Week 4: Race and Ethnicity

Can’t we all just get along?

Introducing the distinction between race and ethnicity

Disparities between ethnic differences and racial divisions

Cultural constructions of ethnicity

Returning to the economy

The politics of ‘managing’ ethnic diversity

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2O7K-8G2nwU

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8lt167-csds&feature=relmfu

Why?

Race is a fixed, biological category – the genetic differences that distinguish one category of humans from another

This concept informs common sense notions of distinctions based on physical characteristics

Yet, there are bigger differences within ‘racial’ categories than between them

Nonetheless, because of its social use, the category of race remains important e.g. race relations

Ethnicity refers to the shared cultural characteristics that distinguish one group from another

But to what degree are these; ◦ Based on physical characteristics?

◦ Based on national origin?

◦ Flexible?

‘Race’ is often considered the most immediately identifiable human characteristic

The definition of ethnicity is of a social difference

Yet these differences have become some of the most distinct social divisions

Why has this occurred and how do states and communities seek to manage these divisions?

Source: http://www.justice.gov.uk/statistics/criminal-justice/race X

Source: http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/stats-on-human-rights/statistics-on-freedom/statistics-on-prisoner-population-rates/

Brunel: http://www.brunel.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/155463/Total-student-population.pdf

Cambridge: http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/offices/hr/equality/reports/information_201011.pdf

Why the difference?

Biological explanations

Cultural constructions

Economic and historical disparities

Political responses

The concept of race emerged through increased contact between previously isolated peoples

This contact revealed substantive cultural and material differences

European explorers considered these differences to be evidence of evolutionary development

On the basis of these biological considerations, a racial ‘science’ developed

Whilst the idea of racial hierarchies pre-dated much of evolutionary theory, the two were often combined

It was argued that cultural differences and material and political divides between peoples were biologically driven according to our ‘stage of evolution’

This was a particularly effective way of ignoring political injustices

Biological classifications remain a dominant ‘common-sense’ idea

Race continues to be discussed politically

‘Racial’ characteristics are often easily identified

Physical differences are often the basis for social groupings

Sociologists use the term ‘ethnicity’ to define persistent cultural identities that distinguish between groupings

Cultural constructions suggest that differences are relative and divisions political

Nonetheless, it is unclear how relative these cultural differences can be

Ethnicities are based on shared cultural traits, whether it is a common heritage, language or location

Ethnicity can be ‘situational’ and ‘relational’ in that it is not fixed and can alter depending on cultural circumstances ◦ Ethnicity is self-defined

In this sense an individual can hold multiple ethnic identities, or not be defined by an ethnicity at all

This approach can assume a strong capacity for agency: The power to change one’s ethnicity

Indeed, one’s ethnic origin may be distinct from their ethnic identity

Nonetheless, belong to any group requires recognition from group members and outsiders

‘Escaping’ negative ethnic classifications is difficult

This concept of ethnicity provides difficulties for governments

Is it possible, or desirable, to create objective ethnic categories?

If ethnicity is self-defined, does that make measurements worthless?

How would (do) you define your own

ethnicity?

United States

We’ve returned to the distinction between differences and divisions

If ethnicity is culturally constructed rather than being biologically determined, why do divisions appear to be so persistent?

Inter-group relations theorists argue that divisions between ethnic groups are established through social identities and group relations

These groupings can view non-members in a stereotyped and prejudiced way

People discriminate on the basis of their prejudices towards these ethnic stereotypes, racism is produced

On the basis of this racism, disparities between groups remain

Stereotypes - exaggerated descriptions

applied to every person in some category

Discrimination - an action that involves treating various categories of people unequally

Prejudice - a rigid and irrational generalisation about an entire category of people. Prejudices are prejudgments and they may be positive or negative

Ethnicities are identifiable groups, distinguished by shared language, norms (and physical characteristics?)

