What is a Laptop

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Laptop

A MacBook by Apple, a laptop with a traditional design.

A laptop, often called a notebook, is a portable personalcomputer with a "clamshell" form factor, with a keyboardon the lower part of the “clamshell” and a thin computerscreen on the upper portion, which is opened up to usethe computer. The keyboard and screen are folded shut

for transportation of the laptop. Laptops are suitable formobile use.[1] Although originally there was a distinctionbetween laptops and notebooks, the former being biggerand heavier than the latter, as of 2014, there is often nolonger any difference.[2] Laptops are commonly used in avariety of settings, such as at work, in education, and forpersonal multimedia and home computer use.

A laptop combines the components, inputs, outputs andcapabilities of a desktop computer, including the displayscreen,  speakers, a keyboard, pointing devices (such asa  touchpad  or trackpad), a processor and memory intoa single unit. Most 2016-era laptops also have inte-

grated  webcams and built-in microphones. The devicecan be powered either from a rechargeable battery or bymains electricity from an AC adapter. Laptops are di-verse devices and specialised kinds, such as rugged note-books for use in construction or military applications orconvertible computers, have been optimized for specificuses. The hardware specifications, such as the processorspeed and memory capacity significantly vary betweendifferent types, makes, and models.

Portable computers, which later developed into modernlaptops, were originally considered to be a small nichemarket, mostly for specialized field applications, such as

in the military, for accountancy, or for travelling salesrepresentatives. As portable computers became closer tothe modern laptop, they became widely used for a variety

of purposes.[3]

1 Term variants

The terms   laptop   and   notebook   are used fairly inter-changeably to describe a portable computer in English,although in some parts of the world one or the other maybe preferred. There is some question as to the original

etymology and specificity of either term—the term  lap-top appears to have been coined in the early 1980s to de-scribe a mobile computer which can be used on one’s lap,and to distinguish these devices from earlier, much heav-ier, portable computers (often called “luggables” in retro-spect). The term “notebook” appears to have gained cur-rency somewhat later as manufacturers started produc-ing even smaller portable devices, further reducing theirweight and size and incorporating a display roughly thesize of A4 paper; these were marketed as  notebooks   todistinguish them from bulkier laptops.[4] Regardless ofthe etymology, by the late 1990s, the terms were inter-changeable.

2 History

Main article: History of laptopsAs the personal computer (PC) became feasible in 1971,

Alan Kay with “Dynabook” prototype (5 November 2008 in

Mountain View, California)

the idea of a portable personal computer followed. A

“personal, portable information manipulator” was imag-ined by  Alan Kay at  Xerox PARC in 1968,[5] and de-scribed in his 1972 paper as the "Dynabook".[6]

1

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2   3 CLASSIFICATION 

Epson HX-20

The IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable(SCAMP) was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype wasbased on the IBM PALM processor.[7]

The IBM 5100, the first commercially available portable

computer, appeared in September 1975, and was basedon the SCAMP prototype.[8]

As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, thenumber of portables increased rapidly. The Osborne 1,released in 1981, used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 23.6pounds (10.7 kg). It had no battery, a 5 in (13 cm) CRTscreen, and dual 5.25 in (13.3 cm) single-density floppydrives. In the same year the first laptop-sized portablecomputer, the Epson HX-20, was announced.[9] The Ep-son had a   LCD  screen, a rechargeable battery, and acalculator-size printer in a 1.6 kg (3.5 lb) chassis. BothTandy/RadioShack and HP also produced portable com-

puters of varying designs during this period.[10][11]

The first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in theearly 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Aus-tralia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationallyuntil 1984–85. The US$8,150 (US$19,980 today) GRiDCompass 1100, released in 1982, was used at NASA andby the military among others. The Gavilan SC, releasedin 1983, was the first computer described as a “laptop”by its manufacturer.[12] From 1983 onward, several newinput techniques were developed and included in laptops,including the touchpad (Gavilan SC, 1983), the pointingstick (IBM ThinkPad 700, 1992) and handwriting recog-

nition (Linus Write-Top,[13] 1987). Some CPUs, such asthe 1990 Intel  i386SL, were designed to use minimumpower to increase battery life of portable computers andwere supported by dynamic power management featuressuch as Intel SpeedStep and AMD PowerNow!  in somedesigns.

Displays reached VGA resolution by 1988 (CompaqSLT/286), and colour screens started becoming a com-mon upgrade in 1991 with increases in resolution andscreen size occurring frequently until the introduction of17"-screen laptops in 2003. Hard drives started to beused in portables, encouraged by the introduction of 3.5”

drives in the late 1980s, and became common in lap-tops starting with the introduction of 2.5” and smallerdrives around 1990; capacities have typically lagged be-

hind physically larger desktop drives. Optical storage,read-only CD-ROM followed by writeable CD and laterread-only or writeable DVD and  Blu-ray, became com-mon in laptops early in the 2000s.

3 Classification

Apple MacBook Pro , a laptop with a traditional design

Sony VAIO P series  , variant of a subnotebook 

A Samsung Chromebook  , typical netbook 

Since the introduction of portable computers during late70s, their form has changed significantly, spawning a va-riety of visually and technologically differing subclasses.

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3.1 Traditional laptop   3

Asus Transformer Pad  , a hybrid tablet, powered by Android OS 

Microsoft Surface Pro 3 , a prominent 2-in-1 detachable

Alienware desktop replacement gaming laptop

Except where there is a distinct legal   trademark around

a term (notably Ultrabook) there are rarely hard distinc-tions between these classes, and their usage has variedover time and between different sources.

Panasonic Toughbook  , a rugged laptop

3.1 Traditional laptop

The form of a traditional laptop computer is a clamshell,with a screen on one of its inner sides and a keyboardon the opposite. It can be easily folded to conserve spacewhile traveling. The screen and keyboard are inaccessiblewhile closed. Devices of this form are commonly called a'traditional laptop' or notebook, particularly if they havea screen size of 11 to 17 inches measured diagonallyand run a full-featured operating system like  Windows10,   OS X  or  Linux. Traditional laptops are the mostcommon form of laptops, although Chromebooks, Ultra-books, convertibles and laplets (described below) are be-coming more common, with similar performance beingachieved in their more portable or affordable forms.

3.2 Subnotebook

Main article: Subnotebook

A subnotebook oran ultraportable is a laptop designed andmarketed with an emphasis on portability (small size, lowweight and often longer battery life). Subnotebooks areusually smaller and lighter than standard laptops, weigh-ing between 0.8 and 2 kg (2-5 lb),[14] with a battery lifeexceeding 10 hours.[15] Since the introduction of netbooks 

and ultrabooks , the line between subnotebooks  and eithercategory has been blurry. Netbooks are a more basic andcheap type of subnotebook, and while some ultrabooks

have a screen size too large to qualify as subnotebooks,certain ultrabooks fit in a subnotebook category. One no-table example of a subnotebook is Apple Macbook Air.

