index    A  quick  review  of  several  rankings  presents  a  mildly  worrisome  albeit  mixed  picture.  Between  2006  and  2013,  the  Bertelsmann  “democracy  status”  index  for  Eastern  Europe  (17  countries)  shows  a  drop  from  8.57  to  8.26  (10  being  the  maximum  score).  This  is  worrisome  for  two  reasons:  (1)  among  the  seven  regions  studied  by  the  Bertelsmann  experts,  only  three  experienced  decline  in  that  period  and  (2)  the  decline  of  the  East  European  score  is  the  steepest.  It  is,  however,  important  to  remember  that  by  2006,  Eastern  Europe  was  by  far  the  most  successfully  democratized  post-­‐authoritarian  region  in  the  world  (see  Table  1).    

Table  1:  Bertelsmann  Stiftung:  democracy  status  by  region,  2006-­‐13  

Region   Bertelsmann  2006   Bertelsmann  2013   Difference  

Eastern  Europe  (17)   8.57   8.26   -­‐.31  Latin  America/  Caribbean  (21)  

6.99   6.83   -­‐.16  

West  and  Central  Africa  (18)  

5.19   5.28   +.09  

Middle  East/North  Africa  (19)  

3.93   4.17   +.24  

                                                                                                               2  In  a  recent  survey  (summer  2013)  conducted  by  the  top  polling  agencies  in  the  four  Visegrad  countries,  78%  of  Poles,  60%  of  Slovaks,  44%  of  Hungarians  and  43%  of  Czechs  agreed  that  “in  general  our  country  benefited  from  the  membership  in  the  EU.”  12%  of  Poles,  30%  of  Slovaks,  42%  of  Hungarians,  and  41%  of  Czechs  saw  no  benefits.  In  all  countries  there  were  more  people  who  saw  benefits  than  those  who  did  not.  The  “positive  margin”  was  by  far  the  biggest  in  Poland  (CBOS  BS/137/2013).  

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South  and  East  Africa  (20)  

5.76   5.51   -­‐.25  

Post-­‐Soviet  Eurasia  (13)  

4.83   4.88   +.05  

Asia  and  Oceania  (21)  

5.15   5.20   +.05  

 The  decline  began  in  2008  from  a  relatively  high  level  and  has  been  uneven  across  the  region:  two  countries  improved  their  scores  (Latvia  and  Estonia),  five  showed  little  change  (and  mostly  in  the  positive  directions)  (Czech  Republic,  Poland,  Slovakia,  Bulgaria,  and  Lithuania),  and  seven  countries  experienced  decline  (Hungary,  Croatia,  Albania,  Bosnia-­‐Herzegovina,  Macedonia,  Romania,  Slovenia),  Hungary  most  dramatically  (1.45  points).    Freedom  House    Freedom  House  measures  the  progress  (or  quality)  of  democratization  in  what  it  calls  “nations  in  transit,”  on  seven  dimensions  and  then  offers  a  composite  index.  Table  2  summarizes  the  results  for  the  period  of  interest.    

Table  2:  Freedom  House  scores  for  new  EU  members,  2004-­‐13  (average)  

Dimension  of  democracy  

2004   2013   Difference  

Electoral  process   1.73   1.83   -­‐.10  Civil  society   1.78   1.95   -­‐.17  

Independent  media   2.23   2.70   -­‐.47  National  democratic  

governance  2.55   2.83   -­‐.18  

Local  democratic  governance  

2.55   2.35   +.20  

Judicial  framework  and  independence  

2.25   2.35   -­‐.10  

Corruption   3.23   3.30   -­‐.07  Democracy  score   2.29   2.47   -­‐.18  

 The  decline  is  not  dramatic,  but  consistent  across  all  dimensions,  with  the  exception  of  local  governance.  The  independence  of  the  media  deteriorated  more  than  other  areas.  The  drop  has  been  most  pronounced  in  Hungary.            

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Economic  situation.    

Before  2008,  the  ECE  belonged  to  the  fastest-­‐growing  regions  of  the  world  (Graph  “Exhibit  E1”).  3  There  are  several  areas  that  still  need  massive  improvements  (roads  and  railroad,  for  example),  but  the  overall  economic  situation  has  improved  remarkably,  compared  with  the  pre-­‐1989  years.  The  countries  that  introduced  more  radical  (neo-­‐liberal)  economic  reforms  and  managed  to  employ  them  more  or  less  consistently,  experienced  faster  rates  of  

growth,  less  dramatic  expansion  of  inequality,  and  less  detrimental  reorganization  of  the  welfare  state  than  the  countries  whose  reforms  have  been  less  comprehensive  and  less  consistent.  As  Szelenyi  and  Wilk  note,  between  the  mid-­‐1980s  and  2000:    

