What is philosophy

Introduction to PhilosophyIntroduction to Philosophy

What Is PhilosophyWhat Is Philosophy

Abir A. ChaabanAbir A. Chaaban

PHIL200 PHIL200

SocratesSocrates

Socrates - The Father of Moral Philosophy Socrates - The Father of Moral Philosophy (469-399 BCE) (469-399 BCE)

The Rise of the Athenian The Rise of the Athenian Democracy/Empire Democracy/Empire The Persian Wars 490-479BCE The Persian Wars 490-479BCE The Age of Pericles (479-431BCE) The Age of Pericles (479-431BCE)

The Sophists The Sophists The Importance of Rhetoric/Argument The Importance of Rhetoric/Argument

The Apology The Apology

The Charges: The Charges: Aristophanes in his play "The Clouds" - "Socrates is Aristophanes in his play "The Clouds" - "Socrates is

guilty of criminal meddling, in that he inquires into guilty of criminal meddling, in that he inquires into things below the earth and in the sky, and makes the things below the earth and in the sky, and makes the weaker argument defeat the stronger, and teaches weaker argument defeat the stronger, and teaches others to follow his example." others to follow his example." Investigation of the physical world Investigation of the physical world Socrates is a Sophist he takes money for teaching others Socrates is a Sophist he takes money for teaching others

how to use bad reasoning) how to use bad reasoning) Socrates' Defense: Socrates' Defense:

He had no interest in physical speculation He had no interest in physical speculation Socrates accepts no money, the young follow of their own Socrates accepts no money, the young follow of their own

will will

The Apology The Apology TheOracle at Delphi TheOracle at Delphi A friend of Socrates' went to the Oracle and asked the priestess A friend of Socrates' went to the Oracle and asked the priestess

"Who is the wisest of mortals?" and the priestess replied: "Socrates "Who is the wisest of mortals?" and the priestess replied: "Socrates is the most wise." When Socrates heard this he was surprised, since is the most wise." When Socrates heard this he was surprised, since he thought of himself as "most ignorant.“ he thought of himself as "most ignorant.“

Socrates' Investigation of the Riddle: (Socrates' Investigation of the Riddle: (elenchuselenchus) ) The Politicians The Politicians The Poets The Poets The Craftsmen The Craftsmen After "testing" the saying of the god, Socrates became aware of After "testing" the saying of the god, Socrates became aware of

the truth of the saying that "Socrates is most wise" .the truth of the saying that "Socrates is most wise" . Socrates was most wise because he was aware of his Socrates was most wise because he was aware of his

ignorance. ignorance. And, those around Socrates, those who claimed a "knowledge" in And, those around Socrates, those who claimed a "knowledge" in

the sphere of values, were ignorant of their ignorance.the sphere of values, were ignorant of their ignorance.


The Formal ChargeThe Formal Charge The Affidavit sworn by Meletus: "Socrates is The Affidavit sworn by Meletus: "Socrates is

guilty of corrupting the minds of the young, and guilty of corrupting the minds of the young, and of believing in deities of his own invention of believing in deities of his own invention instead of the gods recognized by the state." instead of the gods recognized by the state." Corrupting the youth Corrupting the youth Introducing new gods Introducing new gods

Socrates' Defense: Socrates cross-examines Socrates' Defense: Socrates cross-examines MeletusMeletus Socrates Socrates cancan not intentionally corrupt the youth not intentionally corrupt the youth Socrates Socrates cancan not be an atheist not be an atheist


Socrates arguments against Meletus are Socrates arguments against Meletus are examples of Socrates' method of argument examples of Socrates' method of argument called called 'elenchus''elenchus' or "cross examination." or "cross examination." Socrates uses the claims of Meletus to demonstrate Socrates uses the claims of Meletus to demonstrate

an inconsistency in the prosecutor's case. an inconsistency in the prosecutor's case. This is the method Socrates utilizes when arguing This is the method Socrates utilizes when arguing

with his opponents. with his opponents. Socrates tries to demonstrate that neither Socrates Socrates tries to demonstrate that neither Socrates

nor his interlocutor have significant knowledge. nor his interlocutor have significant knowledge.

The ApologyThe Apology

The Verdict: Guilty The Verdict: Guilty The Sentence: The Sentence:

In the courts of Athens, the prosecution would In the courts of Athens, the prosecution would suggest one punishment and the defense would offer suggest one punishment and the defense would offer a counter punishment. Then the jury would decide a counter punishment. Then the jury would decide between them. between them.

Meletus, put forward the death penalty, so it's Meletus, put forward the death penalty, so it's Socrates' turn to offer a counter penalty. Socrates' turn to offer a counter penalty.

Maintaince at the Prytaneum, or Maintaince at the Prytaneum, or Banishment, or Banishment, or Fine (one Fine (one minaeminae = aproximately six months of wages; = aproximately six months of wages;

bumped up to 30 bumped up to 30 minaeminae at the behest of Socrates' at the behest of Socrates' friends.friends.