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3.3 Netbook

Main article: Netbook

The netbook was an inexpensive, light-weight, energy-

efficient form of laptop, especially suited for wirelesscommunication and Internet access.[16][17] Netbooks firstbecame commercially available around 2008, weighingunder 1 kg, and with a display size of under 9”. The namenetbook  (with  net  short for  Internet ) is used as “the de-vice excels in web-based computing performance”.[18] Tobegin with, netbooks were mostly sold with light-weightvariants of the   Linux   operating system, although laterversions often have Windows XP or Windows 7 operat-ing systems. The term “netbook” is largely obsolete,[19]

although machines that would have once been callednetbooks—small, inexpensive, and low powered—neverceased being sold, in particular the smaller Chromebook

models.

3.4 Convertible, hybrid, 2-in-1

Main article: 2-in-1 PC

The latest trend of   technological convergence   in aportable computer industry spawned a broad range of de-vices, with a combined features of several previously sep-arate device types. The  hybrids ,   convertibles  and   2-in-

1s  emerged, crossover devices, which share traits of bothtablets and laptops. All such devices have a touchscreendisplay designed to allow users to work in a  tablet  mode,using either multi-touch gestures or a stylus/digital pen.

Convertibles  are devices with a some possibility to con-ceal a hardware keyboard. Keyboard on such devices canbe flipped, rotated or slid behind the back of its chassis,thus transforming convertible form from a laptop into atablet.   Hybrids  have a keyboard detachment mechanism,and due to this fact all critical components are situated inthe part with the display.   2-in-1s  can have a hybrid or aconvertible form, often dubbed 2-in-1 detachables  and 2-

in-1 convertibles  respectively, but are distinguished by theability to run a desktop OS, such as Windows 10. Becauseof this, 2-in-1s are often marketed as laptop replacement 

tablets .

2-in-1s are often very thin, around 10 millimetres (0.39in), and light devices with a long battery life. Com-pared to mainstream tablets, 2-in-1s are distinguishedfrom them as they feature an x86-architecture CPU (typ-ically low- or ultra-low-voltage model), such as Intel Corei5, run a full-featured desktop OS like Windows 10, andhave a number of typical laptop I/O ports, such as USB 3and Mini DisplayPort.

2-in-1s designed to be used not only as a media consump-tion device, but also as a valid desktop or laptop replace-ment due to their ability to run desktop applications, such

as Adobe Photoshop. It is possible to connect multipleperipheral devices, such as a mouse, keyboard and a num-ber of external displays to a modern 2-in-1.

Microsoft Surface Pro-series devices and Surface Bookexemplify modern 2-in-1 detachables, whereas   Lenovo

Yoga-series computers are a variant of 2-in-1 convert-ibles. While the older Surface RT and Surface 2 havethe same chassis design as the Surface Pro, their use ofARM processors and Windows RT do not classify themas 2-in-1s, but as hybrid tablets. Similarly, a number ofhybrid laptops run a  mobile operating system, such asAndroid. These include Asus’s Transformer Pad-seriesdevices, example of hybrids with its detachable keyboarddesign, which not fall in the category of 2-in-1s.

3.5 Desktop replacement

Main article: Desktop replacement computerSee also: Gaming computer § Gaming laptop computers

A desktop-replacement laptop is a class of large device,which is not intended primarily for mobile use. Theyare bulkier and not as portable as other laptops, and areintended for use as compact and transportable alterna-tives to a desktop computer.[20] Desktop replacements arelarger and typically heavier than other classes of laptops.They are capable of containing more powerful compo-nents and have a 15-inch or larger display.[20]

Desktop replacement laptops’ operation time on batter-ies is typically shorter than other laptops, in rare casesthey have no battery at all. In the past, some laptops inthis class used a limited range of desktop components toprovide better performance for the same price at the ex-pense of a battery life, although the practice has largelydied out.[21]

The names Media Center Laptops and Gaming Laptops areused to describe specialized notebook computers, oftenoverlapping with the desktop replacement form factor.[14]

3.6 Rugged notebook

Main article: Rugged computer

A rugged laptop is designed to reliably operate in harshusage conditions such as strong vibrations, extreme tem-peratures, and wet or dusty environments. Ruggedlaptops are usually designed from scratch, rather thanadapted from regular consumer laptop models. Ruggedlaptops are bulkier, heavier, and much more expensivethan regular laptops,[22] and thus are seldom seen in reg-ular consumer use.

The design features found in rugged laptops include a rub-ber sheeting under keyboard keys, a sealed port and con-nector covers, a passive cooling, very bright displays, eas-

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4.1 Display   5

ily readable in daylight, cases and frames made of mag-nesium alloys that are much stronger, than plastic foundin commercial laptops and solid-state storage devices orhard disc drives, that are shock mounted to withstandconstant vibrations. Rugged laptops are commonly usedby public safety services (police, fire and medical emer-

gency), military, utilities, field service technicians, con-struction, mining and oil drilling personnel. Rugged lap-tops are usually sold to organizations, rather than individ-uals, and are rarely marketed via retail channels.

4 Components

Main article: Personal computer hardwareThe basic components of laptops function identically

Miniaturization: a comparison of a desktop computer mother-

board (ATX  form factor) to a motherboard from a 13” laptop

(2008 unibody Macbook )

Inner view of a Sony VAIO  laptop

to their desktop counterparts. Traditionally they wereminiaturized  and adapted to mobile use, although desk-

top systems increasingly use the same smaller, lower-power parts which were originally developed for mobileuse. The design bounds on power, size, and cooling of

A SODIMM  memory module

laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop partscompared to that of desktop components, although thatdifference has increasingly narrowed.

In general, laptop components are not intended to be re-placeable or upgradable. This is one of the major differ-ences between laptops and desktop computers, becausethe large “tower” cases used in desktop computers are de-signed so that new motherboards, hard disks, sound cards,RAM and other components can be added. Most desktoptowers have empty sections where new components canbe added. A few, such as processors, follow their ownstandards but are difficult to replace because of other fac-tors (for example, in the case of processors cooling andaccess limitations can make upgrades very difficult or im-possible). In a very compact laptop, such as laplets, theremay be no upgradeable components at all.[23]

Intel, Asus, Compal, Quanta and some other laptop man-ufacturers have created the   Common Building Blockstandard for laptop parts to address some of the ineffi-ciencies caused by the lack of standards.[24]

The following list summarizes the differences and distin-guishing features of laptop components in comparison todesktop personal computer parts.[25]

4.1 Display

Most modern laptops feature a 13 inches (33 cm) or largercolor active matrix displays based on LED lighting withresolutions of 1280×800 (16:10) or1366×768 (16:9) pix-els and above. Models with LED-based lighting offerlesser power consumption, and often higher brightness.Netbooks with a 10 inches (25 cm) or smaller screen typ-ically use a resolution of 1024×600, while netbooks andsubnotebooks with a 11.6 inches (29 cm) or 12 inches(30 cm) screen use standard notebook resolutions. Hav-ing a higher resolution display may allow more items to fitonscreen at a time, improving the user’s ability to multi-task, although at the higher resolutions on smaller screens,the resolution may only serve to display sharper graph-

ics and text rather than increasing the usable area. Sincethe introduction of the  MacBook Pro with Retina dis-play in 2012, there has been an increase in the availability

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6   4 COMPONENTS 

of very-high resolution (1920×1080 and higher) displays,even in relatively small systems, and in typical 15-inchscreens resolutions as high as 3200×1800 are available.