In  Central  Europe  the  increases  (in  Gini  coefficient  –  JK)  were  relatively  modest,  from  around  .20  to  .25,  with  the  exception  of  Poland  where  it  increased  from  .28  to  .33.  While  in  Russia  the  index  of  inequality  jumped  from  .26  to  .47.  The  change  in  South  Eastern  Europe  was  somewhat  less  

severe.  In  Bulgaria  and  Romania,  for  example,  inequality  increased  from  around  .25  to  .30  and  .40  respectively.4    The  process  of  reorienting  former  state-­‐run  economies  into  a  free-­‐market,  “capitalist”  path  has  been  thus  quite  socially  costly,  though  it  is  not  obvious  that  this  cost  has  been  directly  proportional  to  the  radicalness  of  economic  reforms.  The  shutting  down  of  the  communist-­‐era  industrial  behemoths  and  the  opening  

                                                                                                               3  Source:  “A  New  Dawn.  Reigniting  growth  in  Central  and  Eastern  Europe.”  2013.    McKinsley  Global  Institute,  December  2013.  4  Ivan  Szelenyi  and  Katarzyna  Wilk.  2013.  “Poverty  and  Popular  Mobilization  in  Postcommunist  Capitalist  Regimes.”  In  Jan  Kubik  and  Amy  Linch,  eds.  Postcommunist  from  Within.  Social  Justice,  Mobilization,  and  Hegemony.  New  York:  The  NYU  Press,  229.  

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of  the  economic  systems  resulted  in  painful  layoffs,  dislocations,  and  the  emergence  of  new  areas  of  poverty.5  It  is,  however,  relatively  clear  that  the  countries  of  ECE  have  managed  to  preserve  at  least  some  elements  of  the  communist  welfare  systems  (for  example,  universalism)  and  their  welfare  states  are  no  worse  (and  usually  better)  than  the  welfare  states  in  two  other  post-­‐authoritarian  parts  of  the  world:  South  America  and  East  Asia.6    The  crisis  of  2008  touched  ECE  economies  unevenly,  with  Poland  weathering  the  global  downturn  better  than  almost  all  other  European  countries.  The  overall  economic  growth  in  the  region  has  not  yet  recovered  to  the  pre-­‐2008  levels,  but  several  analysts  are  predicting  a  relatively  robust  recovery  and  the  resumption  of  the  previous  growth  patterns.      Having  reviewed  some  standard  views  on  the  progress  of  democratization  and  economic  situation  in  ECE,  I  will  now  briefly  discuss  civil  society  and  (political)  culture.    Civil  society7    Strong  civil  society  is  widely  seen  as  one  of  the  key  components  of  successful  democratic  consolidation.  The  condition  and  role  of  civil  society  in  Central  and  Eastern  Europe  after  1989  is  one  of  the  most  misunderstood  aspects  of  post-­‐communist  transformations.  The  prevailing  wisdom  has  it  that  the  decades  of  communist  rule  destroyed  foundations  of  civic  life,  dramatically  diminished  the  capacity  of  the  civic  sphere  to  regenerate  itself,  and  as  a  result  civil  society  –  conventionally  seen  as  an  indispensable  pillar  of  a  democratic  system  –  has  been  too  weak  to  play  any  significant  role  in  shaping  emerging  democracy  and  market  economy  or  prevent  authoritarian  reversals.  Thus,  the  countries  that  managed  to  successfully  democratize  have  done  so  through  reforms  from  above,  supported  by  powerful  international  actors,  and  without  any  significant  input  from  civil  society.    Ralf  Dahrendorf  formulated  the  most  influential  version  of  this  argument  when  shortly  after  the  revolutions  of  1989  he  famously  quipped:  “It  takes  six  months  to  create  new  political  institutions,  to  write  a  constitution  and  electoral  laws.  It  may  take  six  years  to  create  a  half-­‐viable  economy.  It  will  probably  take  sixty  years  to  create  civil  society.  Autonomous  institutions  are  the  hardest  to  bring  about.”8  The  originality  of  Dahrendorf’s  claim  was  startling,  since  the  1989  collapse  of  communist  regimes  was  seen  at  that  time  as  a  heroic  victory  of  civil  society  over  the  ossified  and  repressive  party  states.  Communism  disappeared  not  because  of  a  defeat  in  a  war,  but  was  smashed  by  citizen  movements  animated  by  liberal  ideas                                                                                                                  5  Ivan  Szelenyi  and  Katarzyna  Wilk.  2013.  Ibid.,  229-­‐64.  6  Stephan  Haggard  and  Robert  Kaufman.  2008.  Development,  Democracy,  and  Welfare  States.  Latin  America,  East  Asia,  and  Eastern  Europe.  Princeton:  Princeton  University  Press,  341.  7  The  following  analysis  is  based  on  Grzegorz  Ekiert  and  Jan  Kubik.  2014.  “Myths  and  Realities  of  Civil  Society,”  Journal  of  Democracy  25,  1  (January),  46-­‐58.  8  Ralf  Dahrendorf,  “Has  the  East  joined  the  West,”  New  Perspective  Quarterly,  7,  2  (Spring  1990):  42.  