Socrates accepts death: Socrates accepts death: Death ought not to be feared because it can only Death ought not to be feared because it can only

be one of two things: be one of two things: Either death is an annihilation of the soul and Either death is an annihilation of the soul and

therefore everlasting unconsciousness; Or, death is therefore everlasting unconsciousness; Or, death is the migration of the soul from this world to another. the migration of the soul from this world to another.

IfIf death is an annihilation of the soul, death is an annihilation of the soul, thenthen it is like a it is like a dreamless sleep. dreamless sleep.

IfIf death is a migration of the soul from the world of the death is a migration of the soul from the world of the living to the world of the dead, living to the world of the dead, thenthen Socrates can Socrates can philosophize with the souls of the dead. philosophize with the souls of the dead.

Therefore, death ought not be feared.Therefore, death ought not be feared.


What is 'Philosophy' for Socrates? What is 'Philosophy' for Socrates? A way of life ( the unexamined life is not A way of life ( the unexamined life is not

worth living). worth living). A search for: A search for:

Wisdom: Wisdom: knowledge of good and badknowledge of good and bad, , thethe right way to liveright way to live

John LockeJohn Locke( Source Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)( Source Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

John Locke (b. 1632, d. 1704) was a British John Locke (b. 1632, d. 1704) was a British philosopher, Oxford academic and medical philosopher, Oxford academic and medical researcher.researcher.

Locke held a government position and was Locke held a government position and was successively charged with collecting information successively charged with collecting information about trade and colonies, economic writer, about trade and colonies, economic writer, opposition political activist, and finally a opposition political activist, and finally a revolutionary whose cause ultimately triumphed revolutionary whose cause ultimately triumphed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

John LockeJohn Locke( Source: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)( Source: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Locke's work is characterized by opposition to Locke's work is characterized by opposition to authoritarianism. This opposition is both on the authoritarianism. This opposition is both on the level of the individual person and on the level of level of the individual person and on the level of institutions such as government and church. institutions such as government and church. For the individual, Locke wants each of us to use For the individual, Locke wants each of us to use

reason to search after truth rather than simply accept reason to search after truth rather than simply accept the opinion of authorities or be subject to superstition. the opinion of authorities or be subject to superstition. He wants us to proportion assent to propositions to He wants us to proportion assent to propositions to the evidence for them. the evidence for them.

John Locke John Locke Essay Concerning Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingHuman Understanding

In his In his Essay concerning Human UnderstandingEssay concerning Human Understanding Locke’s goal is to determine the limits of human Locke’s goal is to determine the limits of human understanding. understanding.

In the four books of the In the four books of the EssayEssay Locke considers Locke considers the sources and nature of human knowledge. the sources and nature of human knowledge. Locke argues that we have no innate knowledge. Locke argues that we have no innate knowledge.

(differs from Descartes) (differs from Descartes) ideas are the materials of knowledge and all ideas ideas are the materials of knowledge and all ideas

come from experience.come from experience.


The term ‘idea,’ Locke tells us “…stands for The term ‘idea,’ Locke tells us “…stands for whatsoever is the Object of the Understanding, whatsoever is the Object of the Understanding, when a man thinks.” (Book II Essay I, 1, 8, p. when a man thinks.” (Book II Essay I, 1, 8, p. 47).47). Experience is of two kinds, sensation and reflection, Experience is of two kinds, sensation and reflection,

Some ideas we get only from sensation, some only Some ideas we get only from sensation, some only from reflection and some from both. from reflection and some from both. Sensation tells us about things and processes in the external Sensation tells us about things and processes in the external

world. world. Reflection, tells us about the operations of our own minds. Reflection, tells us about the operations of our own minds.


In the fourth book of In the fourth book of An Essay Concerning An Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingHuman Understanding Locke tells us what Locke tells us what knowledge is and what humans can know and knowledge is and what humans can know and what they cannot (not simply what they do and what they cannot (not simply what they do and do not happen to know). do not happen to know).

Locke defines knowledge as ”the perception of Locke defines knowledge as ”the perception of the connexion and agreement or disagreement the connexion and agreement or disagreement and repugnancy of any of our Ideas“ (IV. I. 1. p. and repugnancy of any of our Ideas“ (IV. I. 1. p. 525). 525).


An Essay Concerning Human An Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingUnderstanding has a focus on the has a focus on the principles of morality and revealed religion. principles of morality and revealed religion.

In Book IV Chapters XVII, XVIII and XIX In Book IV Chapters XVII, XVIII and XIX Locke deals with Locke deals with the nature of reason, the nature of reason, the relation of reason to faith and the the relation of reason to faith and the nature of enthusiasm. nature of enthusiasm.


Locke remarks that all Locke remarks that all sectssects make use of reason make use of reason as far as they can. Only when this fails them that as far as they can. Only when this fails them that they have recourse to faith and claim that what they have recourse to faith and claim that what is revealed is above reason. is revealed is above reason.