External displays can be connected to most laptops, andmodels with Mini DisplayPort can handle up to three.[26]

4.2 Central processing unit

A laptop’s central processing unit  (CPU) has advancedpower-saving features and produces less heat, than oneintended purely for desktop use. Typically laptop CPUhave two processor cores, although 4-core models are alsoavailable. For low price and mainstream performance,there is no longer a significant performance differencebetween laptop and desktop CPUs, but at the high endthe fastest 4-to-8-core desktop CPUs are still substantiallyoutperform the fastest 4-core laptop processors, at the ex-

pense of massively higher power utilization and heat gen-eration — the fastest laptop processors top out at 56 wattsof heat, while the fastest desktop processors top outat 150watts.

There have been a wide range of CPUs designed for lap-tops  available from both  Intel,   AMD and other manu-facturers. On non-x86 architectures, Motorola and IBMproduced the chips for the former PowerPC-based Applelaptops (iBook and PowerBook). Many laptops have re-movable CPUs, although this has become less commonin the past few years as the trend has been to increasinglythin and light models. In other laptops the CPU is sol-

dered on the motherboard and is non-replaceable, this isnearly universal in ultrabooks, for example.

In the past, some laptops have used a desktop processorinstead of the laptop version and have high performancegains at the cost of greater weight, heat andlimitedbatterylife. The practice is largely extinct as of 2013.

Unlike their desktop counterparts, laptop CPUs arenearly impossible to   overclock. A thermal operatingmode of laptops is very close to its limits and there is al-most no headroom for an overclocking related operatingtemperature increase. A possibility to improve a cool-ing system of a laptop to allow overclocking is extremelyrare.

4.3 Graphical processing unit

On most laptops a  graphical processing unit   (GPU) isintegrated into the CPU to conserve power and space.This was introduced by Intel with the  Core i-series ofmobile processors in 2010, and similar  APU processorsby AMD later that year. Prior to that, lower-end ma-chines tended to use graphics processors integrated to thesystem chipset, while higher end machines had a separate

graphics processor. In the past, laptops lacking a separategraphics processor were limited in their utility for gam-ing and professional applications involving 3D graphics,

but the capabilities of CPU-integrated graphics has con-verged with the low-end of dedicated graphics proces-sors in the past few years. Higher-end laptops intendedfor gaming or professional 3D work still come with ded-icated, in some cases even dual, graphics processors onthe motherboard or as an internal expansion card. Since

2011, these almost always involve switchable graphics sothat when there is not demand for the higher performancededicated graphics processor, the more power-efficientintegrated graphics processor will be used.   Nvidia Op-timus is an example of this sort of system of switchablegraphics.

4.4 Memory

Most laptops use SO-DIMM memory modules, these areabout half the size of desktop DIMMs.[25] They may be

accessible from the bottom of the laptop for ease of up-grading, or placed in locations not intended for user re-placement. Most laptops have two memory slots, al-though some of the lowest-end will have only one, andsome high end models (usually mobile engineering work-stations, and a few high-end models intended for gaming)have four. Most mid-range laptops are factory equippedwith 4–6 GB of RAM. Netbooks are commonly equippedwith only 1–2 GB of RAM and generally only expandableto 2 GB, if at all. Because of the limitation of DDR3 SO-DIMM to a maximum of 8 GB per module, this meansmost laptops can only be expanded to a total of 16 GBof memory, until systems using DDR4 memory start be-coming available.

Laptops may have memory soldered to the motherboardto conserve space, and allows the laptop to have a thinnerchassis design. Soldered memory cannot be upgraded.

4.5 Internal storage

Traditionally laptops had a  hard disk drive (HDD) as amain non-volatile storage, but it proved inefficient for usein mobile devices due to a high power consumption, heatproduction and a presence of moving parts, which cancause damage to both the drive itself and the data stored,when a laptop is unstable physically, e.g. during its usewhile transporting it or after its accidental drop. With theadvent of flash memory technology, most mid- to high-end laptops opted to a more compact, power efficient andfast solid-state drives (SSD), which eliminated a hazardof a drive and data corruption, caused by a laptop phys-ical impacts.[27] A solid-state drive (SSD) is one of themost effective upgrades to make in a laptop and an excel-lent choice for a primary system disk. With their superiorread and write speeds, they can instantly make operatingsystem more responsive. Boot up and shut down times are

significantly shorter as compared to mechanical disk, andapplications will typically open much faster.[28] In mostlow-end laptops however, HDDs are still dominating, due

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4.7 Input    7

to their significantly lower cost.

Most laptops use 2.5-inch drives, which are a smaller ver-sion of a 3.5-inch desktop drive form factor. 2.5-inchHDDs are more compact, power efficient and produceless heat, while at the same time have a smaller capac-

ity and a slower  data transfer rate. For SSDs however,these miniaturization related trade-offs are nonexistent,because SSDs were designed to have very small footprint.Some very compact laptops support even smaller 1.8-inchHDDs. SSDs feature a traditional 2.5- or 1.8-inch or alaptop-specific mSATA or M.2 card’s form factor.

SSDs have a higher data transfer rate, lower powerconsumption, lower failure rate, and a largercapacity[29][30][31][32] compared to HDDs. How-ever, HDDs have a significantly lower cost. The largestcurrent capacity of a hard drive is 10TB, while the largestcapacity of a SSD is 16TB.

Most laptops can contain a single 2.5-inch drive, but asmall number of laptops with a screen wider than 17inches can house two drives. Some laptops support a hy-brid mode, combining a 2.5-inch drive, typically a spa-cious HDD for data, with a mSATA or M.2 drive, typ-ically having less capacity, but is a significantly fasterSSD. The operating system partition would be located onthe SSD, to increasing laptop I/O performance. Anotherway to increase performance is to use a smaller SSD of16-32 GB as a cache drive in a compatible OS.

Some laptops may have very limited drive upgradeabil-ity when the SSD used has a non-standard shape and/or

requires a proprietary daughter card.[33]

Some laptops have very limited space on the installedSSD, instead relying on availability of cloud storage ser-vices for storing of user data.  Chromebooks are a promi-nent example of this approach. A variety of   externalHDDs   or   NAS   data storage servers with support ofRAID  technology can be attached to virtually any lap-top over such interfaces as  USB,  FireWire,  eSATA, orThunderbolt or over a wired or wireless network to fur-ther increase space for the storage of data.

Most laptops also incorporate a card reader which allowsfor use of memory cards, typically SD or microSD cards.

4.6 Removable media drive

CD/DVD/BD optical disc drive was nearly universal onfull-sized models, and it remains fairly common for nowin laptops with a screen wider than 15 inches (38 cm),although the trend towards thinner and lighter machinesis gradually eliminating it. It is very uncommon in com-pact laptops, such as subnotebooks and netbooks. Laptopoptical drives tend to follow a standard form factor, andusually have a standard mSATA  connector. It is often

possible to replace an optical drive with a newer model.In certain laptop models there is a possibility to replacean optical drive with a second hard drive, using a caddy

that fills the extra space the optical drive would have oc-cupied.