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and  longing  for  political  and  civic  rights  only  democracy  can  guarantee.  And  yet  Dahrendorf’s  thesis  took  hold.  Paradoxically,  as  many  of  the  post-­‐communist  polities  have  been  becoming  more  democratic  and  liberal,  complaints  about  the  weakness  of  their  civil  societies  have  been  growing  louder.9    Most  of  the  early  empirical  comparative  research  on  civil  society  reaffirmed  the  Dahrendorf  thesis.  Moreover,  the  thesis  has  quickly  acquired  the  status  of  received  wisdom  applicable  to  all  societies  and  countries  that  emerged  from  the  communist  rule.  This  view  persisted  despite  the  existing  evidence  of  considerable  variance  in  political,  economic,  and  social  outcomes  across  the  region,  including  the  growing  disparity  in  the  condition  of  civil  society.  The  systemic  weakness  of  postcommunist  civil  societies  has  been  demonstrated  mostly  through  an  analysis  of  several  cross-­‐national  surveys  of  attitudes:  the  World  Value  Survey  and  similar  cross-­‐European  surveys.  This  is  surprising  since  there  is  a  wide  range  of  other  data  that  is  easily  available  and  can  shed  light  on  civil  society  development  and  transformation,  such  as  public  opinion  surveys  on  volunteering  and  membership  in  civil  society  organizations  conducted  at  the  national  level,  registers  of  organizations,  expert  assessments,  protest  event  analysis,  and  case  studies.  Taken  together,  these  sources  make  it  possible  to  assess  the  state  of  civil  society  –  most  importantly  its  activities  across  the  region  –  with  greater  precision  than  cross-­‐national  surveys  of  attitudes  alone.    For  example,  in  contrast  to  studies  of  public  opinion,  evaluations  by  expert  panels  support  the  notion  of  a  staggering  variance  in  civil  society  condition  and  capacity  across  the  post-­‐communist  region.  The  World  Bank  Governance  Index  shows  that  in  the  new  members  of  the  EU  –  particularly  in  Estonia,  Poland,  and  Slovenia  –  civil  society’s  organizational  composition  and  its  role  in  providing  citizens  with  voice  and  the  capacity  to  make  their  states  increasingly  accountable  is  not  much  worse  than  in  Western  Europe.  It  is  actually  better  than  in  Italy  and  Greece.10  USAID  2012  report  on  the  sustainability  of  civil  society  organizations  documents  diverse  and  diverging  paths  of  civil  society  development.  The  ex-­‐communist  members  of  European  Union  score  on  average  2.7,  with  Estonia  (2.0),  Poland  (2.2),  and  Czech  Republic  (2.6)  leading  the  pack.  The  countries  of  Eurasia  (Russia,  West  NIS,  and  Caucasus)  score  4.4,  and  the  five  states  of  Central  Asia  score,  on  average,  5.0.11  Similarly,  Freedom  House’s  experts  rate  the  strength  of  civil  society  on  the  scale  of  1  to  7.  The  average  score  for  new  EU  members  in  2013  was  1.95,  with  Poland  achieving  the  highest  

                                                                                                               9  Marc  M.  Howard,  The  Weakness  of  Civil  Society  in  Post-­‐Communist  Europe  (Cambridge:  Cambridge  University  Press,  2003);  Beate  Sissenich,  Building  States  without  Society:  European  Union  Enlargement  and  the  Transfer  of  EU  Social  Policy  to  Poland  and  Hungary  (Lanham:  Lexington  Books,  2007).  For  a  more  nuanced  comparative  analysis  see  Michael  Bernhard  and  Ekrem  Karakoc,  “Civil  Society  and  the  Legacies  of  Dictatorship,”  World  Politics  59  (July  2007):  539–67.  10  See  Voice  and  Accountability,  World  Bank  (http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/index.aspx#home,  accessed  October  9,  2013)  11  The  2012  CSO  Sustainability  Index  for  Central  and  Easter  Europe  and  Eurasia.  16th  Edition  (Washington,  DC:  US  Agency  for  International  Development).  The  lower  score  indicates  stronger  sustainability.  

