Western Civilization I HIS-101

Western Civilization IHIS-101

UNIT 2 - GODS AND EMPIRES IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST(1700-500 BCE)

Rising Powers of the Near East The first half of the 2nd millennium BCE was a

time of transition and constant warfare This was due to numerous Indo-European tribes

moving into the Near East as well as Semitic tribes By the beginning of the late Bronze Age

(1500-1200 BCE), there were a number of major powers in the Near East: The Hittites in Anatolia (Asia Minor) The Kassites in Babylon The Mitanni in Syria The Egyptians The Minoans in Crete The Mycenaeans in Greece

Rise of Anatolia Anatolia was a region that was full of natural

resources Previous civilizations had not take advantage of this The area had been ruled by Cappadocians but were not

organized like other civilizations The Assyrians moved into Anatolia from

Mesopotamia c.1900 BCE Their purpose was to create a vast trade network into

region and take advantage of the resources available They did not seek military gains but did have a

profound impact: The became advisors to the Cappadocian kings They also married into Cappadocian families They brought Mesopotamian civilization and urbanization

with them

Rise of Anatolia The Hittites moved into central Anatolia c. 2000 BCE

Their city-states remained independent until 1700 BCE Hittite Old Kingdom (c. 1700-c.1500 BCE)

It was a very militaristic styled culture The kingdom expanded under Hattusilis I (c.1650–c.1620

BCE) He expanded the frontiers throughout the Anatolian Plateau He controlled trade routes as a way to expand the kingdom’s

economic capabilities His reign was known as the “Kingdom of a Thousand Gods” as

he accepted the religion and customs of those conquered Mursilis I (c. 1620–c. 1590 BCE) continued on the success

He expanded the kingdom further into Syria and even into Mesopotamia

He sacked the city of Babylon c.1595 BCE, leaving it in ruins

Hittites were one of the first civilizations to use war chariots on a widespread basis

Kassites In southern Mesopotamia, the Kassites moved

in c. 2000 BCE Historians believe they had migrated from the

Zagros Mountains in modern Iran They set up the Middle Babylonian Kingdom

(c.1531-c.1155 BCE) This was after the city of Babylon had been sacked by

Hittites We do not know much about them because of a

lack of Kassite records from the time period They did trade extensively with the Assyrians,

Hittites, and Egyptians They brought peace and prosperity into the region

Mitanni The Mitanni set up their kingdom in northern

Mesopotamia (c. 1500-1360 BCE) They were master horse trainers and brought in

new innovations in warfare This included light, horse-drawn chariots that would

carry archers into battle They also developed excellent cavalry tactics

Kingdom went into a decline after a renewed attack by the Hittites The Hittites left the Mitanni Kingdom in tact to serve as

a buffer between them and the Assyrians

Coffin cover of King Intef VIII Sekhemreherhermaat 17th Dynasty (??? – 1566 BCE)

Second Intermediate Period The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1783-1550 BCE)

in Egypt was due the weak control of 13th and 14th Dynasties rulers During this time period, the military became disorganized

Around 1750 BCE, the Hyksos invaded the delta region Their origins are unknown though the are believed to be

of western Asiatic descent The term “Hyksos” was derived from heka khasewet,

meaning "foreign rulers" This led to more instability in the region

The nomes in Upper Egypt declared independence The Nubians to the south also broke free from Egyptian

control

Second Intermediate Period Upper Egypt remained under Egyptian control The Hyksos took full control of Lower Egypt in 1663

They adopted Egyptian traditions to legitimatize their rule

They also made some significant cultural improvements They introduced bronze as a new and improved metal for

making weapons and tools Made improved weapons such as a heavier sword and a

compound bow They also introduced horse-drawn war chariots

In the end, the new technologies were used to overthrow the Hyksos They were conquered by Ahmose I, who started the 18th

Dynasty, in c.1550

Ahmose I Battling the Hyksos

New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE) New Kingdom Egypt was composed of the 18th

through 20th Dynasties During this period, there were significant changes

to the Egyptian style of government There was a new militaristic attitude

It was characterized by constant invasions and war campaigns (“defense through offense”)

Even the pharaohs themselves were trained as military leaders and spent time on campaigns

This led to the rise of a new group A war nobility consisting of war commanders who

grew accustomed to working independently

New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE) There was a loss of power for the pharaoh to

three strong institutions: War Nobility - A new group that forged its respect on

the battlefield Royal Bureaucracy – With the pharaoh constantly on

campaigns, they experienced a tremendous growth in power

Priesthood – Receiving the gifts from conquered lands, the priests accumulated vast estates and slaves

Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1292 BCE) This is a period of Egyptian history that is categorized

by military expansion, imperialism and prosperity This period contained some of the greatest and most

powerful pharaohs in history

New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE) The 18th dynasty began with Ahmose I (1550-1525

BCE) He not only conquered the Hyksos and reunified Egypt,

and brought Nubia back under Egyptian control Thutmose I – (c.1504-1492 BCE)

During his reign, the Nubians rebelled and Thutmose led a campaign to defeat them During the battle, the King of Nubia was killed and supposedly

hung from the prow of Thutmose’s ship He led campaigns even farther south, conquering land as

far as the Fourth Cataract He also drove to the Euphrates and into Syria and

Palestine He held more territory than any other pharaoh before him

New Kingdom Egypt

Thutmose III and Hatshepsut

Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE) Hatshepsut – (1479-1458 BCE)

She had been Thutmose II’s Great Royal Wife and became the regent for Thutmose III

While technically co-ruling with Thutmose III, in 1473 BCE she crowned herself pharaoh She become the first female king

Only two other women ruled in their own names before her, but not as king

She even adopted a Horus name, dressed in pharaonic regalia (including a false beard), and was addressed as “His Majesty”

She had a very prosperous reign Her reign witnessed extensive building projects

Including her temple at Deir el Bahri

Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE) She died in 1458 BCE but the cause of her death

was unknown There had been no record of it and historians had

proposed both natural causes and murder In 2007, her mummy was positively identified by DNA

and the death was ruled to be caused by an abscessed tooth

After Hatshepsut’s death, many of her monuments were either defaced or destroyed Damnatio memoriae – “Erasing from history” Historians are mixed as to who and why someone did this

Many suspect it was either Thutmose III or his son Amenhotep II They speculate that Thutmose did it either as revenge or was

used as a way for either of them to legitimize their reigns

Hatshepsut (1479-1458

BCE)

Thutmose III – (1479-1425 BCE) Thutmose III is considered one of the greatest

pharaohs in Egyptian history Over the course of his life, he conducted 17

military campaigns He captured over 350 cities He conquered Syria and defeated the Mitanni He also expanded Egypt south as far as the Fourth

Cataract in Nubia His reign was marked by numerous building

projects as well He constructed of over fifty temples

Thutmose III (1479-1425

BCE)

Amenhotep II (1427-1400 BCE) Amenhotep II (1427-c.1400 BCE)

In his military campaigns, his priority was to maintain his father’s conquests He put down revolts in Syria He negotiated peace agreements with the kings of the

Hittites, Mitanni, and Babylon where they paid tribute to him

He did not push for the same sort of expansion Egypt had during his father’s reign

He did complete numerous building projects that his father started and had some of his own

Amenhotep III (c.1386-c.1350 BCE) Amenhotep III (c. 1386-c.1350 BCE)

By the time he reached the throne, Egypt was at peace and very prosperous He did not have to worry about military campaigns like

his predecessors He devoted himself to diplomatic ties with Syria,

the Mitanni, the Hittites, Assyria, and Cyprus Included political marriages

He also had an extensive building program which included: Portions of the temple at Luxor The Colossi of Memnon which were two gigantic statues

of Amenhotep designed to guard his temple

Colossi of Memnon

Akhenaten (1352-1336

BCE)

Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE) Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)

His original name was Amenhotep IV (“Amun is Pleased”)

He is best known for a massive religious upheaval in Egypt and temporarily turning the country towards monotheism

Prior to his reign, the dominating deity in Egypt was Amun-Ra The was a combination of the local Thebian deity Amun

and the sun god Ra Akhenaten, himself, followed Aten as his main deity

Aten, the sun disc itself, could not be depicted as human so he was always drawn as light or sun rays

He changed his name to Akhenaten (“the effective spirit of Aten”)

Worship of the god Aten

Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE) As part of his religious changes:

He built a new capital Akhetaten (“the horizon of the Aten”)

He recognized Aten as the only true god (monotheism)

He closed down the temples of other gods Why did he switch away from Amun to Aten?