4.7 Input

A pointing stick, touchpad or both are used to control theposition of the cursor on the screen, and an integratedkeyboard[34] is used for typing. An external keyboardand/or mouse may be connected using USB port, or wire-lessly, e.g. via Bluetooth. With the advent of ultrabooksand support of touch input by recent operating systems,such as Windows 8.1, multitouch touchscreen display isa common feature of a modern laptop.

4.8   I/O ports

On a typical laptop there are several  USB ports, an ex-

ternal monitor port (VGA, DVI, HDMI or Mini Display-Port), audio in/out (often in form of a single socket) arecommon. It’s possible to connect up to three external dis-plays to a modern laptop via a single Mini DisplayPort,utilizing a multi-stream transport technology.[26]

Apple, in a 2015 version of its   MacBook, transitionedfrom a number of different I/O ports to a single  USB-C   port.[35] This port can be used both for chargingand connecting variety of devices through the use ofaftermarket adapters.   Google, with its updated versionof Chromebook Pixel, shows a similar transition trend to-wards USB-C, although keepingan older USB-A ports for

a better compatibility with older devices.[36]

Although being common until the end of the   2000sdecade, Ethernet network port can be rarely found on amodern laptop, due to overwhelming use of a  wirelessnetworking, such as Wi-Fi.

Legacy ports such as a PS/2 keyboard/mouse port, serialport, parallel port or  Firewire  are increasingly rare. OnApple's systems, and on a handful of other laptops, thereare also Thunderbolt ports.

4.9 Expansion cards

In the past, a   PC Card   (formerly   PCMCIA) orExpressCard  slot for expansion cards was often presenton laptops to allow adding and removing functionality,even when the laptop is powered on, these are becom-ing increasingly rare since the introduction of USB 3.0.Some internal subsystems such as: ethernet, Wi-Fi, or aWireless cellular modem can be implemented as replace-able internal expansion cards, usually accessible under anaccess cover on the bottom of the laptop. The standardsfor such cards is PCI Express, which comes in both miniand even smaller M.2 sizes. In newer laptops it is not un-

common to also see Micro SATA (mSATA) functionalityon PCI Express Mini or M.2 card slots allowing the useof those slots for SATA-based solid state drives.[37]

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4.10 Battery and power supply

Main article: Smart Battery

Current laptops utilize lithium ion batteries, with some

thinner models using the flatter lithium polymer technol-ogy. These two technologies have largely replaced theolder nickel metal-hydride batteries. Battery life is highlyvariable by model and workload, and can range from onehour to nearly a day. A battery’s performance graduallydecreases over time, substantial reduction in capacity istypically evident after one to three years of regular use,depending on the charging and discharging pattern andthe design of the battery. Innovations in laptops and bat-teries have seen situations which the battery can provideup to 24 hours of continued operation, assuming averagepower consumption levels. An example is the HP Elite-Book 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.[38]

A laptop’s battery is charged using an external power sup-ply, which outputs a DC voltage typically in the range of7.2—24 volts. The power supply is usually external, andconnected to the laptop through a DC connector cable. Inmost cases it can charge the battery and power the laptopsimultaneously. When the battery is fully charged, thelaptop continues to run on power supplied by the externalpower supply, avoiding a battery use. Battery charges in ashorter period of time if laptop is turned off or sleeping.The charger typically adds about 400 grams (0.88 lb) tothe overall transporting weight of a laptop, although somemodels are substantially heavier or lighter.

4.11 Cooling

Waste heat from operation is difficult to remove in thecompact internal space of a laptop. Early laptops usedheat sinks placed directly on the components to be cooled,but when these hot components are deep inside the de-vice, a large space-wasting air duct is needed to exhaustthe heat. Modern laptops instead rely on heat pipes torapidly move waste heat towards the edges of the de-vice, to allow for a much smaller and compact fan and

heat sink cooling system. Waste heat is usually exhaustedaway from the device operator, towards the rear or sidesof the device. Multiple air intake paths are used sincesome intakes can be blocked, such as when the deviceis placed on a soft conforming surface like a chair cush-ion. It is believed that some designs with metal cases, likeApple’s aluminum MacBook Pro and MacBook Air, alsoemploy the case of the machine as a heat sink, allowing itto supplement cooling by dissipating heat out of the de-vice core. Secondary device temperature monitoring mayreduce performance or trigger an emergency shutdown ifit is unable to dissipate heat, such as if the laptop were to

be left running and placed inside a carrying case. Such acondition has the potential to melt plastics or ignite a fire.

Aftermarket cooling pads can be used with most laptops

to further improve temperature operating conditions.

4.12 Docking station

A  docking station  (sometimes referred to simply as a

dock ) is a laptop accessory that contains multiple ports,and in some cases also expansion slots and/or bays forfixed or removable drives. A laptop connects and discon-nects easily to a docking station, typically through a singlelarge proprietary connector.

Docking station is an especially popular laptop accessoryin a corporate computing environment, due to a possi-bility of a docking station to transform a laptop into afull-featured desktop replacement, yet to allow for its easyrelease, which can be advantageous to road warrior em-ployees.

If just more number of existing ports needed, or theirposition on a laptop is inconvenient, one can use a morecheaper passive device, a port replicator. These devicessimply mates to the connectors on the back of the lap-top, or connects via a standardized port such as USB orFireWire.

4.13 Charging station

Laptop charging trolleys, also known as laptop trolleysor laptop carts, are mobile storage containers to chargelaptops, netbooks and tablet computers all together. The

trolleys are predominantly used in schools that have re-placed their traditional static   ICT[39] suites of desktopcomputers with laptops, but do not have enough plugsockets in their buildings to charge all of the devices.

The trolleys can be wheeled between rooms andclassrooms so that anyone in a particular building can ac-cess fully charged IT equipment.[40]

Laptop charging trolleys are also used to deter and pro-tect against opportunistic and organized theft. Schools,especially those with open plan designs, are often primetargets for thieves and laptops, netbooks and tablets caneasily be concealed and removed from buildings. Laptop

charging trolleys were designed and constructed to protectagainst theft. They are generally made out of steel, andthe laptops remain locked up while not in use. Althoughthe trolleys can be moved between areas in   buildings,they can often also be mounted to the floor or walls toprevent thieves walking off with investments, especiallyovernight.[39]

4.14 Solar panel

Main article: Solar notebook

In some laptops, solar panels are able to generate enoughsolar power for the laptop to operate.[41] The One Lap-

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9

top Per Child Initiative released the OLPC XO-1 laptopwhich was tested and successfully operated by use of so-lar panels.[42] Presently, they are designing a OLPC XO-3laptop with these features. The OLPC XO-3 can oper-ate with 2 Watts of electricity because its renewable en-ergy resources generate a total of 4 Watts.[43][44] Samsung

has also designed a NC215S Solar powered notebook thatwill be sold commercially in the US market.[45]

5 Advantages

A teacher using laptop as part of a workshop for school children.