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result  of  1.50.  For  the  Balkans  the  average  score  was  3.04,  and  for  the  Eurasian  States  –  5.25,  with  Turkmenistan  and  Uzbekistan  sharing  the  dubious  privilege  of  achieving  the  lowest  possible  grade  of  7.12    There  are  three  persistent  myths  about  post-­‐1989  civil  societies  in  former  communist  countries.  Ekiert  and  I  challenge  them  all.  First,  we  show  that  post-­‐communist  civil  societies  were  not  built  from  scratch.  To  a  significant  degree  they  were  based  on  associational  spheres  inherited  from  the  old  regime  and  on  the  organizational  traditions  going  back  to  the  pre-­‐communist  period.    Second,  some  comparative  analyses  of  European  civil  societies  suggest  that  a  new  type  of  civil  society  emerged  in  post-­‐communist  countries.  It  is  different  from  continental,  Anglo-­‐Saxon,  or  Nordic  types  and  its  roots  are  in  the  common  communist  past  and  the  specific  nature  of  1989-­‐91  revolutions.13  We  argue  the  opposite.  There  is  no  convergence  to  a  single  model.  To  the  contrary,  there  is  a  growing  divergence  in  sectoral  composition,  behavior,  normative  orientations  of  civil  society  actors,  and  the  dominant  type  of  relations  between  them  and  their  respective  states.  These  differences  reflect  not  only  long  standing  historical  traditions  of  various  sub-­‐regions  of  the  former  Soviet  bloc  and  contrasting  outcomes  of  postcommunist  transformations  but  also  new  divisions  of  the  European  space  generated  by  the  EU  enlargements.    Finally,  we  also  challenge  the  well-­‐established  myth  that  postcommunist  civil  societies  are  systemically  weak.  While  strength  or  weakness  are  not  very  useful  analytical  categories,  we  show  that  some  civil  societies  in  ECE  have  dense  and  comprehensive  organizational  structures,  operate  in  a  friendly  institutional  and  legal  environment,  and  have  some  capacity  to  influence  policy  making  on  local  and  national  levels.  In  other  postcommunist  countries,  especially  those  that  reverted  to  various  forms  of  authoritarian  rule,  civil  societies  are  often  organizationally  weak  and  politically  irrelevant.  Civil  society  actors  are  excluded  from  routine  consultation  and  governance  and  come  together  to  influence  politics  only  in  extraordinary  moments  of  rage  triggered  by  economic  downturns  or  gross  violations  of  laws  and  constitutional  provisions  by  their  states.    Culture    European  cultural  gradient    Predominant  in  popular  imagination,  many  journalistic  accounts,  and  some  academic  work  (still),  is  a  view  that  traversing  Europe  from  west  to  east  has  something  to  do  with  leaving  “civilization”  and  entering  a  zone  of  “backwardness.”  

                                                                                                               12  Freedom  House,  Nations  in  Transit  2013.    13  Edith  Archambault.  2009.  “The  Third  Sector  in  Europe:  Does  It  Exhibit  a  Converging  Moment.”  In  Enjolras  Bernhard  and  Karl  Henrik  Sivesind  (eds)  Civil  society  in  Comparative  Perspective,  Comparative  Social  Research  Vol.  26,  3-­‐24.  

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Some  articulations  of  this  idea  are  crude  and  jarring,  some  are  subtle  and  rather  tongue  in  cheek,  but  the  stereotype  seems  to  be  entrenched.  The  intellectual  sources  of  this  internal  European  Orientalism  are  thoroughly  investigated  (Wolff,  Todorova)  and  their  political  consequences  often  discussed.  Its  empirical  base  is  however  dubious.  In  a  truly  ingenious  study  published  in  2002,  thus  before  the  first  wave  of  “post-­‐communist  accessions,”  David  Laitin  reaches  the  following  conclusion:    

The  data  show  first  that  there  exists  a  pan-­‐European  cosmopolitan  culture  that  is  rapidly  infusing  the  applicant  countries  of  the  East.  Second,  the  transcendent  cosmopolitan  European  culture  exists  complementary  with  national  cultures,  which  remain  vibrant  in  the  West  and  in  the  East,  even  in  the  context  of  an  overarching  continental  culture.  Third,  the  divergences  of  national  cultures  within  the  member  states  of  the  EU  are  considerable;  yet  on  the  cultural  dimensions  examined  here,  the  national  cultures  of  the  applicant  states  fall  well  within  the  extremes  set  by  the  member  states.  In  fact,  the  data  present  a  stunning  result,  which  of  course  must  be  taken  as  preliminary  and  still  at  the  level  of  speculation:  that  the  cultural  patterns  exhibited  by  respondents  from  the  applicant  states  are  somewhat  closer  to  the  patterns  shown  among  the  original  six  EEC  members  than  is  the  case  for  the  post-­‐six  entrants.  To  the  degree  that  there  is  a  ‘catching  up’  process  in  the  works,  the  data  suggest  it  is  occurring  intergenerationally  among  the  populations  of  the  later  entrants  more  so  than  the  applicants,  who  are  already  closer  to  the  so-­‐called  Western  European  norm.”14  

 This  process  of  cultural  integration  between  the  “West”  and  “East,”  particularly  among  the  younger  cohorts  of  Europeans,  has  accelerated  and  deepened  since  2002.  There  is  not  room  here  to  analyze  it,  but  consider  the  results  of  the  last  Standard  Eurobarometer  (80/2013):    

In  23  EU  Member  States,  outright  majorities  of  respondents  feel  that  they  are  citizens  of  the  EU:  the  highest  proportions  are  reached  in  Luxembourg  (85%),  Malta  (74%),  Germany  (73%),  and  Finland  (73%).  The  exceptions  are  Greece  (42%),  the  UK  (42%),  Italy  (45%),  Cyprus  (46%)  and  Bulgaria,  where  respondents  are  almost  perfectly  divided  (49%,  vs.  50%  who  do  not  feel  they  are  EU  citizens).  After  a  7-­‐point  decrease,  Italy  now  belongs  to  the  group  of  countries  where  a  majority  of  the  population  does  not  feel  they  are  EU  citizens.”  

