· Web viewPhysical properties useful in analysis and methods of separation prior to analysis – Isolation techniques – extraction, crystallization, sublimation, distillation

2019- M.PHIL – CHEMISTRY – PAPER-1- SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGY(SBG)

UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS

M. Phil CHEMISTRY – SYLLABUS-2019

Paper I: Scientific Research Methodology (SBG)

1. Introduction

Nature and importance of research – Aim, objectives, principles and problems – section of

research problem – survey of scientific literature – Primary and secondary sources.

2. Conduct of Research work:

Physical properties useful in analysis and methods of separation prior to analysis – Isolation

techniques – extraction, crystallization, sublimation, distillation – High vacuum distillation

techniques – cyclic distillation, Analytical distillation, thin layer and gas chromatography –

Reaction techniques to include high dilution, vacuum line reactions, reactions aided by

azeotropic distillation, recycling pyrolysis, Soxhlet extraction, continuous reactions, reactions at

low temperature, reaction in non-aqueous media and molten salts, micro-quantity handling use of

glove box. Special methods in modern chemistry – methods for vacuum sublimation and quasi

sublimation, techniques and apparatus for reactions in inert atmosphere and under low

temperature, working with compressed gases, heating under pressure, chemistry of working with

hazardous materials – air / water sensitive, corrosive, toxic, explosive and radio active materials.

3. Statistical treatment of analytical results:

Precision and accuracy – reliability – determinate and random errors – distribution of random

errors – normal distribution curve, statistical treatment of finite samples – the students’ t – test

and F – test – criteria for rejection of an observation - the Q test. Significant figures and

computation rules. Data plotting – least square analysis – significance of the correlation

coefficients.

4. Thesis and assignment writing:

Conventions of writing – the general format – page and chapter format – use of quotations and

footnotes – preparation of tables sand figures – referencing – appendices revising, editing and

evaluating the final product – proof reading – meanings and examples of commonly used

abbreviations.

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UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

1. Nature And Importance Of Research

2. Aim, Objectives, Principles And Problems

3. Section Of Research Problem

4. Survey Of Scientific Literature

5. Primary And Secondary Sources

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15NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

Nature of research

1. Systematic 2. Scientific. 3. Objectivity. 4. Definiteness. 5. Verifiability. 6. Generality. 7.

Predictability. 8. Modifiability and dynamicity.

1.Research is systematic

Research is a systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. •

Generally, research has to follow a certain structural process.

2. Research has objectivity

Research is quite objective in its approach and is almost free from biases, prejudices and

subjectivity

3. Research has definiteness

- Research is characterized by definiteness in its process as well as product. Here the

modes and measures for (i) collection and organizing information or data and (ii) testing and

verifying the collected information for arriving at the conclusion are all well planned and

definite.

4. Research has Verifiability

Research lays emphasis on the proper verification of the collected information , data or

facts. Here, nothing is accepted and derived unless verified through adequate observation,

tests and experimentation.

5. Research has Generality

The conclusions or results derived from the scientific method show a marked

characteristic of generality. First, it means that inductive reasoning and process is used in

making generalization and of the particular happenings or evens and secondly, the

principles, laws and theories established through scientific method are quite universal having

generalized application in similar situations.

6. Research has Predictability

The results obtained through scientific method are characterized with the ability of

predicting the future outcomes of the things or events. In a given situation, under the known

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circumstances, what would happen to a person, object or phenomenon can be reasonably

predicted through the properly derived conclusions or results of a scientific procedure.

7. Research has modifiability and dynamicity

The conclusion reached or results obtain through research are never final, absolute and

static. They are always open to verification, observation and experimentation.

what is true today in terms of the derived fact or reached generalization may be proved

wrong tomorrow based on new findings. Therefore, research neither advocates rigidity in the

process adopted for discovering the facts nor stands in the way of bringing desired

modification and changes in the pre-established principles, laws or theories.

IMPORTANCE

1. The purpose of research is to inform action.

2. Pursuing a research project will be a challenging and rewarding experience, and this

opportunity enables you to pursue an in-depth original study about a topic of interest.

3. Well-conducted research is vital to the success of global heath endeavors.

4. Not only does research form the foundation of program development and policies all over

the world, but it can also be translated into effective global health programs.