Wikipedia co-founder   Jimmy Wales  using a laptop on a park 

bench.

Portability  is usually the first feature mentioned in anycomparison of laptops versus desktop PCs.[46] Physicalportability allows that a laptop can be used in manyplaces— not only at home and at the office, but alsoduring commuting and flights, in coffee shops, in lec-ture halls and libraries, at clients’ location or at a meetingroom, etc. The portability feature offers several distinctadvantages:

•   Productivity: Using a laptop in places where adesktop PC can not be used, and at times that wouldotherwise be wasted. For example, an office worker

managing their e-mails during an hour-long com-mute by train, or a student doing his/her homeworkat the university coffee shop during a break betweenlectures.[47]

•   Immediacy: Carrying a laptop means having in-

stant access to various information, personal andwork files. Immediacy allows better collaborationbetween coworkers or students, as a laptop can beflipped open to present a problem or a solution any-time, anywhere.

•   Up-to-date information: If a person has morethan one desktop PC, a problem of synchronizationarises: changes made on one computer are not auto-matically propagated to the others. There are waysto resolve this problem, including physical transferof updated files (using a USB flash memory stick orCDRs) or using synchronization software over theInternet. However, using a single laptop at both lo-cations avoids the problem entirely, as the files existin a single location and are always up-to-date.

•   Connectivity: A proliferation of   Wi-Fi   wire-less networks and cellular broadband data services(HSDPA, EVDO and others) combined with a near-ubiquitous support by laptops[48] means that a laptopcan have easy Internet and local network connec-tivity while remaining mobile. Wi-Fi networks andlaptop programs are especially widespread at univer-sity campuses.[49]

Other advantages of laptops:

•   Size: Laptops are smaller than desktop PCs. This isbeneficial when space is at a premium, for examplein small apartments and student dorms. When notin use, a laptop can be closed and put away.

•   Low power consumption: Laptops are severaltimes more power-efficient than desktops. A typicallaptop uses 20–120 W, compared to 100–800 W fordesktops. This could be particularly beneficial forbusinesses (which run hundreds of personal com-

puters, multiplying the potential savings) and homeswhere there is a computer running 24/7 (such as ahome media server, print server, etc.)

•   Quiet: Laptops are often quieter than desktops, dueboth to the components (quieter, slower 2.5-inchhard drives) and to less heat production leading touse of fewer and slower cooling fans.

•   Battery: a charged laptop can continue to be used incase of a power outage and is not affected by shortpower interruptions and blackouts. A desktop PCneeds a UPS to handle short interruptions, blackouts

and spikes; achieving on-battery time of more than20–30 minutes for a desktop PC requires a large andexpensive UPS.[50]

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10   6 DISADVANTAGES 

•   All-in-One: designed to be portable, laptops haveeverything integrated into the chassis. For desktops(excluding all-in-ones) this is divided into the desk-top, keyboard, mouse, display, and optional periph-erals such as speakers.

6 Disadvantages

Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages inthe following areas:

6.1 Performance

While the performance of mainstream desktops and lap-top is comparable, and the cost of laptops has fallen

less rapidly than desktops, laptops remain more expen-sive than desktop PCs at the same performance level. [51]

The upper limits of performance of laptops remain muchlower than the highest-end desktops (especially “work-station class” machines with two processor sockets), and“bleeding-edge” features usually appear first in desktopsand only then, as the underlying technology matures, areadapted to laptops.

For Internet browsing and typical office applications,where the computer spends the majority of its timewaiting for the next user input, even relatively low-end laptops (such as Netbooks) can be fast enough

for some users.[52]

As of mid-2010, at the lowest end,the cheapest netbooks—between US$200–300—remainmore expensive than the lowest-end desktop computers(around US$200) only when those are priced without ascreen/monitor. Once an inexpensive monitor is added,the prices are comparable.

Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful forhigh-resolution movie playback, some 3D gaming andvideo editing and encoding. However, laptop proces-sors can be disadvantaged when dealing with higher-enddatabase, maths, engineering, financial software, virtual-ization, etc.This is because laptops use the mobile ver-

sions of processors to conserve power, and these lag be-hind desktop chips when it comes to performance.[53]

Also, the top-of-the-line mobile graphics processors(GPUs) are significantly behind the top-of-the-line desk-top GPUs to a greater degree than the processors, whichlimits the utility of laptops for high-end 3D gaming andscientific visualization applications.

Some manufacturers work around this performance prob-lem by using desktop CPUs for laptops.[54]

6.2 Upgradeability

Upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared todesktops, which are thoroughly standardized. In general,

hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily. Opti-cal drives and internal expansion cards may be upgradedif they follow an industry standard, but all other internalcomponents, including the motherboard, CPU and graph-ics, are not always intended to be upgradeable.   Intel,Asus, Compal, Quanta and some other laptop manufac-

turers have created the  Common Building Block stan-dard for laptop parts to address some of the inefficienciescaused by the lack of standards.

The reasons for limited upgradeability are both techni-cal and economic. There is no industry-wide standardform factor for laptops; each major laptop manufacturerpursues its own proprietary design and construction, withthe result that laptops are difficult to upgrade and havehigh repair costs. With few exceptions, laptop compo-nents can rarely be swapped between laptops of compet-ing manufacturers, or even between laptops from the dif-ferent product-lines of the same manufacturer.

Some upgrades can be performed by adding external de-vices, either USB or in expansion card format such as PCCard. Devices such as sound cards, network adapters,hard and optical drives, and numerous other peripheralsare available, but these upgrades usually impair the lap-top’s portability, because they add cables and boxes to thesetup and often have to be disconnected and reconnectedwhen the laptop is on the move.

6.3 Ergonomics and health effects

6.3.1 Wrists

Laptop cooler (silver) under laptop (white), preventing heating of 

lap and improving laptop airflow

Because of their small and flat keyboard and trackpadpointing devices, prolonged use of laptops can causerepetitive strain injury.[55] Usage of separate, externalergonomic keyboards   and pointing devices is recom-mended to prevent injury when working for long periods

of time; they can be connected to a laptop easily by USBor via a docking station. Some health standards requireergonomic keyboards at workplaces.

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6.4 Durability   11

6.3.2 Neck, spinal

The integrated screen often requires users to lean overfor a better view, which can cause neck and/or spinal in-juries. A larger and higher-quality external screen canbe connected to almost any laptop to alleviate that and

to provide additional screen space for more productivework. Another solution is to use a computer stand.

For anyone not buying a new screen, a simple methodto reduce risk of spinal injury is to position the laptop’sscreen in a manner that an obtuse angle (more than 90degrees open) is formed. It is then possible for the neckto remain straight during use of the device.