 Estonians,  Slovaks,  Poles,  Latvians,  Slovenes,  and  Hungarians  feel  that  they  are  citizens  of  the  EU  at  a  higher  rate  than  the  EU  average.    

                                                                                                               14  David  Laitin.  2002.  “Culture  and  National  Identity:  ‘The  East’  and  European  Integration”  West  European  Politics  25,  2  (April),  56.    

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To  illustrate  not  just  the  incorporation  of  the  ECE  countries  into  the  European  cultural  space,  but  also  the  “normalization”  of  this  new  situation,  let  me  invoke  just  one  example.  In  June  2013  Warsaw  hosted  the  third  edition  of  the  Meeting  of  National  Theaters.  By  all  account  it  was  a  spectacular  success.  This  edition  of  the  festival  featured  Strindberg’s  “The  Ghost  Sonata”  prepared  by  the  Royal  Dramatic  Theatre  from  Stockholm,  Viennese  Burgtheater  with  another  classic,  “The  Prince  of  Homburg,”  and  The  Alexandrinsky  Theater  from  St.  Petersburg  presenting  Valery  Fokin’s  “Zero  Liturgy.”  I  saw  “The  Expulsion”  directed  by  Oskaras  Koršunovas  and  performed  by  a  truly  amazing  cast  of  actors  from  the  Lithuanian  National  Theater  in  Vilnius.  The  play  is  about  Lithuanian  émigrés  in  London  who  try  to  survive  in  an  alien  “capitalist”  world,  retain  sanity  and  dignity,  earn  some  money,  build  new  lives,  cultivate  old  relationships,  protect  old  and  forge  new  loves,  and  philosophize  about  the  meaning  of  all  of  this.  Their  lives  need  to  be  constructed  in  a  new,  post-­‐cold  war  Europe,  open  and  teaming  with  previously  unimaginable  possibilities,  but  simultaneously  inaccessible,  harsh  and  unforgiving.  It  is  hard  to  imagine  a  more  thorough  and  moving  theatrical  investigation  of  the  migrant  realities  of  the  post-­‐1989  Europe.  The  young  Lithuanian  artists  who  created  this  work  are  architects  and  inhabitants  of  a  new  pan-­‐continental  cultural  space  that  they  take  for  granted,  so  characteristically  for  their  generation.    Cultural  explanations  of  the  rise  of  populism.    The  extant  data  and  studies  do  not  support  the  thesis  that  ECE  countries  suffer  more  from  the  populist  or  right-­‐wing  backlash  than  several  countries  of  “old”  Europe  (see  the  map  below).    

   