5. Research draws its power from the fact that it is empirical: rather than merely theorizing

about what might be effective or what could work, researchers go out into the field and

design studies that give policymakers hard data on which they can base their decisions.

6. Furthermore, good research utilizes methodologies that can be replicated, produces

results that are examinable by peers, and creates knowledge that can be applied to real-

world situations. Researchers work as a team to enhance our knowledge of how to best

address the world’s problems.

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25 AIM, OBJECTIVES, PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS

The ultimate aims of research are to generate measurable and testable data, gradually adding to

the accumulation of human knowledge.

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research problem is a statement about an area of concern,

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a condition to be improved,

a difficulty to be eliminated,

or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice

that points to the need for meaningful understanding and investigation

Research Topics

Synthetic organic and bioorganic chemistry.

Preparative main group and transition metal chemistry.

Organometallic chemistry.

Structural organic and inorganic chemistry.

Cluster Chemistry.

New synthetic and asymmetric methodology.

Catalysis and high pressure chemistry.

Parallel and high throughput synthese

35 SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

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45 SURVEY OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

scientific literature review is a critical account of what has been published on a topic by

accredited researchers. It may be: • A stand-alone assignment. • An introduction to an essay,

report, thesis, etc.

55 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES

PRIMARY SOURCES

1. Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence.

2. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art.

3. A primary source gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

4. A primary source is anything that gives direct evidence about the people, events, or

phenomena that you are researching.

5. Primary sources will be the main objects of the analysis.

6. If you are researching the past, you need primary sources that were produced at the time

by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers).

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7. If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative

or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews, surveys,

experiments) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official

documents or media texts).

SECONDARY SOURCE

A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information

from primary sources.

Common examples include:

Books, articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic

Synopses and descriptions of artistic works

Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas

Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly.

Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate

your own.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers.

Primary and secondary source examples

Primary source Secondary source

Novel Article analyzing the novel

Painting Exhibition catalog explaining the painting

Letters and diaries written by a historical figure Biography of the historical figure

Essay by a philosopher Textbook summarizing the philosopher’s ideas

Photographs of a historical event Documentary about the historical event

Government documents about a new policy Newspaper article about the new policy

Music recordings Academic book about the musical style

Results of an opinion poll Blog post interpreting the results of the poll

Empirical study Literature review that cites the study

Primary and secondary sources of information in chemistry

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https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research/

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research/


1. In chemistry, most research is first published as primary sources in the form of journal

articles,

2. Other primary sources include patents and reports (for commercially sensitive research),

theses, conference papers and research monographs (a type of book).

3. Secondary sources of information are available to help guide users to the primary

literature, and are reworkings of primary literature into a more digestible form.

4. They include databases, reviews, textbooks and encyclopedias (details below).

5. Normally you should reference primary sources.

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UNIT 2. CONDUCT OF RESEARCH WORK:

1. Physical Properties Useful In Analysis2. Methods Of Separation Prior To Analysis 3. Isolation Techniques 4. Extraction,5. Crystallization,6. Sublimation,7. Distillation8. High Vacuum Distillation Techniques 9. Cyclic Distillation,10. Analytical Distillation,11. Thin Layer Chromatography12. Gas Chromatography 13. Reaction Techniques To Include High Dilution,14. Vacuum Line Reactions,15. Reactions Aided By Azeotropic Distillation,16. Recycling17. Pyrolysis, 18. Soxhlet Extraction,19. Continuous Reactions,20. Reactions At Low Temperature,21. Reaction In Non-Aqueous Media And Molten Salts, 22. Micro-Quantity Handling Use Of Glove Box.23. Special Methods In Modern Chemistry24. Methods For Vacuum Sublimation And Quasi Sublimation25. Techniques And Apparatus For Reactions In Inert Atmosphere 26. D Under Low Temperature,27. Working With Compressed Gases,28. Heating Under Pressure, 29. Chemistry Of Working With Hazardous Materials30. Air / Water Sensitive, 31. Corrosive, 32. Toxic,33. Explosive 34. Radio Active Materials.