““And I do not see how they can argue with And I do not see how they can argue with anyone or even convince a gainsayer who uses anyone or even convince a gainsayer who uses the same plea, without setting down strict the same plea, without setting down strict boundaries between faith and reasonboundaries between faith and reason.”.” (IV. XVIII. (IV. XVIII. 2. p. 689) 2. p. 689)


In Locke defines reason as “the discovery In Locke defines reason as “the discovery of the of the certaintycertainty or or probabilityprobability of such of such propositions or truths, which the mind propositions or truths, which the mind arrives at by deduction made from such arrives at by deduction made from such ideas, as it has got by the use of its natural ideas, as it has got by the use of its natural faculties; viz, by the use of sensation or faculties; viz, by the use of sensation or reflection.” (IV. XVIII. ii. p. 689) reflection.” (IV. XVIII. ii. p. 689)


Faith, on the other hand, is Faith, on the other hand, is assentassent to any to any proposition proposition “…upon the credit of the proposer, “…upon the credit of the proposer, as coming from God, in some extraordinary way as coming from God, in some extraordinary way of communication.”of communication.”

Locke distinguishes between the Locke distinguishes between the original original revelationrevelation by God to some person, and by God to some person, and traditional revelationtraditional revelation which is the original which is the original revelation revelation “…delivered over to others in Words, “…delivered over to others in Words, and the ordinary ways of our conveying our and the ordinary ways of our conveying our Conceptions one to anotherConceptions one to another. (IV. xviii, 3 p. 690) . (IV. xviii, 3 p. 690)


Traditional revelationTraditional revelation can never produce as can never produce as much certainty as the contemplation of the much certainty as the contemplation of the agreement or disagreement of our own ideas. agreement or disagreement of our own ideas.

Similarly (Similarly (original revelationoriginal revelation) revelations about ) revelations about matters of fact do not produce as much certainty matters of fact do not produce as much certainty as having the experience one self. as having the experience one self.

Revelation, then cannot contradict what we Revelation, then cannot contradict what we know to be true. If it could, it would undermine know to be true. If it could, it would undermine the trustworthiness of all of our faculties. the trustworthiness of all of our faculties.

John Locke Essay Concerning John Locke Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingHuman Understanding

In the section of Locke’s Essay of Human Understanding In the section of Locke’s Essay of Human Understanding In In The Quest for Truth,The Quest for Truth, Locke argues that Locke argues that the the philosophical quest entails a respect, even love, of the philosophical quest entails a respect, even love, of the truthtruth. .

Socrates has a similar reverence for the truth. He spent Socrates has a similar reverence for the truth. He spent his entire life looking for it, and accepted death rather his entire life looking for it, and accepted death rather than give up his search for the truth. And, even though than give up his search for the truth. And, even though he claimed not to have reached the goal himself, nor had he claimed not to have reached the goal himself, nor had anyone else he met, he still believed that we must strive anyone else he met, he still believed that we must strive after the truth. after the truth. http://www.mesacc.edu/~bfvaughan/text/101/notes/introdhttp://www.mesacc.edu/~bfvaughan/text/101/notes/introduction/locke.htmluction/locke.html


John Locke believes that there are certain John Locke believes that there are certain facts about the world, and that we can facts about the world, and that we can know many of them. know many of them. This assumption makes it essential that we This assumption makes it essential that we

know the difference between believing and know the difference between believing and knowing.knowing.

The necessity of evidence for formulating and The necessity of evidence for formulating and maintaining beliefs and knowledge.maintaining beliefs and knowledge.


What is The Value of Knowledge? What is The Value of Knowledge?

Intrinsic ValueIntrinsic Value - Good for its own sake - Good for its own sake

Instrumental ValueInstrumental Value - Good for the sake of - Good for the sake of something else (e.g., what we can do with it) something else (e.g., what we can do with it)

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Three possible grounds of Assent: Three possible grounds of Assent: ReasonReason - "Natural Revelation" - "Natural Revelation"

That which is self-evident (i.e., tautologies and That which is self-evident (i.e., tautologies and definitional truths) definitional truths)

That which can be That which can be deductivelydeductively demonstrated (i.e., the demonstrated (i.e., the rules of logic and mathematics) rules of logic and mathematics)

That which can be That which can be inductivelyinductively inferred (i.e., all inferred (i.e., all empirical knowledge) empirical knowledge)

RevelationRevelation - "discoveries communicated by God - "discoveries communicated by God immediately" immediately" http://www.mesacc.edu/~bfvaughan/text/1http://www.mesacc.edu/~bfvaughan/text/101/notes/introduction/locke.html01/notes/introduction/locke.html


Revelation is an Revelation is an "enlargement""enlargement" of rational of rational knowledge, but it knowledge, but it can never be contrary can never be contrary to reasonto reason. .

God is the supreme rational being. The God is the supreme rational being. The way we know a revelation truly comes way we know a revelation truly comes from God is by that fact that it can be from God is by that fact that it can be proven by reason. Being thus verifiable, proven by reason. Being thus verifiable, revelation is a legitimate source of revelation is a legitimate source of knowledge. knowledge.

What is philosophy

Education

socrates socrates

method socrates

socrates investigation

clouds socrates

friend of socrates

apology socrates arguments

physical world socrates

physical speculation