6.3.3 Possible effect on fertility

A study by   State University of New York   researchers

found that heat generated from laptops can increase thetemperature of the lap of male users when balancing thecomputer on their lap, potentially putting sperm count atrisk. The study, which included roughly two dozen menbetween the ages of 21 and 35, found that the sitting po-sition required to balance a laptop can increase scrotumtemperature by as much as 2.1 °C (3.78 °F). However,further research is needed to determine whether this di-rectly affects male sterility.[56]

A 2010 study of 29 males published in Fertility and Steril-

ity  found that men who kept their laptops on their lapsexperienced scrotal hyperthermia (overheating) in which

their scrotal temperatures increased by up to 2 °C. The re-sulting heat increase, which could not be offset by a laptopcushion, may increase male infertility.[57][58][59][60][61]

A common practical solution to this problem is to placethe laptop on a table or desk, or to use a book or pil-low between the body and the laptop. Another solutionis to obtain a cooling unit for the laptop. These are usu-ally USB powered and consist of a hard thin plastic casehousing one, two or three cooling fans – with the entireassembly designed to sit under the laptop in question –which results in the laptop remaining cool to the touch,and greatly reduces laptop heat buildup.[62]

6.3.4 Thighs

Heat generated from using a laptop on the lap can alsocause skin discoloration on the thighs known as "toastedskin syndrome".[63][64][65][66]

6.4 Durability

6.4.1 Equipment wear

Because of their portability, laptops are subject to morewear and physical damage than desktops. Componentssuch as screen hinges, latches,   power jacks and power

A clogged  heat sink  on a laptop after 2.5 years of use

cords deteriorate gradually from ordinary use. A liquidspill onto the keyboard, a rather minor mishap with adesktop system, can damage the internals of a laptop andresult in a costly repair. One study found that a laptop isthree times more likely to break during the first year ofuse than a desktop.[67]

In order to help maintain a laptop, it is recommended toclean a laptop every three months for dirt, debris, dust,and food particles. Most cleaning kits consist of a lint-free or  Microfiber  cloth for the LCD screen and key-board, compressed air for getting dust out of the fan, andcleaning solution. It is also important to never use harshchemicals such as bleach as they can cause damage to thelaptop.[68]

6.4.2 Parts replacement

Original external components are expensive, and usu-ally proprietary and non-interchangeable; other parts areinexpensive—a power jack can cost a few dollars—buttheir replacement may require extensive disassembly andreassembly of the laptop by a technician. Other inexpen-sive but fragile parts often cannot be purchased separatefrom larger more expensive components.[69] The repaircosts of a failed motherboard or LCD panel often exceed

the value of a used laptop. Currently, parts can be or-dered from third party vendors.

6.4.3 Heating and cooling

Laptops rely on extremely compact cooling systems in-volving a fan and  heat sink that can fail from blockagecaused by accumulated airborne dust and debris. Mostlaptops do not have any type of removable dust collectionfilter over the air intake for these cooling systems, result-ing in a system that gradually causes it to conduct moreheat and noise as the years pass. In some cases the laptop

starts to overheat even at idle load levels. This dust is usu-ally stuck inside, where the fan and heat sink meet, whereit could not be removed by a casual cleaning and vacu-

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12   7 MAJOR BRANDS AND MANUFACTURERS 

uming. Most of the time compressed air can dislodge thedust and debris but may not entirely remove it. After thedevice is turned on the loose debris is rebuilt back up thecooling system by the fans. A complete disassembly isusually required to clean the laptop entirely. However,preventative maintenance such as regular cleaning of the

heat sink via compressed air can prevent dust build upon the heat sink. Many laptops are difficult to disassem-ble by the average user and contain components that aresensitive to electrostatic discharge (ESD).

Cooling system can be modified to make it run continu-ously upon power on in order to dissipate heat early.

6.4.4 Battery life

Battery life is limited because the capacity drops withtime, eventually requiring replacement after as little as

a year. A new battery typically stores enough energy torun the laptop for three to five hours, depending on us-age, configuration, and power management settings. Yet,as it ages, the battery’s energy storage will dissipate pro-gressively until it lasts only a few minutes. The battery isoften easily replaceable and a higher capacity model maybe obtained for longer life. Some laptops (specificallyultrabooks) do not have the usual removable battery andhave to be brought to the service center of its manufac-turer to have its battery replaced. Replacement batteriescan also be expensive.

6.5 Security and privacy

Main article: Laptop theft

Because they are valuable, common, and portable, lap-tops are prized targets for  theft. Every day, over 1,600laptops go missing from U.S. airports.[70] The cost ofstolen business or personal data, and of the resulting prob-lems (identity theft, credit card fraud, breach of privacy),can be many times the value of the stolen laptop itself.Consequently, physical protection of laptops and the safe-

guarding of data contained on them are both of great im-portance.

Most laptops have a Kensington security slot, which canbe used to tether them to a desk or other immovable ob-ject with a security cable and lock. In addition, modernoperating systems and third-party software offer disk en-cryption functionality, which renders the data on the lap-top’s hard drive unreadable without a key or a pass phrase.Some laptops also now have additional security elementsadded by the consumer, including eye recognition soft-ware and fingerprint scanning components.[71] Softwaresuch as LoJack for Laptops, Laptop Cop, and Gadget-

Track have been engineered to help victims locate andrecover a laptop in the event of theft.

In Robbins v. Lower Merion School District  (Eastern Dis-

trict of Pennsylvania 2010), school-issued laptops loadedwith special software afforded two high schools with thecapability to take secret webcam shots of their studentsat home, via their students’ laptops.[72][73][74]

Setting one’s laptop with password on its firmware (Pro-

tection against going to firmware setup or booting), inter-nal HDD/SSD (Protection against accessing it and load-ing operating system on it afterwards), and every useraccount of the operating system are additional securitymeasures that (s)he should do.[75][76]

6.5.1 Laptop Theft Recovery

Laptop theft is a serious problem, with fewer than 5% oflost or stolen laptops ever recoveredby the companies thatown them.[77] However, that number may decrease due toa variety of companies and software solutions specializ-

ing in laptop recovery. For example, Lojack for Laptopsis security software that includes an Investigations andTheft Recovery Team made up of ex law enforcementofficers who locate and recover stolen laptops. The ser-vice utilizes persistent technology, which means it can'tbe removed or disabled by a thief. LoJack can only workto track down a missing laptop when it is turned on and itis connected to the Internet. The owner can also remotelydelete files or lock their device, so no one can access theirpersonal data.

7 Major brands and manufactur-ers

The Sony Vaio brand is among the best selling laptops.

Main article: List of laptop brands and manufacturersFurther information: Market share of personal computervendors

There are a multitude of laptop brands and manufactur-ers; several major brands, offering notebooks in variousclasses, are listed in the box to the right.

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The major brands usually offer good service and support,including well-executed documentation and driver down-loads that will remain available for many years after a par-ticular laptop model is no longer produced. Capitalizingon service, support and brand image, laptops from majorbrands are more expensive than laptops by smaller brands

and ODMs.

Some brands are specializing in a particular class oflaptops, such as gaming laptops (Alienware), high-performance laptops (HP Envy), netbooks (EeePC) andlaptops for children (OLPC).

Many brands, including the major ones, do not designand do not manufacture their laptops. Instead, a smallnumber of Original Design Manufacturers (ODMs) de-sign new models of laptops, and the brands choose themodels to be included in their lineup. In 2006, 7 majorODMs manufactured 7 of every 10 laptops in the world,

with the largest one (Quanta Computer) having 30% ofworld market share.[78] Therefore, there often are identi-cal models available both from a major label and from alow-profile ODM in-house brand.