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135PHYSICAL PROPERTIES USEFUL IN ANALYSIS

235 METHODS OF SEPARATION PRIOR TO ANALYSIS

The separation of components is often performed prior to analysis. Analytical

methods can be separated into classical and instrumental. Classical methods (also

known as wet chemistry methods) use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and

distillation and qualitative analysis by color, odor, or melting point.

335ISOLATION TECHNIQUES

435 EXTRACTION,

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535CRYSTALLIZATION,

6

35SUBLIMATION,

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7

35DISTILLATION

835 HIGH VACUUM DISTILLATION TECHNIQUES

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935 CYCLIC DISTILLATION,

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1035 ANALYTICAL DISTILLATION,

1135 THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY

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1235 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY

1335REACTION TECHNIQUES TO INCLUDE HIGH DILUTION,

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1435 VACUUM LINE REACTIONS,

1535 REACTIONS AIDED BY AZEOTROPIC DISTILLATION,

An azeotrope or a constant boiling point mixture is a mixture of two or more liquids whose

proportions cannot be altered or changed by simple distillation

azeotropic distillation usually refers to the specific technique of adding another

component to generate a new, lower-boiling azeotrope that is heterogeneous (e.g.

producing two, immiscible liquid phases), such as the example below with the addition of

benzene to water and ethanol. This practice of adding an entrainer which forms a separate

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixture


phase is a specific sub-set of is azeotropic distillation methods,

Dehydration reactions[

, some dehydration reactions are subject to unfavorable but fast equilibria. One example is the formation of dioxolanes from aldehydes:[4]

RCHO + (CH2OH)2 RCH(OCH2)2 + H2O

Such unfavorable reactions proceed when water is removed by azeotropic distillation.

1635 RECYCLING

1735 PYROLYSIS

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotropic_distillation#cite_note-Wiberg-4

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioxolane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope#Separation_of_azeotrope_constituents


1835SOXHLET EXTRACTION,

A Soxhlet extractor is used when the desired compound has a limited solubility in a solvent,

and the impurity is insoluble in that solvent.

It allows for unmonitored and unmanaged operation while efficiently recycling a small amount

of solvent to dissolve a larger amount of material.

Description

A Soxhlet extractor has three main sections:

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insoluble

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility


a percolator (boiler and reflux) which circulates the solvent,

a thimble (usually made of thick filter paper) which retains the solid to be extracted,

and a siphon mechanism, which periodically empties the thimble.

Assembly

1. The source material containing the compound to be extracted is placed inside the thimble.

2. The thimble is loaded into the main chamber of the Soxhlet extractor.

3. The extraction solvent to be used is placed in a distillation flask.

4. The flask is placed on the heating element.

5. The Soxhlet extractor is placed atop the flask.

6. A reflux condenser is placed atop the extractor.

Operation

1. The solvent is heated to reflux.

2. The solvent vapour travels up a distillation arm, and floods into the chamber housing the thimble

of solid.

3. The condenser ensures that any solvent vapour cools, and drips back down into the chamber

housing the solid material.

4. The chamber containing the solid material slowly fills with warm solvent.

5. Some of the desired compound dissolves in the warm solvent.

6. When the Soxhlet chamber is almost full, the chamber is emptied by the siphon.

7. The solvent is returned to the distillation flask.

8. The thimble ensures that the rapid motion of the solvent does not transport any solid material to

the still pot.

9. This cycle may be allowed to repeat many times, over hours or days.

10. During each cycle, a portion of the non-volatile compound dissolves in the solvent.

11. After many cycles the desired compound is concentrated in the distillation flask.

12. After extraction the solvent is removed, typically by means of a rotary evaporator, yielding the

extracted compound.