He may have been a revolutionary intellectual He broke the bounds of tradition (worshiping Amun-Ra) by

using insight and imagination to create a new cult of Aten He may have been reactionary, upset by the blending

of two gods, Amun and Ra, into one god He may have just been a typical politician

He wanted to weaken the strength and influence of Amun’s priests by bringing in a new religious regime

Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE) However, his attempt at religious change was a

failure Most Egyptians were unwilling to change their beliefs The priesthood of Amun put up strong resistance as well

Akhenaten was not interested in military affairs nor foreign policy Many revolts broke out in Egyptian controlled lands He fell out of favor with a number of important leaders All of this led to a loss of support by the military nobility

Ironically, a serious pandemic started in Egypt It could have been the plague, polio, or influenza Some saw this as a sign that the cosmic order was “out

of whack” and blamed the pharaoh for this

Tutankhamun (1333-1324

BCE)

Tutankhamun (1333-1324 BCE) Tutankhamun was 9 years old when he took the

throne He was originally named Tutankhaten (“living image of

Aten”) It was later changed it to Tutankhamun (“living image of

Amun”) His main focus was to restore Amun as the primary

deity and bring back the old gods Akhentaten’s monuments were destroyed The capital was moved back to Thebes

During his reign, there was a continued decline in Egyptian power This was especially true in terms of foreign relationships

Tutankhamun (1333-1324 BCE) His death at the age of 19 is still being studied

After his tomb was first discovered in 1922, many thought he died from a blow to the head There there were cranial pieces in his brain cavity

After a 2005 CT scan, the skull injury was believed to have been a result of the mummification process A broken leg, however, was revealed so they speculated

that he died of gangrene In 2010, after DNA testing done, it is now believed to

be a combination of the leg injury and severe malaria

As he did not have an heir, his death marked the end of the 18th Dynasty

International System From 1500 to 1200 BCE, a complex system of

trade and diplomacy developed During this time, there was a move from military

expansionism and war to a more stable, peaceful co-existence

Leaders realized that wars were too costly It was more favorable for them to be at peace and

have trade channels open As part of his diplomacy, leaders would

correspond with one another A standard set of written etiquette was used They would also exchange gifts and arrange

marriages to secure alliances

International System Along with diplomacy, international trade flourished

during this period Countries were able to sell their goods in far markets and

any type of import was in high demand The trade routes also allowed for the transport of ideas as

well which allowed for a greater understanding between the cultures

With the expansion of trade routes, this led to greater dependence on goods from other countries They become mutually dependant on one another

economically This could be disastrous if one country’s economy collapsed As the international market spread, it reached into less

stable countries with unreliable partners and possibly more dangerous enemies

Minoan Crete

Aegean Civilization: Minoan Crete Earliest civilization in the Aegean was found on

Crete It is believed that Ancient Greek civilization had its

roots in Minoan civilization Minoan civilization was first discovered by Sir

Arthur Evans when he uncovered the palace of Knossos in 1900 He named the culture “Minoan” after King Minos of

Greek myth The civilization heavily worshiped bulls According to Greek myth, Minos captured the minotaur and

kept it under his palace in a labyrinth, thought to be Knossos The palace at Knossos was built during the

Neopalatial Period (1700-1450 BCE) It contained administrative and residential quarters with a

total of over 1,300 rooms and had indoor plumbing

A fresco inside Knossos

Aegean Civilization: Minoan Crete During the Bronze Age, Minoan Crete was a

thalassocracy (sea empire) This included a powerful navy and overseas trade Their trade networks ran throughout the Mediterranean

region This included the trade of copper, tin, ivory, and gold

They also developed their own written language: Linear-A It is not similar to any other written language of the

time Prior to 1600 BCE, the Minoans were more

sophisticated that the mainland Greeks They had a strong influence on the area and most likely

dominated the Greeks culturally and possibly politically

Aegean Civilization: Minoan Crete Around 1450 BCE, Minoan civilization suffered a

sudden and catastrophic collapse Many historians believed that the collapse was due

to invasions by the mainland Greeks However, new evidence is coming about that the

eruption of nearby Thera had an impact It occurred sometime between 1627 and 1600 BCE, and

had lasting effects on Minoan civilization It produced deadly ash clouds that crippled cities and

fleets, and created tsunamis with waves up to 50 feet It set off climate change that ruined crops and led to

political unrest These short term effects may have started a long

downturn in Minoan civilization

Mycenaean Greece The geography of Greece plays a very important

role in the development of its history and culture Greece has a long seacoast with numerous harbors

This helped them develop into a seafaring people who could easily trade with other civilizations in the Near East

Much of interior consists of mountain ranges that surround small plains and river valleys The mountains isolated the Greeks from one another, which

meant that the communities would develop independently This led to rivalries between the small states because each

wanted to keep their style of independence Though they had been dominated by the

Minoans, the Greeks started to come into their own around 1600 BCE

Mycenaean Greece Mycenaean Greece (1600-1100 BCE) was

Bronze Age or “pre-Hellenic” Greece This period set the foundations for Classical