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Yet  the  illiberal  tendencies  are  pronounced  in  several  ECE  countries,  most  prominently  in  Hungary.  How  to  explain  the  intensification  of  these  tendencies  after  the  political  crises  of  the  mid-­‐2000s  and  the  economic  crisis  of  2008?    Cultural  explanations  should  deal  with  both  the  supply  and  demand  side  of  the  cultural-­‐political  process.  Many  studies  of  social  conservatism  and  susceptibility  to  illiberal  visions  among  sizeable  sectors  of  the  ECE  populace  see  these  features  as  products  of  long  durée  that  are  hard  to  change.  Entrenched  illiberal  (sub)cultures  tend  to  be  constructed  around  simple  binaries,  for  example:  (healthy)  East  versus  (decadent)  West,  true  Europeanness  based  on  unspoiled  religiosity  versus  corrupted  Europeanness  of  the  secularized  West,  etc.  It  has  been  shown  that  discourses  based  on  such  binaries  tend  to  resonate  with  people  who  have  the  heightened  need  for  cognitive  closure  and  epistemic  clarity.  And  such  a  need  –  it  is  further  argued  –  is  positively  correlated  with  lower  levels  of  education,  rural  lifestyles,  and  older  age.  Moreover,  this  need  becomes  more  pronounced  at  the  time  of  crisis  and  turmoil.15    So,  we  have  some  theories  (and  empirical  evidence)  concerning  the  demand  side  of  the  right-­‐wing,  populist  mobilization  in  the  last  decade  or  so.  But  analyses  of  the  demand  side  need  to  be  complemented  by  studies  of  the  supply  side.  Only  the  latter  can  provide  explanations  of  why  climates  of  opinion  (Zeitgeist)  or  dominant  popular  convictions  sometimes  change  (left,  right,  or  sideways?)  and  sometimes  do  not  in  response  to  economic  or  political  crises.  The  answers  must  come  from  the  study  of  deliberate  framing  (signifying)  activities  by  cultural-­‐political  entrepreneurs  via  specific  media  and  educational  institutions—political  parties’  “propaganda”  operations  among  them.  Here,  for  example,  we  see  both  Polish  PiS  and  Hungarian  FIDESZ  engaging  in  mnemonic  wars,  in  which  they  have  been  relentless  in  propagating  their  visions  of  the  post-­‐1989  transformations  as  a  period  of  wasted  opportunities.  In  PiS’s  vision,  this  period  has  its  roots  in  the  “illegitimate”  deal  at  the  Round  Table  that  guaranteed  ex-­‐communists  too  much  influence  in  the  public,  particularly  economic,  life  of  the  country.  All  other  parties  in  Polish  politics  celebrate  the  Round  Table  as  an  unprecedented  achievement  that  allowed  Poland  to  enter  a  path  of  democratic  transformation  without  violence.16    Let’s  take  a  quick  look  at  two  theories  that,  inter  alia,  propose  explanations  of  the  “right  wing/populist/illiberal  reaction”  to  rapid  political  and  economic  transformations  and/or  dramatic  dislocations  associated  with  globalization  or  economic  crises.  The  cultural  trauma  theory,  proposed  by  Jeffrey  Alexander  et  al.,                                                                                                                  15  Moreover,  research  in  political  psychology  suggests  that  such  needs  are  higher  among  the  politicians  and  supporters  of  the  right  than  of  the  center  (the  situation  on  the  left  is  more  complex).  See  Agnieszka  Golec  de  Zavala.  2011.  “Cognitive  Skills  and  Motivation  to  Adapt  to  Social  Change  among  Polish  Politicians,”  in  The  Psychology  of  Politicians,  ed.  Ashley  Weinberg.  Cambridge:  Cambridge  University  Press,  76-­‐96.    16  For  the  detailed,  comparative  analysis  of  the  post-­‐1989  mnemonic  wars  in  East  Central  Europe  see  Michael  Bernhard  and  Jan  Kubik,  eds.  Twenty  Years  after  Communism.  The  Politics  of  Memory  and  Commemoration.  Oxford:  Oxford  University  Press,  2014  (forthcoming  in  July).  

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seems  to  suggest  that  the  anti-­‐liberal  cultural  backlash  should  have  happened  relatively  early  during  the  process  of  post-­‐communist  transformations.17  It  did  not.  In  Poland  and  elsewhere,  the  parties  of  the  illiberal/populist  right  did  not  play  any  major  role  during  the  early  transitional  period  and  gradually  have  been  gaining  strength  and  achieved  power,  however  briefly,  only  in  the  mid-­‐2000s—fifteen  years  after  the  transformations  commenced.      As  the  cultural  trauma  theory  may  not  be  fully  convincing,  its  two  competitors  are  worthy  of  consideration.  First,  there  exists  an  under-­‐articulated  theory  that  focuses  on  the  supply  side  of  cultural  politics  in  post-­‐communist  states.  According  to  this  theory,  the  rise  of  illiberalism  is  explained  primarily  by  the  increasingly  coordinated  and  focused  entrepreneurial  activities  of  politicians,  grass-­‐root  movements,  and  activists  who  promote  a  worldview  that  frames  the  situation  as  unbearable  and  offer  political  programs  based  on  this  worldview.      Second,  on  the  demand  side,  cultural  trauma  theory  has  a  strong  competitor  in  a  theory  I  would  call  transformational  exhaustion.  Its  essence  seems  to  be  disappointment  with  the  elitism18  of  the  initial  period  of  reforms  and  their  outcomes.  This  gives  rise  to  a  growing  sense  of  exclusion  that  underpins  the  populace’s  thrashing  around  in  its  search  for  alternative  interpretive  frames  and  political  solutions.  As  Ost  observes:    

Many  turned  to  the  right  because  the  right  offered  them  an  outlet  for  their  economic  anger  and  a  narrative  to  explain  their  economic  problems  that  liberals,  believing  they  held  sway  over  workers,  consistently  failed  to  provide.  In  the  end,  workers  drifted  to  the  right  because  their  erstwhile  intellectual  allies  pushed  them  there  (emphasis  –  JK).19  