13. The non-soluble portion of the extracted solid remains in the thimble, and is usually discarded

14. Advantage of this system is that instead of many portions of warm solvent being passed through

the sample, just one batch of solvent is recycled.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_evaporator

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvation


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflux

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condenser_(laboratory)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heating_element

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_bottomed_flask

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent


A schematic representation of a Soxhlet extractor

1: Stirrer bar 2: Still pot (the still pot should not be overfilled and the volume of solvent in the

still pot should be 3 to 4 times the volume of the soxhlet chamber) 3: Distillation

path 4: Thimble 5: Solid 6: Siphon top 7: Siphon exit 8: Expansion

adapter 9: Condenser 10: Cooling water out 11: Cooling water in

1935 CONTINUOUS REACTIONS,

2035 REACTIONS AT LOW TEMPERATURE,

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Soxhlet_extractor.svg


2135 REACTION IN NON-AQUEOUS MEDIA AND MOLTEN SALTS,

An inorganic nonaqueous solvent is a solvent other than water, that is not an organic

compound. ... These solvents are used in chemical research and industry for reactions that

cannot occur in aqueous solutions or require a special environment.

1. Sulfur dioxide is a versatile inert solvent widely used for dissolving highly

oxidizing salts.

2. Dry hydrogen fluoride readily dissolves low-valent metal fluorides as well as

several molecular fluorides.

3. Liquid ammonia is the best-known and most widely studied nonaqueous ionising

solvent.

MOLTEN SALTS

When a solid salt melts, it forms a solution of the cations and anions. For example, KOH melts at temperatures above 400 °C and dissociates into K+ and OH- ions which can act as a solvent for chemical reactions.

Because of the autodissociation of the OH- solvent, water is always present in a molten KOH flux, according to the acid-base equilibrium:

Molten hydroxide fluxes can thus be used in the synthesis of oxide crystals, such as the perovskite superconductor (K1-XBaXBiO3). Eutectic mixtures of NaOH and KOH are relatively low melting (≈ 200 °C) and can be used as solvents for crystallizing a variety of basic oxides

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2235MICRO-QUANTITY HANDLING USE OF GLOVE BOX.

2335 SPECIAL METHODS IN MODERN CHEMISTRY

2435 METHODS FOR VACUUM SUBLIMATION

Vacuum sublimation requires an apparatus in which the sample is heated to a

sufficiently high temperature in a vacuum that the sample is vaporized and then sublimed

onto a substrate.

1. Place the sample to be sublimed in the bottom of the sublimation apparatus.

2. Lightly grease all joints.

3. Use thick-walled tubing to attach to the vacuum arm, and apply the vacuum.

4. The setup should not hiss or there is a leak.

5. Fill the cold finger, or run water through the condenser.

6. Be sure to apply the vacuum first, then coolant. If cooled before the vacuum,

condensation may occur on the cold finger.

7. Wave a heat gun or Bunsen burner on the apparatus to heat the sample.

8. Sublimation should begin within a few minutes.

9. Coax solid deposited on the side of the glassware toward the cold finger by waving the

heat gun/burner on the sides of the glass.

10. When the sublimation is complete:

11. Remove the coolant.

12. Allow the apparatus to come to room temperature.

13. Remove the cold finger.

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2535 QUASI SUBLIMATION

2635 TECHNIQUES AND APPARATUS FOR REACTIONS IN INERT

ATMOSPHERE

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The main techniques include:

counterflow additions, where air-stable reagents are added to the reaction vessel against a flow

of inert gas.

cannula transfer, where liquids or solutions of air-sensitive reagents are transferred between

different vessels stoppered with septa using a long thin tube known as a cannul

2735 UNDER LOW TEMPERATURE

2835 WORKING WITH COMPRESSED GASES,

A compressed gas is a substance that is a gas at normal room temperature and pressure, and is

contained under pressure, usually in a cylinder.

Some compressed gases (e.g. acetylene) are stabilized in the cylinder by dissolving the gas in a

liquid or solid matrix.

Gases expand to fill the space they are given.

Air.

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Helium. Nitrogen. Freon. Carbon dioxide. Water vapor. Hydrogen. Natural gas

Following these basic general safe practices will help protect you from the hazards of

compressed gases:

Read the MSDSs and labels for all of the materials you work with.

Know all of the hazards (fire/explosion, health, chemical reactivity, corrosivity, pressure) of the

materials you work with.

Know which of the materials you work with are compressed gases and check the label, not the

cylinder colour, to identify the gas.

Store compressed gas cylinders in cool, dry, well-ventilated areas, away from incompatible

materials and ignition sources. Ensure that the storage temperature does not exceed 52°C

(125°F).