8 Sales

Battery-powered portable computers had just 2% world-wide market share in 1986.[79] However, laptops have be-come increasingly popular, both for business and personaluse.[80] Around 109 million notebook PCs shipped world-

wide in 2007, a growth of 33% compared to 2006.[81]

In 2008 it was estimated that 145.9 million notebookswere sold, and that the number would grow in 2009to 177.7 million.[82] The third quarter of 2008 was thefirst time when worldwide notebook PC shipments ex-ceeded desktops, with 38.6 million units versus 38.5 mil-lion units.[80][83][84][85]

May 2005 is the first time notebooks have outsold desk-tops in the US over the course of a full month; at the timenotebooks sold for an average of $1,131 while desktopssold for an average of $696.[86]

When looking at operating systems, for Microsoft Win-

dows laptops the average selling price (ASP) showed adecline in 2008/2009, possibly due to low-cost netbooks,drawing US$689 at U.S. retail in August 2008. In 2009,ASP had further fallen to $602 by January and to $560in February. While Windows machines ASP fell $129in these seven months, Apple (Mac) OS X  laptop ASPdeclined just $12 from $1,524 to $1,512.[87]

9 Extreme environments

See also: International Space Station § Computers

The ruggedized Grid Compass computer was used since

the early days of the Space Shuttle program. Thefirst  commercial  laptop used in space was a  Macintoshportable   in 1991 aboard Space Shuttle mission   STS-43.[88][89][90] Mac and other laptop computers continueto be flown aboard manned spaceflights though the onlylong duration flight certified computer for the Interna-

tional Space Station is the ThinkPad.[91] As of 2011 over100 ThinkPads were aboard the ISS. Laptops used aboardthe International Space Station and other spaceflights aregenerally the same ones that can be purchased by the gen-eral public but needed modifications are made to allowthem to be used safely and effectively in a weightless en-vironment such as updating the cooling systems to func-tion without relying on hot air rising and accommodationfor the lower cabin air pressure.[92]

Laptops operating in harsh usage environments and con-ditions, such as strong vibrations, extreme temperaturesand wet or dusty conditions differ from those used in

space in that they are  custom designed for the task anddo not use commercial off-the-shelf hardware.

10 Accessories

A common accessory for laptops is a laptop sleeve, laptopskin or laptop case, which provides a degree of protectionfrom drops, impacts, or scratches. Sleeves, which are dis-tinguished by being relatively thin and flexible, are mostcommonly made of neoprene, with sturdier ones madeof low-resilience polyurethane. Some laptop sleeves are

wrapped in ballistic nylon to provide some measure ofwaterproofing. Bulkier and sturdier cases can be madeof metal with polyurethane padding inside, and may havelocks, for added security.

Another common accessory is a   laptop cooler, a devicewhich helps lower the internal temperature of the laptopeither actively or passively. A common active method in-volves using fans to draw heat away from the laptop, whilea passive method might involve propping the laptop up onsome type of pad so it can receive more air flow.

11 Former features

Features that certain early models of laptops used to havebut not available anymore in most recent models of lap-tops include:

•   Reset (Cold restart) button in a hole

•   Instant power off button in a hole

•  Integrated charger or power adapter inside the lap-top

•  Floppy disk drive

•  Serial port

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15

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14 External links

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17

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text

•   Laptop Source:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop?oldid=713293037 Contributors:  Damian Yerrick, Sabre23t, Sandos, SimonP, Heron,Olivier, Kemkim, Edward, Bdesham, Patrick, Modster, Nixdorf, Pnm, Menchi, Tannin, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Eurleif, TakuyaMurata,Mythril, Arpingstone, Paul A, Minesweeper, Pcb21, Ronabop, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, Mac, Brianiac, Anobo, Ugen64, Cema, Dynamism,Jonik, Conti, Hike395, Vroman, JerryW, Guaka, Ww, Dysprosia, Slark, Andrewman327, Greenrd, Echoray, Saltine, Ed g2s, Wernher,Stormie, Finlay McWalter, Rossumcapek, Carlossuarez46, Lumos3, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Tonsofpcs, Securiger, SEK-IUCHI, Rfc1394, Roscoe x, Encyclopedic, Dodger~enwiki, Hadal, Victor, Fuelbottle, Lupo, Dina, Matt Gies, Exploding Boy, Centrx,Giftlite, Smjg, DocWatson42, Jacoplane, Gtrmp, DavidCary, Lethe, Michael Devore, Henry Flower, Frencheigh, Alensha, Mboverload,Moogle10000, AlistairMcMillan, Alvestrand, Jackol, Jrdioko, Ragib, Chowbok, Jonathan Grynspan, Zeimusu, Sonjaaa, DCrazy, Antan-drus, BozMo, JoJan, J3ff, Piotrus, Wehe, MacGyverMagic, Rdsmith4, Icairns, Boojum, Blue387, Rgrg, Joyous!, Ratiocinate, Zondor,Iwilcox, Trevor MacInnis, JamesTeterenko, Tcr25, Jacooks, PhotoBox, Mike Rosoft, Blorg, Jayjg, O'Dea, Imroy, Macrowiz, Discospinster,Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Pak21, Florian Blaschke, Samboy, Berkut, Alistair1978, ESkog, Andrejj, Kjoonlee, Plugwash, Socka-tume, CanisRufus, Glenlarson, MBisanz, Kiand, Mwanner, RichardW.M. Jones, Tverbeek, Aude, Sietse Snel, Triona, Jpgordon, JasonYuy,Bobo192, Smalljim, Get It, Of~enwiki, Kjkolb, Rajah, Martinultima, Idleguy, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Nkedel, Knucmo2, Poweroid,Alansohn, Guy Harris, Free Bear, Patrick Bernier, Arthena, Atlant, Jtalledo, Ricky81682, Diablosnuevos, Riana, AzaToth, Eagleamn,MarkGallagher, Water Bottle, Fritzpoll, Malo, PeteVerdon, Angelic Wraith, Wtmitchell, ProhibitOnions, Wtshymanski, Danhash, 2mcm,Max Naylor, RainbowOfLight, Randy Johnston, Alex Jaspersen, SteinbDJ, Gene Nygaard, MIT Trekkie, Kerry7374, Djsasso, Blaxthos,UTSRelativity, Epimethius, Kenyon, Falcorian, Mahanga, Brookie, Daveydweeb, Novacatz, Weyes, Woohookitty, Sud-Pol, Wcd, Camw,LOL, PoccilScript, Ae-a, Thorpe, TomTheHand, Matey~enwiki, Pol098, Tripleplay, WadeSimMiser, JeremyA, Brentdax, Zilog Jones, Al-