 Ost’s  explanation  is  incomplete;  it  deals  mostly  with  the  delayed  demand  for  new  ideas  or  narratives.  But  while  some  intellectuals  and  politicians  might  have  been  guilty  of  “pushing,”  others  have  been  hard  at  work  at  “pulling”  workers  (and  other  people)  toward  illiberal  explanations  and  policy  positions.  A  robust  explanation  of  the  2005-­‐2007  success  of  PiS  and  its  allies  in  Poland,  and  of  the  PiS’s  staying  power,  should  come  therefore  from  a  combination  of  these  two  theoretical  leads.  On  the  demand  side,  it  is  a  delayed  response  to  the  transformational  hardships  and  the  sense  of  exclusion.  This  seems  to  be  the  hallmark  of  the  second  phase  of  democratic  consolidation.  On  the  supply  side,  it  is  the  skillful  elaboration  and  propagation  of  

                                                                                                               17  Jeffrey  C.  Alexander,  Ron  Eyerman,  Berhard  Giesen,  Neil  J.  Smelser,  and  Piotr  Sztompka,  Cultural  Trauma  and  Collective  Identity.  Berkeley:  University  of  California  Press,  2004.  18  Jacek  Wasilewski,  “Trudny  test  demokratycznego  elityzmu”  [A  Difficult  Test  of  Democratic  Elitism],  in  Legitimizacja  w  Polsce.  Nieustajacy  kryzys  w  zmieniajacych  sie  warunkach  [Legitimization  in  Poland.  A  Continuous  Crisis  in  Changing  Conditions],  ed.  Andrzej  Rychard  and  Henryk  Domanski.  Warsaw:  IFiS  PAN,  2010,  33-­‐59.  19  David  Ost,  The  Defeat  of  Solidarity.  Ithaca,  NY:  Cornell  University  Press,  2005,  36.  

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illiberal/populist  narratives  that  are,  as  always,  directed  against  two  adversaries:  elitism  and  pluralism.20    In  order  to  develop  a  robust  theory  of  the  illiberal  and  authoritarian  challenge  in  post-­‐communist  Europe,  we  need  to  offer  an  explanation  of  the  delayed  popular  (populist)  response  to  the  tribulations  of  early  transformations.  Such  a  theory  will  have  to  deal  with  at  least  three  phenomena:  (1)  the  increased  susceptibility  of  certain  segments  of  ECE  populations  to  discourses  emphasizing  transformational  failures  rather  than  its  successes  (a  late  transformations  blues?),  (2)  the  rise  of  political  forces  and  political  entrepreneurs  (mostly  among  the  elites)  espousing  illiberal  discourses  (their  intellectual  sources,  institutional  vehicles,  and  areas  of  social  support),  and  (3)  the  composition  and  relative  strength  of  parties  and  actors  who  support  liberal  and  “cosmopolitan”  political  platforms  and  cultural  programs.  In  brief,  what  we  witness  in  ECE  is  a  struggle  for  cultural  hegemony  between  “traditionalism”  and  “liberal  cosmopolitanism,”  for  the  lack  of  better  terms.  We  also  see  that  this  battle  is  not  unique  to  the  Eastern  part  of  the  continent,  but  rather  has  become  central  in  the  politics  of  many  European  polities.    My  final  observation  comes  from  the  recently  completed  book  on  the  politics  of  memory  and  commemoration  in  the  postcommunist  Europe.21  Michael  Bernhard  and  I  observe  the  emergence  of  fractured  memory  regimes  in  several  countries  of  ECE,  including  Poland  and  Hungary.  Such  memory  regimes  emerge  when  a  specific  political  actor,  whom  we  call  memory  warrior,  enters  the  field  of  memory  politics.  The  question  is,  whether  the  fracturing  of  memory  regimes  by  warriors  necessarily  leads  to  problems  with  effective  and  stable  democratic  governance.  Just  as  Capoccia  has  shown  for  the  interwar  period  in  Europe,  polarized  polities,  even  those  under  extreme  economic  stress,  can  overcome  challenges  to  democratic  stability.22  It  is  important  that  elites  take  effective  steps  to  minimize  the  destabilizing  effects  of  memory  wars.  Perhaps  the  best  example  of  such  action  is  found  in  Poland.  Here  the  government  of  Donald  Tusk  effectively  blunted  the  attempts  of  the  Kaczyński  brothers  to  use  the  anniversaries  of  1989  to  recapture  power  after  the  PiS-­‐led  government  fell  in  2007.  By  staying  out  the  dispute  on  the  Roundtable  Agreement  and  acting  more  inclusively  on  the  anniversary  of  the  June  1989  elections,  Prime  Minister  Tusk  effectively  neutralized  the  attempts  of  the  Kaczyńskis  to  use  a  radical  reinterpretation  of  democratization  in  Poland  to  delegitimize  their  competitors.  This  effective  strategy  boomeranged  on  PiS  when  Bronisław  Komorowski  was  able  to  defeat  Jarosław  Kaczyński  in  the  presidential  elections  of  2010  and  when  later  that  year  PO  won  its  second  consecutive  election  and  Tusk  became  the  first  incumbent  prime  minister  in  post-­‐1989  Poland  to  be  reelected.  And  it  is  important  to  note  that  in  this  period  the  Polish  party  system  has  been  remarkably  stable,  

                                                                                                               20  Cas  Mudde,  “The  Populist  Zeitgeist,”  Government  and  Opposition  39,  no.  4  (2004):  543.  21  Michael  Bernhard  and  Jan  Kubik,  eds.  Twenty  Years  after  Communism.  The  Politics  of  Memory  and  Commemoration.  Oxford:  Oxford  University  Press,  2014  (forthcoming  in  July).    22  Giovanni  Capoccia.  2007.  Defending  Democracy.  Baltimore:  The  Johns  Hopkins  University  Press.  