Store, handle and use compressed gas cylinders securely fastened in place in the upright position.

Never roll, drag, or drop cylinders or permit them to strike each other.

Move cylinders in handcarts or other devices designed for moving cylinders.

Leave the cylinder valve protection cap in place until the cylinder is secured and ready for use.

Discharge compressed gases safely using devices, such as pressure regulators, approved for the

particular gas.

Never force connections or use homemade adaptors.

Ensure that equipment is compatible with cylinder pressure and contents.

Carefully check all cylinder-to-equipment connections before use and periodically during use, to

be sure they are tight, clean, in good condition and not leaking.

Carefully open all valves, slowly, pointed away from you and others, using the proper tools.

Close all valves when cylinders are not in use.

Never tamper with safety devices in cylinders, valves or equipment.

Do not allow flames to contact cylinders and do not strike an electric arc on cylinders.

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Always use cylinders in cool well-ventilated areas.

Handle "empty" cylinders safely: leave a slight positive pressure in them, close cylinder valves,

disassemble equipment properly, replace cylinder valve protection caps, mark cylinders "empty"

or "MT," and store them separately from full cylinders.

Wear the proper personal protective equipment for each of the jobs you do.

Know how to handle emergencies such as fires, leaks or personal injury.

Follow the health and safety rules that apply to your job.

2935 HEATING UNDER PRESSURE,

3035CHEMISTRY OF WORKING WITH HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

3135AIR / WATER SENSITIVE

WATER EXPOSURE SENSITIVE

Water reactive chemicals can develop pressure, generate flammable, explosive, corrosive or toxic gases, or ignite or explode when exposed to water or moisture. Examples of water exposure sensitive chemicals include:

alkali and alkaline-earth metals (sodium, lithium, calcium, potassium, magnesium)

aluminum chloride

anhydrous metal halides (aluminum tribromide, germanium tetrachloride)

anhydrous metal oxides (calcium oxide)

benzoyl chloride

calcium carbide

calcium oxide

nonmetal halides (boron tribromide, phosphorous pentachloride)

nonmetal halide oxides (inorganic acid halides, phosphoryl chloride, sulfuryl chloride, chlorosulfonic acid)

nonmetal oxides (acid anhydrides, trioxides)

3. AIR EXPOSURE SENSITIVE

Air exposure-sensitive chemicals can develop pressure, generate flammable or explosive gases, ignite, or explode when exposed to air. Examples of air exposure sensitive chemicals include:

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alkyl metal derivatives (ethoxydiethylaluminum and dimethylbismuth chloride)

analogous derivatives of nonmetals including diborane, dimethylphosphine, triethylarsine,

dichloro(methyl)silane

carbonyl metals (pentacarbonyliron and octacarbonyldicobalt)

finely divided metals (calcium, titanium)

metal hydrides (potassium hydride and germane)

partially or fully alkylated metal hydrides (diethylaluminum hydride, triethylbismuth)

sodium methoxide

sec-butyl lithium

triethylaluminum

white phosphorus

3235CORROSIVE Chemicals

Corrosives are one of the most commonly encountered hazards in the laboratory. The major classes of corrosive chemicals are:

strong acids and bases

dehydrating agents

oxidizing agents

Sulfuric acid

Nitric acid

The halogen acids include hydrofluoric (HF), hydrochloric (HCl), hydrobromic (HBr), and hydriotic acid (HI).

Perchloric acid

Acetic acid

Phenol

Sodium and potassium hydroxides

Laboratory Use of Corrosives

1. Always investigate the additional hazards such as flammability and reactivity before using.

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2. Purchase only the amount needed; small quantities are recommended for easier handling and storage.

3. Bottle carriers or some other means of containment should be used when moving chemicals between floors.

4. Store separately from incompatible materials.

5. Wear appropriate protective equipment, as described in Section 4.5.

6. Always add chemicals slowly and always add concentrated acid to water.

7. Keep ignition sources away from inorganic acid spills (that may produce flammable hydrogen gas on contact with metals), and from glacial acetic acid, which as an organic acid is a combustible material.