(Hellenic) Greece During this period, the individual city-states

were developed They were theocracies headed by a king, who was

also a war leader Underneath him was a political and religious

aristocracy that ran the government The focal point of these states were the citadels

They were fortified palaces which were designed after the Minoan and Hittite palaces

Royal families and officials lived in the citadels while the rest of society lived outside the walls

Mycenaean Greece Mycenaean Greece was a warrior society

They prided themselves with their warrior deeds Artwork of the time included murals of hunting and

battle scenes It is believed that the Mycenaeans expanded

their territory through military means Homer’s Iliad supposedly describes such battles

including the Trojan Wars By 1400 BCE, they had invaded Crete and taken the

palace at Knossos They adopted many of the aspects of Minoan

civilization They were a thalassocracy They also transformed the Minoan Linear A alphabet

into their own Linear B—the earliest Greek writing

Mycenaean Greece By the 13th century BCE, Mycenaean Greece

was on the decline It started out as internal conflicts between the cities By 1100 BCE, Mycenaean culture had ended

Historians debate the cause of this collapse Some argue that it was the Dorians

They were a less civilized people from the north who supposedly invaded but there is no historical proof of this

Most historians believe that it was internal collapse caused by conflicts between the Mycenaean kings

Other factors, such as earthquake, drought, famine, and disease could have played a part

More recently, some historians think they were invaded by an unknown group called the Sea Peoples

The Sea People

The Sea People In the 12th century BCE, a new group known as the

Sea People was invading the Near East from the north Historians know very little about this group

They may have been from either Asia Minor or the Aegean region or were actually Mycenaeans fleeing the internal problems at home

They were most likely displaced refugees who were fleeing widespread crop failure and famine

Their path of destruction started in the north They may have contributed to the fall of Mycenaean Greece

They did disrupt the highly developed trade network of the Aegean region The kingdoms had to face overpopulation from the

fleeing populations of Greece This led to widespread food shortages and warfare

The Sea People The Sea People then moved into Anatolia and down

the eastern Mediterranean bringing total destruction

They eventually came in contact with Egypt They attacked during the reign of Ramses III (c.1185

BCE) but were quickly defeated both on land and at sea Proof of their existence comes from a depiction of the

Egyptian victory in a relief in one of Ramses’ temples The main outcome of the invasion of the Sea People

was the almost complete destruction of Near East civilization The international system that had been developed had

been destroyed Complete civilizations were destroyed as well:

Mycenaean Greece, Hittites, and the Kassites

The Sea People While both Egypt and Assyria survived the attacks,

they went into a long period of economic and political decline This was mainly due to the loss of their major trading

partners This marks the end of the Bronze Age

These catastrophic events are also known as the “Bronze Age collapse”

With the power vacuum created in the Near East, there is now the rise of new governments and cultures Specifically in Assyria and Persia but other smaller states as

well There was also the development of a new

metallurgical technology: iron This ushered in the Iron Age

Drawing of relief of the Sea People on Medinet Habu temple

Early Iron Age States During the early Iron Age, there are three

civilizations that develop in the eastern Mediterranean: the Phoenicians, Philistines, and Hebrews

The Phoenicians lived in modern day Lebanon and Syria They arrived in the area around 3000 BCE and

probably came from the Persian Gulf region They were best known as traders and colonizers The name Phoenicia in Greek means “purple people”

This was derived from the valuable purple-red dye, Tyrian purple, which was made from the Murex snail

The high point of Phoenician power and culture was between 1200-800 BCE

The Phoenicians Prior to 1200 BCE, many Phoenician cities had

been controlled by Egypt With the invasion of the Sea Peoples, the Phoenicians

were able to wrest free from Egyptian control Their prosperity was based on an expansion of

trade routes and accumulation of wealth The city of Byblos became the center of papyrus trade,

and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world

They also built colonies throughout the Mediterranean Small colonial cities were built across the Mediterranean to

act as “stepping stones” to Iberia By the 9th century BCE, they had established the city of

Carthage in Tunisia There is archaeological proof that they traveled as far as

Britain

The Phoenicians The Phoenician cities were independent city-

states The government was controlled by the king, the

temple with its priests, and a council of elders The main impact the Phoenicians had on

western civilization was the development of their writing system It was created at Byblos and was based on a