bertCahalan~enwiki, Wikiklrsc, GregorB, Crucis, Toussaint, LinkTiger, Palica, Dysepsion, Nollij, Demivisage, Graham87, Cuvtixo, Ibran,SamuraiClinton, FreplySpang, Limegreen, Dananderson, Pmj, Edison, Search4Lancer, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Zbxgscqf, Jake Wartenberg, As-tronaut, Bob A, Linuxbeak, Tangotango, Collard, Feydey, Vegaswikian, XLerate, Jehochman, The wub, Bhadani, MooseBlaster, Win777,Sheldonc, Gringer, Rutrut, RCRC, RobertG, Arnero, Felixdakat, Belutz~enwiki, Clemsonfan21, Riluve, Nivix, Gurch, RobyWayne, Cdean,RasputinAXP, TeaDrinker, Travis.Thurston, Avilella, Bmicomp, Cpcheung, Butros, Chobot, DVdm, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Simesa,Gwernol, Dadu~enwiki, YurikBot, Wavelength, Playstationman, Eraserhead1, Sceptre, UsaSatsui, Splamo, FlareNUKE, Adam1213, Phan-tomsteve, Crazytales, Hyad, DMahalko, Red Slash, Bhny, DKSalazar, Epolk, Jengelh, RadioFan, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Manop, GaiusCornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Vincej, Rsrikanth05, Cpuwhiz11, SamJohnston, Wikimachine, Friday, NawlinWiki, Ozzykhan, Mi-padi, Dialectric, Brewthatistrue, Lauwe Chhon, Grafen, PAStheLoD, Justin Eiler, MaxVT, RazorICE, Dureo, Aaron Brenneman, Vol-canica, Jpbowen, TERdON, KingDaveRa, Alex43223, Xompanthy, LFIntalan, Andreaskem, Gadget850, Bota47, Caspian, Izcool, Werdna,Wknight94, Manjithkaini, Sandstein, Getcrunk, Zzuuzz, Rushyo, Theda, Closedmouth, Denisutku, Pb30, KGasso, GraemeL, JoanneB,Nelson50, JLaTondre, Spookfish, G-smooth2k, Gorgan almighty, Yongqli, Helix pomatia, ViperSnake151, Katieh5584, WiZZLa, Someguy, Rwwww, GrinBot~enwiki, MansonP, Gephart, Mardus, Nick-D, Jeff Silvers, DVD R W, Anthony717, Veinor, A13ean, Amalthea,Yakudza, SmackBot, Graypriest, Colinstu, Iamajpeg, Maelwys, Ashley thomas80, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Gnangarra,Od Mishehu, Kilo-Lima, Delldot, Eskimbot, Mdd4696, PJM, Canthusus, Thenickdude, Cronium, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie,Skizzik, Andy M. Wang, Slo-mo, Valley2city, Chris the speller, Quinsareth, Adamdon89, RDBrown, Thumperward, McNeight, SvGeloven,

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Farosdaughter, Jenny Wong, AubreyEllenShomo, Myanw, Kaini, Gökhan, JAnDbot, Husond, Kellster142, TigerK 69, Swissrun, Barek,MER-C, Epeefleche, NE2, Arch dude, Rck109d, Tech2blog, Seddon, Blathering1, Andonic, SAMbo, Hut 8.5, J-stan, Time3000, Kirrages,Denimadept, Kerotan, Y2kcrazyjoker4, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, SteveSims, Elkbuntu, Canjth, PacificBoy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II,Billzilla, Marybethwiki, Realg187, JamesBWatson, TheSlyFox, Think outside the box, Rivertorch, James James, Kierenj, Pixel ;-), Ankitdshah, Nyttend, Xlmedia, Wikiality123, Couki, Indon, Martin62, Loonymonkey, Wwmbes, Dck7777, Schumi555, Futebol, All4mykid,Businessman332211, Glen, DerHexer, JaGa, Kgfleischmann, Edward321, Subspace1250, Khalid Mahmood, Mrshlick, Hbent, Patstuart,Lost tourist, Mahdi1ray, Ztobor, Flowanda, MartinBot, Moggie2002, HotXRock, Vigyani, Arjun01, Tech Nerd, Jim.henderson, Mid-dlenamefrank, Rettetast, Psereiko, Kamakazi~enwiki, R'n'B, Axelv, CommonsDelinker, Armored Ear, Siliconov, The Anonymous One,J.delanoy, Ztyler90, Trusilver, Svetovid, Greatcaffeine, AstroHurricane001, Nick thelot, Shimaspawn, 72Dino, Jesant13, Chong3, Jonpro,Ginsengbomb, Ljalter, Colinadmonius, Ian.thomson, Kudpung, Kenshinflyer, Thedeadlypython, SpigotMap, Murtaza Pakistani, Nalumc,Hospitalize, Jayden54, Anonywiki, Shortymistry, Jnorwood, SJP, Touch Of Light, Mufka, Tomatrebus, Billkor, Cmichael, Seanth123, Typ-ingguy, KylieTastic, Sdudah, Atama, Tiwonk, Diceclayandy, Gtg204y, Bonadea, SkyBoxx, Totesen, Permafrost, Mandrx, RenamedUserjaskldjslak9031, Xiahou, RJASE1, JameiLei, Vranak, MBlue2020, Deor, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Thedjatclubrock, Bse3, Shaakunthala,Thomashauk, 4300streetcar, Nburden, Jontini, Lear’s Fool, TobyDZ, Ian Struan, Ryangoff, Philip Trueman, Gamer313, Sooperfalcon8,TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Kww, Thepulse2007, Geoman888, Vipinhari, Hqb, Sarenne, Rei-bot, ElinorD, Qxz, Borisgh, Rpm826, Justinan-

derson007, Onionringmaster, Voorlandt, Oxfordwang, Corvus cornix, Awl, Leafyplant, BwDraco, Canaima, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Psy-che825, PDFbot, Anawrahta, Cremepuff222, Wiae, Maxim, Sparkythemacintosh, Jmath666, Softtest123, Madhero88, Tri400, PlaySta-tion 69, ILoveLays12, Operating, Meters, WJetChao, Zubairno1, Enviroboy, Anna512, Sweetchick202, Kaori, Screamingman14, Bri-anga, Alcmaeonid, Sgomez1180, Monty845, Quantpole, Panfakes, SevenTwenty, Logan, Pc9889, MrChupon, Michaelsbll, Zozopingol,

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18   15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 

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15.2 Images    19

15.2 Images

•   File:A_black_Sony_Vaio_C_Series_Laptop.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/A_black_Sony_Vaio_C_Series_Laptop.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 3.0   Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Kskhh

•   File:Acap.svg Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Acap.svg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  Own workOriginal artist:  F l a n k e r

• File:Alan_Kay_and_the_prototype_of_Dynabook,_pt._5_(3010032738).jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/2/2c/Alan_Kay_and_the_prototype_of_Dynabook%2C_pt._5_%283010032738%29.jpg  License:    CC BY 2.0   Contributors: 

Alan Kay and the prototype of Dynabook, pt. 5  Original artist:  Marcin Wichary from San Francisco, U.S.A.

•   File:Alienware.JPG Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Alienware.JPG License:  CC BY-SA 3.0   Contribu-

tors:  Own work Original artist:  Arnaud 25

•  File:Aluminium_MacBook.png   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Aluminium_MacBook.png   License: 

CC BY-SA 3.0  Contributors:  Own work (Transfered by Mono) Original artist:  Sir Stig (talk)

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