8. When neutralizing corrosives, never add a concentrated acid to base or a concentrated base to acid.

3335TOXIC,

3435 EXPLOSIVE

3535 RADIO ACTIVE MATERIALS.

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UNIT 3. STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF ANALYTICAL RESULTS:

1. Precision And Accuracy

2. Reliability

3. Determinate And Random Errors

4. Distribution Of Random Errors

5. Normal Distribution Curve,

6. Statistical Treatment Of Finite Samples

7. The Students’ T – Test

8. F – Test

9. Criteria For Rejection Of An Observation

10. The Q Test.

11. Significant Figures And Computation Rules.

12. Data Plotting

13. Least Square Analysis

14. Significance Of The Correlation Coefficients.

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114PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other.

For example , If we weigh a given substance five times, and get 3.2 kg each time, then the

measurement is very precise.

Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value.

For example, if we obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given substance, but the actual

weight is 10 kg, then the measurement is not accurate.

Precision is independent of accuracy.

we can be very precise but inaccurate, we can also be accurate but imprecise.

For example, if on average, the measurements for a given substance are close to the known

value, but the measurements are far from each other, then the measurement has accuracy

without precision.

Measurements that are close to the known value are said to be accurate, whereas measurements

that are close to each other are said to be precise

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214 RELIABILITY

Reliability is the degree of consistency of a measure.

A test will be reliable when it gives the same repeated result under the same conditions.

314 DETERMINATE AND RANDOM ERRORS

Error:

Deviation from the absolute value is called error.

1. Determinate ( systematic error – constant error )

These errors can be determined

Example : improperly calibrated instruments.

2. In determinate ( random error – accidental error )

Example : electric noise, differences in visual determination

414 DISTRIBUTION OF RANDOM ERRORS

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514 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE( Gaussian distribution N( μ,σ)

Normal distribution is a continuous distribution when the number of trails is very

large ( 500).Its probability function is given by

f (x) = 1σ √ 2 π

e−( x−μ )2

2 σ2 where σ – standard deviation and μ – mean

-∞ < x< ∞ , - ∞< μ< ∞ , σ > 0

Standard normal distribution:

, The Gaussian distribution said to be standard normal distribution when μ = 0 and σ = 1 . The

probability function becomes

f (x) = 1√ 2 π

e−( z )2

2 where z = (x−μ)σ

here ‘z’ is called standard normal variable with mean zero and standard deviation one. The

curve representing the normal distribution is called Normal distribution curve:

Properties of normal distribution curve.

1. It is bell shaped

2. Symmetric about mean

3. Mean = median = mode = 𝛍 ( for the distribution 5,6,7,6 mean ,median, mode = 6)

4. It has only one mode ( unimodal)

5. X-axis is an asymptotic to the curve.( the tails on the right and left extends to infinity)

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Area property of Standard normal curve:

Total area under the curve = unity

∫−∞

∞

f (x) dx = ∫−∞

∞

∅ (z ) dz = 1

The area under the curve gives the value of the integral

For 0 to 1 area = 0.3414 [ refer table]

For 0 to 2 area = 0.4772

For 0 to 3.9 area = 0.5000

Problem Find the area that the standard normal variable lies between

1.. Right of z = 1.06

X = 0.5 - 0 < x < 1.06

= 0.5 – 0.3554 [ from table]

= 0.1446

2... Left of z= -0.99

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X = 0.5 - 0 < x < 0.99

= 0.5 – 0.33389 [ from table]

= 0.1611

3. – 0.57 to - 2.49

Solution:

X = 0 < x < 2.49 - 0 < x < 0.57

= 0.4936 – 0.2157 [ from table]

= 0.2779

3.Between -1.5 and 1.25

X = 0 < x < 1.5+ 0 < x < 1.25

= 0.4332 + 0.3944 [ from table]

= 0.8276

Problem Given a normal distribution with mean 50 and SD 8. Find the probability that X

assumes a value between 34 and 62.

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Solution:

Z 1 = 34−50

8 = -2

Z 2 = 64−50

8 = 1.5

P( 34< x< 62 ) = p ( -2 < z< 1.5)

= p ( -2 <z<0) + p ( 0 < z< 1.5)

= p( 0 < z< 2) + p ( 0 < z< 1.5)

= 0.4772 + 0.4332

=0.9104

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614STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF FINITE SAMPLES

Population and Sample :

The entire quantity under test is called population.