Semitic alphabet used in the region The Phoenician alphabet was later adapted and

modified by the Greeks, Romans, and Hebrews The Greeks also later adapted the boat

designs used by the Phoenicians

Phoenician alphabet in relation to other alphabets

The Philistines The Philistines dominated the eastern

Mediterranean from 1100-1000 BCE They were descended from one of the tribes of

the Sea People They settled in this region after being repulsed by

the Egyptians Once settled in this region, they grew olive

trees and grapevines This suggests a possible Mycenaean past

The Philistines then used their profits to raise armies to secure their power in the region They quickly took power from their weaker,

unorganized neighbors

The Philistines The Philistines also dominated the region

economically They did this by organizing production and controlling the

trade routes They also established a monopoly over iron-smithing

This skill suggests a history in Anatolia as well They made it impossible for anybody else to forge their own

weapons They built the Pentapolis which were five heavily

fortified citadels They were located in Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, and

Gath Unfortunately, the Philistines left no written records

Our history of them is dependent upon the Hebrew histories These are most likely biased against them since the Philistines

were their enemies

The Hebrews Unlike the Philistines, the Hebrews wrote a history

This later became the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament of the Christian Bible

However, it was written over the course of many centuries Because of this, it should not be viewed in the same way

modern histories are written The Bible does give a fascinating look into the culture,

religious practices, and major historical events at the time Many of the works in the first five books of the Bible

seem to be retelling of old Near East stories Creation and flood stories have ties to Sumerians The story of Moses’ childhood is a retelling of Sargon’s

childhood After that, the information becomes more credible

The Hebrews In the Book of Judges, the Hebrews started out as

wandering pastoral tribes They were organized into 12 tribes, each ruled by a judge They settled in the Levant permanently by 1200 BCE

This was roughly the same time the Philistines The Philistines conquered the Levant by 1050 BCE This forced the Hebrews to unite together This led to the crowning of the first king of Israel

Saul (c. 1021-1000 BCE) He had been appointed by one of the tribal judges,

Samuel The first part of Saul’s reign was successful as he

defeated the Philistines and drove them out of Israel

The Hebrews However, Saul lost favor with Samuel

This was due to either religious or military reasons By losing favor, he lost the religious sanctions for his

battles and popular support David had been one of Saul’s lieutenants

Samuel decided to put his backing behind him instead of Saul

Saul attempted numerous assassinations against David and finally expelled from court

David became an independent mercenary fighter He even fought for the Philistines He used the profits from raids to help the other leaders

break free of Saul’s control Saul and his son were killed in battle in 1000 BCE

The Hebrews David (c. 1000-973 BCE)

He was able to defeat the Philistines and captured Jerusalem This city was made the political and religious capital of Israel

Solomon - (973-937 BCE) He continued to strengthen royal power during his reign

Unfortunately he did so through ruthlessness and brutality He is best known for his building projects

Many of his subjects were required to perform forced labor for four months out of the year

He expanded Israel’s trading system through the building of a commercial fleet which brought in new riches However, he imposed an oppressive taxation system so only

he benefited He also built a large standing army

The Hebrews When his son, Rehoboam, came to power, he

planned on keep up the harsh policies of his father In 922 BCE, a rebellion broke out against him and

the Kingdom of Israel broke away from Judah Israel was now divided into two parts:

Kingdom of Israel - Composed of ten of the original twelve tribes with its capital in Samaria It was eventually destroyed in 722 by the Assyrians

Kingdom of Judah - Composed of the other two tribes and had its capital at Jerusalem It was conquered by the Chaldeans in 586

The Assyrian Empire During most of the 2nd millennium BCE, Assyria

was not independent In the late Bronze Age, they were a dependency of the

Mitanni Their chance for independence came in 1362 BCE

The Mitanni were occupied with fighting the Hittites Assur-uballit I (1362-1327 BCE), the governor of

the city of Assur, started the Assyrian empire With the help of the Hittites he destroyed the Mitanni

and declared Assyrian independence Later in his reign, he allied with the Kassites in

Babylonia to end Hittite domination in the region This began the Middle Assyrian Kingdom (1362-859

BCE)

Middle Assyrian Kingdom Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243-1207 BCE) extended the

borders of the Assyrian empire through conquest He sacked the city of Babylon and took the Kassite

king into captivity When the Babylonians rebelled against Tukulti-

Ninurta, he ransacked the temples He also took the statue of the city’s patron deity, Marduk,

with him This was seen as sacrilege to both the Babylonians and the

Assyrians A mob led by his son murdered Tukulti-Ninurta by

setting his palace on fire and burning him to death What followed was a long period of Assyrian

decline as Babylonia expanded in power

Middle Assyrian Kingdom Assurnasirpal II (883-859 BCE)