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something  that  had  eluded  Polish  democracy  until  the  last  several  years.    Time  will  tell  if  this  will  remain  a  stable  outcome  or  if  the  PiS  will  be  able  to  capitalize  on  the  slowdown  in  Polish  economy  that  came  in  2013.    Clearly,  fractured  memory  regimes  (or,  more  generally,  strongly  polarized  political  cultures)  do  not  inevitably  pose  a  threat  to  democracy.  However,  by  exacerbating  the  polarization  of  existing  political  cleavages  they  have  the  potential  to  do  so.  As  in  all  cases  of  polarization,  the  response  of  elites  to  such  situations,  as  is  made  clear  by  the  recent  work  of  scholars  such  as  Bermeo  and  Capoccia,  is  instrumental.  Politicians  who  choose  to  cast  political  competition  as  a  zero-­‐sum  game  and  treat  the  loss  of  power  as  a  problem  that  requires  an  ex-­‐ante  institutional  fixes  that  improve  their  chances  of  staying  in  power,  are  highly  likely  to  be  mnemonic  (or  cultural)  warriors  as  well.    Conclusions    I  am  arguing  in  this  brief  for  a  complex  and  nuanced  diagnosis  of  the  situation  in  ECE  ten  years  after  accession.  The  picture  I  paint  has  six  elements:  

• Some  analysts  observe  mild  reversals  (or  slowdowns)  in  democratization  (Bertelsmann  and  Freedom  House);  

• Quite  a  few  economists  see  overall  economic  successes  (as  compared  to  other  regions  of  the  world)  after  25  years  of  transformations,  including  the  signs  of  overcoming  the  post-­‐2008  slump;  

• Sociologists  (relying  on  surveys)  see  the  growing  (slowly)  attachment  to  the  EU  and  its  institutions,  and  the  intensifying  sense  of  belonging  to  the  pan-­‐European  cultural  space  (Eurobarometer  80);  

• All  observers  see  the  emergence  of  the  populist,  right-­‐wing,  “traditionalist”  and  often  Euro-­‐skeptical  (however  mildly)  political  formations  and  (sub)cultures.  But  I  am  not  sure  whether  this  phenomenon  is  unique  for  or  particularly  pronounced  in  the  ECE  countries,  as  similar  trends  are  observed  across  the  continent.  In  the  ECE  EU  member  countries,  such  parties  are  dominant  at  the  moment  only  in  Hungary;  

• The  most  important  trend  of  the  last  political  decade  seems  to  be  the  emerging  dominance  of  the  right-­‐  or  left-­‐leaning  political  center,  partially  made  possible  by  the  political  “suicides”  committed  by  the  “old”  left  during  the  2000s.  Increasingly,  the  parties  and  key  personages  of  this  center  are  unaffiliated  with  “traditional”  political  orientations;  

• There  are  elite  actors  who  are  hell-­‐bent  on  igniting  and  continuing  cultural  wars,  for  example  in  the  area  of  collective/national  memory,  but  their  political  successes  are  modest,  as  long  as  their  efforts  are  counter-­‐balanced  by  more  pragmatic  and  task-­‐oriented  politicians.  

 To  me  the  glass  if  half  full  and  half  empty.  ECE  countries  have  achieved  considerable  successes  in  the  consolidation  of  democracy  and  economic  growth,  particularly  in  comparison  with  other  post-­‐authoritarian  regions  of  the  world.  Some  struggle  with  

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serious  problems  such  as  corruption  (particularly  Romania  and  Bulgaria).23  Some  have  issues  with  their  democratic  performance,  but  they  are  not  lethal  and  –  most  importantly  –  not  much  different  from  the  problems  faced  by  several  non-­‐ECE  European  countries.  

                                                                                                               23  But  it  should  be  noted  that  in  the  most  recent  Transparency  International  (TI)  ranking  (CPI  2013),  Romania  scores  43,  as  much  as  Italy  and  ahead  of  Brazil  (41).  And  Bulgaria  (41)  is  ahead  of  China  and  Greece  (both  40).  There  are  many  problems  with  the  TI  system  of  scoring,  but  it  seems  to  be  the  best  tool  we  have  at  the  moment  to  compare  countries.