Sample is a finite set of individuals in a population.

The number of individuals in a sample is called sample size.

For example the whole sack of rice is population and a handful of rice is sample.

Null hypothesis and Alternate hypothesis:

It is a hypothesis of no difference.

It is denoted by H0

Any statement which contradicts the Null hypothesis is called Alternate hypothesis

It is denoted by H1.

The alternate hypothesis may be

i. μ≠ μ0 ( μ <μ0 or μ >μ0) . This is known as two tailed alternate hypothesis.

ii. μ >μ0 . it is called right tailed test( one sided test)

iii. μ <μ0 it is called left tailed test( one sided test)

For example if a manufacturer of burette says that the diameter of the nozzle is exactly

equal to 0.5 mm .

For this statement “the diameter of the burette nozzle ≠ 0.5” is two tailed

“the diameter of the burette nozzle > 0.5” is right handed test

“the diameter of the burette nozzle < 0.5” is the left handed test.

Level of significance:

It is the size of error up to which, tolerance is accepted. For example scoring 50 % of

marks in an examination is required for getting pass. But 45 % of marks may be considered as

pass. This is 5% level of significance. 49 % of marks is 1% level of significance.( if not given

assume 5% level of significance)

Test of significance:

Finding the deviation between the observed sample statistic and the standard

( tabulated) value for the given level of significance is called test of significance.

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714 THE STUDENTS’ T – TEST

It is a continuous probability distribution , introduced by W.Gosset who wrote under the

pen-name ‘student’ and hence known as student’s t test .

In the test statistic ,when the sample is small and the population SD is not known, the

distribution is called student’s ‘t’ distribution.

Comparison of mean with the expected value

Procedure:

1. Set up the null hypothesis

It is a definite statement about the population parameter which is a hypothesis of no

difference. It is denoted by H 0 .

For example if a burette manufacture says that “ the diameter of our burette nozzle will be

exactly 0.5 “ then the assumption “ the diameter of the burette nozzle = 0.5 “ is null

hypothesis.”

2. Choose the level of significance





3. Compute the test statistic by the following formula

Test statistic is given by t = X−μSD

√n−1 where X – sample mean, μ – population

mean, n- sample size, SD – standard deviation

4. Degree of freedom :

Degree of freedom is defined as the number of samples minus one and denoted as ‘df’. If

“n “is the number of samples then

df = n-1.

5. Comparison with table value

Obtain the table value for the appropriate degree of freedom and the level of

significance. Compare the computed value with the table value

Page 41 of 71


6. Making decisions:

. Accept the null hypothesis, if the calculated value of the test statistic is numerically

less than the table value. ( tcal < t tab null hypothesis is accepted)

Reject the null hypothesis, if the calculated value of the test statistic is numerically more than

the table value ( tcal > t tab null hypothesis is rejected)

Problem The cuvette manufacturer for UV spectra claims, that the mean diameter of the

cuvette is 0.7 cm. A random sample of 10 cuvettes shows a mean diameter of 0.742 with a SD

of 0.04. Test whether the work is meeting the specification with 5% level of

signoificance[ Given t 0.005 = 3.25]

Solution:

i.Null hypothesis H0: The work is meeting the specification( μ = μ0)

ii.Alternate hypothesis : The work is not meeting the specification ( μ > μ0) or ( μ< μ0)

iii.Test statistic , t = X−μSD

√n−1

population mean X = 0.7

Number of samples n = 10

Sample mean μ = 0.742

SD σ = 0.04

Test statistic , t = X−μSD

√n−1

= 0.7−0.742

0.04√10−1

= −0.042× 3

0.04

= - 3.15

|t| = 3.15

iv. Tabulated value for 9 degrees of freedom, at 0.005 % level is 3.25

v. Comparing the calculated value with tabulated value we know that

t cal < t tab

Page 42 of 71


Null hypothesis is rejected. i.e the work is not meeting the specification

student’s ‘t’ test

Page 43 of 71


814 F – TEST

Comparison of precision of two methods by F test(Snedecor ‘s F distribution).