He was a brilliant but brutal military leader Expanded the borders of the empire to the

Mediterranean He instituted a reign of terror where if a region did not

pay tribute, they would suffer the wrath of his army Those who opposed them were publicly tortured or killed

He was also a brilliant administrator who reorganized his government by placing Assyrian administrators in the provinces

He used captives from campaigns to rebuild the capital He also used them to build temples and monuments

With the end of Assurnasirpal’s reign, it marked the end of the Middle Assyrian Kingdom

Shalmaneser III (859-824 BCE)

Neo-Assyrian Empire (859-627 BCE) Shalmaneser III (859-824 BCE)

During the beginning of his reign, he continued his father’s program of expansion and conquest

In 853 BCE, a number of states in the Levant, including Egypt and Israel, formed a coalition These battles ended in stalemate but Shalmaneser was

not going to stop so easily In 825 BCE, a revolt sparked by his son broke out

in the southern portion of the Empire and Shalmaneser was nearly assassinated

After his death, the empire goes into another period of decline

Neo-Assyrian Empire (859-627 BCE) Tiglath-Pileser III (744-727 BCE)

He seized the throne in 744 His first focus was subjugate Babylonia to the south Then he turned to the west where he expanded into

Syria and forced leaders to pay tribute or be attacked When he died, many of the newly conquered lands

revolted Historians speculate that they thought Assyria would have a

weak ruler, as this seemed to be a pattern Sargon II (722-705 BCE)

This started one of the most magnificent periods in Assyrian history

He continued to expand Assyria, He conquering Israel and turned Judah into a vassal state He also expanded east into Iran

Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE) Sargon’s descendents helped Assyria became the

dominant power in the Near East Why was the Neo-Assyrian Empire so successful in

its domination of the Near East? Not only were the kings powerful but they had

competent administrations Kings were seen as the earthly representative of the god Assur It had an extensive bureaucracy comprised of governors,

priests, and military leaders Assyrians would be placed in positions of power in conquered

territories They developed a fantastic infrastructure for the empire

They built roads throughout the empire and set up a network of posting stations that used relays of horses to carry messages

Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE) The most important aspect was its military There were two key characteristics of the military:

Holy war As part of the holy war, Assyrian kings believed that their

expansion was part of a divine mission and that it was the will of Assur

Anybody who did not accept this was considered an enemy and conquered

Reign of terror Other cities’ gods would be humiliated or “captured” and then

the conquered cities would also be forced to worship Assur If the lands did not pay tribute, it would be extracted by force The Assyrians would even raid conquered areas every year to

keep the subjects in place

Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE) The Assyrian army held over 100,000 members

It was well organized, disciplined, and diverse It contained an infantry, cavalry, and horse-drawn war

chariots It also had specialized units such as language interpreters,

intelligence officers, and scribes They were well-equipped with iron weapons and armor

Because of this diversity, the army was able to use a variety of military tactics depending on the geography of the area

Warfare was savage Mutilations of prisoners, decapitations, rape, and the

mass deportations and/or enslavement of the civilian population was commonplace

Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE) The Assyrians were also masters of siege warfare

They would hammer a city’s walls with heavy, wheeled siege towers and armored battering rams

Sappers would did tunnels to undermine the walls’ foundations and cause them to collapse

Army would cut off supply lines so if the city did not fall, they could be starved into submission

Their use of terror as a weapon was highly effective They laid waste to the land they were fighting by

setting crops on fire, smashing dams, cutting down trees and destroying towns

They committed atrocities against people, especially those who rebelled

Many prisoners were deported and used for labor

Assurbanipal (669-627 BCE)

Decline of the Assyrian Empire Assurbanipal (669-627 BCE)

He was considered the last of the great rulers of Assyria He was considered an “enlightened” king as he had

received a scholarly education since he was not first in line for the throne Built the great library in Nineveh, the first systematically

organized library in the ancient Near East The culture and art of the empire hit its peak during his reign

He continued to solidify and stabilize the empire He used the same military tactics used by his predecessors