Like in sporting or national rivalries, group members create social identities that distinguish them from other groups

Consequently, the presence of these groups threatens identities, producing negative emotions

Moreover, members are likely to have an ‘in-group bias’

Do you think that being annoyed by

others’ cultural traits is a form of

racism?

Discrimination occurs at a socio-cultural level

Divisions arise through group processes rather than purposeful discrimination

Nonetheless, this discrimination is consistent

Research has consistently revealed biases job application successes

Inter-group relations theory is a micro-sociological approach that suggests discrimination, prejudice and racism is passed on through cultural practices

However, some prejudices have more consequences than others because of power differentials ◦ Some ‘in-groups’ have more power

than others

Institutional racism occurs when the structural patterning of society discriminates against certain groups

This includes racial profiling and stereotyped media representations that reproduce interpersonal discrimination

Hegemonic norms discriminate against those outside of the mainstream: anomie

More influentially, class issues such as income, education and housing reproduce divisions between ethnic groups

Historical discrimination has resulted in substantial class divisions between ethnic groups

Many minority groups entered society as immigrant workers, taking on jobs unwanted by locals

Consequently, the structural reproduction of capitalism discriminations against minority groups

Around two-fifths of people from ethnic minorities live in low-income households, twice the rate for White people.

Much of the uneven relationship between ethnicities was established in the system of colonialism

Colonialism involves unequal relationships established through the imposition of control over other groupings

This imposition establishes exploitative controls over labour and resources, as well as creating negative stereotypes through Eurocentric assumptions

Non-white groups lie predominately in the working class within Western nations

Consequently, the same processes that reproduce class relations create divisions between ethnicities, and the resentment of the underclasses

Moreover, racism prevents the development of solidarity between workers

To what extent can economic factors explain divisions between ethnic

groups?

The politics of ethnicity are a significant concern for the stability of society

These politics are a matter of managing power relations between majority and minority groups

Ethnic groups are not necessarily minorities, although they tend to be

Segregation is the physical and social separation of categories of people, usually imposed by the state but reproduced culturally (often outside of the law)

Segregation, such as in South Africa and the US in the 20th Century, is based on an assumption of biological superiority ◦ Separate but not equal

This social Darwinism approach relies on a supposed organic functionality

The official end of segregation led to attempts to assimilate minorities into mainstream culture

Assimilation is the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture.

This approach values social cohesion and removes direct discrimination

But assimilation assumes the superiority of the dominant

culture, often producing institutional racism

To what extent should immigrants ‘leave their culture

at the door’?

Assimilation does not tend to overcome existing divisions and distinctions

In order to attempt to reduce these divisions, state and organisations have produced policies that positively discriminate in favour of disadvantaged groups

This ‘evens the playing field’

But does it discriminate against majority groups?

Is it justified that a ‘white’ student should require

higher marks to enter university than

a ‘black’ student?

Multi-cultural responses to ethnic diversity emphasise the equal expression of cultures

This often involves direct support from state organisations to promote minority cultures

Multi-culturalism is the official stance in most Western nations – although there is often resistance amongst the political Right

Official constructions of national identity are extended to suggest inclusiveness

These notions are enshrined in law - we are all ‘equally different’

Can officially instituted multi-

culturalism positively impact upon minorities ?

Sociologists make a strong distinction between biological conceptions of race and cultural ethnicity

Whilst ethnicity appears to be a social difference, it operates as a strong and persistent division

Racial discrimination can be produced through cultural practices or economic structures

There have been significant attempts to improve the circumstances of ethnic minorities through political management

The impact of these policies has been mixed

Week 5: Gender and sexuality

Read: Abbott, P. (2006) Gender. In G. Payne (Ed.) Social Divisions (second edition), Basingstoke: Macmillan.

Scott, S. and Jackson, S. (2006) Sexuality. In G. Payne (Ed.) Social Divisions (second edition), Basingstoke: Macmillan.

Formative essay question: To what extent is positive discrimination an effective response to creating equal opportunities in higher education?