At the time of his death, the empire was at its peak The borders were secure and the realm was largely at

peace The realm was enjoying a period of cultural glory

Decline of the Assyrian Empire By the end of the 7th century BCE, it was clear that

the empire was greatly over-extended Overexpansion paved the way for internal strife between

nobles There was also a lot of resentment by the subjects

towards the Assyrians A coalition was formed between the Chaldeans,

Medes (Iran), and other states in Mesopotamia against Assyria Under the leadership of the Chaldean ruler, Nabopolassar,

they successfully lead a revolt against Assyria in 626 BCE They went on to burn down the city of Nineveh in 612 BCE

Neo-Babylonian Empire

Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE) The Chaldeans were successful at breaking free

from Assyrian control Nabopolassar (625-605 BCE) established a new

monarchy in Babylonia This was known as the Neo-Babylonian Empire

Nebuchadnezzer (605-562 BCE) He achieved the final defeat of the Assyrian empire in

605 BCE He went conquer of Syria and Palestine

This included destroying the city of Jerusalem and its temple

Tens of thousands of Hebrews were taken into Babylon in exile which became known as the Babylonian Captivity

Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE) Nebuchadnezzar's marked a period of

prosperity for the Babylonians Lucrative trading routes throughout Mesopotamia Created a lot of industry for textiles and metals

The city of Babylon became one of the greatest cities of ancient times He had built the Hanging Gardens, one of the

seven wonders of the ancient world He also had built numerous temples and palaces

While the Chaldeans did not have as impressive a military as Assyria, this empire was not going to last as long

Concept illustration of the Hanging Gardens

Persian Empire Very little is known about the Persians prior to

the 6th century BCE but what we do know is: They lived on the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf They were subject to the Medes They were organized into clans but were nomadic

Starting in the mid-8th century, both the Medes and the Persians began to form confederations of tribes

It is going to be under the rule of their first king, Cyrus the Great, that Persia is going to emerge as the premier power in the Near East

Cyrus the Great (559-530

BCE)

Persian Empire Cyrus the Great – (559-530 BCE)

While he was a prince, he organized the Persians into a single tribe in 559 BCE and made himself king

In 549 BCE, he conquered the Medes He made Media the first Persian satrapy or province

He then focused on the kingdom of Lydia in Anatolia It was rich with numerous gold and silver mines and it

was a vital location for trade between Mesopotamia and the Aegean Sea

King Croesus of Lydia tried to make a preemptive strike against Persia but failed

By 546 BCE, Cyrus had occupied the capital of Sardis, capturing the kingdom of Lydia

Persian Empire Next, Cyrus next focused on the kingdom of Babylonia

He was able to take Babylonia in 539 BCE with little resistance He did this by negotiating with many generals and Babylonian governors They were upset with the current Babylonian king, Nabonidus

Cyrus turned Babylonia into a Persian satrapy but kept many Babylonians in positions of power From 538 to 530 BCE, Cyrus concentrated on

consolidating his empire He sought favor from the priesthoods in conquered

lands He did this by restoring temples and allowing a large amount

of religious toleration Through his actions, he won approval the conquered

nations who accepted him as the legitimate ruler In 530 BCE, Cyrus was killed in battle

Persian conquests during the reign of Cyrus the Great

Persian Empire Cambyses II (530-522 BCE)

He was one of Cyrus’ sons In 525 BCE, he conquered Egypt

Aided by the Phoenician fleet, he defeated and captured the pharaoh and the Egyptian forces

That summer he took the title of pharaoh Cambyses died in 522 BCE

Some believed he was murdered by his successor Darius, others believe it was an accidental death

Because he left no heir, an intense civil war tore through Persia for a year

Darius the Great (521-486 BCE)

Persian Empire Darius (521-486 BCE)

He started out as a bodyguard for Cambyses but then seized throne for himself

During the early part of his reign, revolts broke out throughout the empire as many disputed his claim to the throne

Once those were suppressed, he worked to strengthen the empire both from the inside and out

Darius continued Cyrus’ policy of tolerance throughout his empire In most cases, the locals were able to retain many

of their institutions, including religious toleration He allowed the Hebrews to rebuild the Temple in

Jerusalem

Persian Empire Darius reworked the empire’s infrastructure

He developed a postal system A “post” acted as a relay stage, with no more than one day’s

ride from the next post This also included an extensive spy network

He built the “Royal Road” which was over 1,600 miles long It went from Susa in the Persian Gulf to Sardis on the

Aegean Sea He codified a legal system based on Egyptian law He standardized coinage, weights, and measures

This was to help promote trade and boost the economy within the empire

He also reorganized the empire into twenty satrapies

Persian Empire The biggest changes he made included a

reorganization of the military It composed of people from all parts of the empire and

constituted a large fighting force The “Immortals” were an elite infantry force of 10,000

They were called the “Immortals” because the number never fell below 10,000 (if one died he was immediately replaced)

They enjoyed special privileges including having concubines and servants

The military also included a cavalry It was used behind the lines to break up lines of communication

and shoot arrows and spears into enemy troops The Persian navy included ships from conquered states,

This included the Phoenicians, Anatolians, and Egyptians

Persian Empire With his military, Darius expanded the

borders of Persia even farther He conquered parts of India to the east He also conquered Thrace and Macedonia to the

west He had control of the straights into the Black Sea

This meant he also had control of the grain trade coming through them

By 500 BCE, Darius was in control of most of the Near East

Zoroastrianism Another major contribution the Persians made

was in terms of religion Prior to the 6th century BCE, Persian religion

focused on the worship of the powers of nature Including the sun, moon, wind, and fire The priests were called Magi

During the 6th century BCE, Persians began to follow Zoroastrianism Zoroaster (c.628-c.551 BCE) was a Persian holy man His spiritual revelations led him to develop a more

humane religion by eliminating animal sacrifice and magic

Zoroastrianism The main tenet of Zoroastrianism is that it is

monotheistic Ahura-Mazda (“the wise lord”) was the one supreme

god He embodied all that was good, including

righteousness, truth, and piety He also created all good things

If Ahura-Mazda embodied only the good, how do you explain the bad? Zoroaster believed that there was an evil “counter-

deity,” Ahriman Ahriman was the creator of all things evil and this

explained the evil of the world

Zoroastrianism Ahura-Mazda gave humans free will to choose

between right and wrong There would be a constant struggle between good and

evil in which good will win It did not focus on the exaltation of one god but

rather promoted sinless lives, truth, and love Zoroaster believed in individual judgment at death

If a person had done good deeds, they would go to paradise

If they did not, they would go to a sort of hell It was able to spread throughout the Persian empire

It was adopted by many of the great Persian kings It also was a more “private” religion rather than a state

one

Relief of Ahura-Mazda in Persepolis

Hebrew Monotheism The early Hebrews worshipped many gods

Yahweh was only one gods worshipped by the Hebrews In the Old Testament there are references to other

gods being on the same level as Yahweh Around the 10th century BCE, they focused

their attention just on Yahweh They believed other gods existed but refused to

worship them (monolatry) Yahweh was viewed in a traditional way in that his

“territory” was limited to lands occupied by the Hebrews

Historians are unsure of the reasons for such a dramatic change However, they speculate that it was under the influence of

the Levites, one of the religiously “elite” Hebrew tribes

Hebrew Monotheism Around 750 BCE Hebrew theology took

another turn The transformation to transcendent theology

takes place Yahweh is now seen as omnipotent, no longer attached

to a physical existence Also, the theology changed the perception of

mankind by the gods Instead of being servants of the gods, Yahweh had

given humans the power to rule over nature “God said to them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and

replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moves on the earth.” – Genesis 1:28

Hebrew Monotheism During the period of Assyrian domination, Hebrew

religion was forced to change Prophets pushed to keep their unique Hebrew identity

by dropping monolatry and embracing monotheism The prophets also encouraged the Hebrews to live

ethical lives “Take your evil deeds out of my sight! Stop doing wrong, learn

to do right! Seek justice, encourage the oppressed. Defend the cause of the fatherless, plead the case of the widow.” – Isaiah 1:16-7

This also included an end to ritual and sacrifice “I hate, I despise your religious feasts; I cannot stand your

assemblies. Even though you bring me burnt offerings and grain offerings, I will not accept them…Did you bring me sacrifices and offerings forty years in the desert, O house of Israel?” – Amos 5:21-25

Hebrew Monotheism The next change occurred during the Babylonian

Captivity As they were forced to leave the Holy Land, their tie to

Yahweh needed to changed The prophet Ezekiel stated that states, empires, and thrones

were not important The most important was the relationship between God and

His people This meant that Judaism became a universal religion,

not one tied to any particular political entity or a place Many scholars feel that this adaptation of religion

helped the Hebrew religion survive such numerous attacks

Hebrew Monotheism In 538 BCE, Cyrus of Persia allowed the

Hebrews back into Jerusalem He helped rebuild their temple

With their return to the Holy Land, their worship of Yahweh continued They believed that humans had obligations to

their creator rather than it having ties to a place or political entity continued

The transformation of their religion had not just an effect on Hebrews This early Judaism would be taken up later on by

the early Christians