It was named F in honour of R.A.Fisher.

1. It is a continuous probability distribution.

2. It is used to test the equality of two population variances.

3. It starts from ‘0’ and extends to infinity on the right.

Procedure:

1. Set up the null hypothesis

It is a definite statement about the population parameter which is a hypothesis of no

difference. It is denoted by H 0 . For example if a burette manufacture says that “ the diameter

of our burette nozzle will be exactly 0.5 “ then the assumption “ the diameter of the burette

nozzle = 0.5 “ is null hypothesis.”

2. Choose the level of significance





3. Compute the test statistic by the following formula

F = s1

2

s22 where s1

2 = ∑ ( x−x1 )2

n1−1 s22 = ∑ ( x−x2 )2

n2−1 with ( n1

- 1 , n2 - 1 ) degrees of freedom

4. Degree of freedom :

Degree of freedom is defined as the number of samples minus one and denoted as df. If

n1 and n2 are two samples from different populations then df = n1 + n2 -2

5. Comparison with table value

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Obtain the table value for the appropriate degree of freedom and the level of

significance. Compare the computed value with the table value

6. Making decisions:

. Accept the null hypothesis, if the calculated value of the test statistic is numerically

less than the table value. (Fcal <Ft tab null hypothesis is accepted) Reject the null hypothesis, if

the calculated value of the test statistic is numerically more than the table value ( Fcal >Ft tab

null hypothesis is rejected)

PROBLEM .Two sources of raw materials for the manufacture of polyethyene are under

consideration. Both sources seem to have similar characteristics but the company is not sure

about their respective uniformity. A sample of 10 lots from source A yields a variance of 225

and a sample of 11 lots from source B yields a variance of 200. Is it likely that the variance of

source A is significantly greater than the variance of source B. α = 0.01

Solution:

i. Null hypothesis be H0 : σ 12 = σ 2

2

i.e the variances of source and B are equal

ii. Alternate hypothesis be H1: σ 12 > σ 2

2

iii. Test statistic F = s1

2

s22

n1 = 10 , S12 = 225, n2 = 11 , S2

2 = 200

s12 = (

n1

n1−1) S1

2

= ( 10

10−1¿ × 225

= 250

s22 = (

n2

n2−1) S2

2

= ( 11

11−1¿ × 200

= 220

F = s1

2

s22

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= 250220

= 1.136

iv. Degrees of freedom are ( 10-1, 11-1)

i.e ( 9,10)

The table value of F with df 9 and 10 at 1% level is 4.94

Fcal < F tab Therefore we accept null hypothesis and conclude that the two population

variances are the same

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Page 47 of 71


914 CRITERIA FOR REJECTION OF AN OBSERVATION

The rejection of suspect observations can be achieved by using statistically sound tests

for "the detection of outliers".

An outlier is defined as an observation that is generated from a different distribution

than was the main "body" of data.

In a set of replicate measurements of a chemical quantity, one or more of the obtained

values may differ considerably from the majority of the rest. In this case there is always a strong

motivation to eliminate those deviant values and not to include them in any subsequent

calculation This is permitted only if the suspect values can be characterized as outliers.

The Dixon's Q-test is the simpler test of this type

1014 THE Q TEST.

This test allows us to examine if one (and only one) observation from a small set of

replicate observations ( 3 to 10) can be rejected or not.

Q-test is based on the statistical distribution of "subrange ratios" of ordered data

samples, drawn from the same normal population. Hence, a normal (Gaussian) distribution of

data is assumed whenever this test is applied. In case of the detection and rejection of an outier,

Q-test cannot be reapplied on the set of the remaining observations.

Dixon's Q test, , is used for identification and rejection of outliers.

This assumes normal distribution This test should be used sparingly and never more than once in

a data set.

How the Q-test is applied The test is applied as follows:

(1) The N values comprising the set of observations under examination are arranged in ascending

order: x1 < x2 < . . . < xN

(2) The statistic experimental Q-value (Qexp) is calculated.

3. This is the ratio defined as the difference of the suspect value from its nearest one divided by

the range of the values (Q: rejection quotient).

4. Thus, for testing x1 or xN (as possible outliers) we use the following Qexp values:

Page 48 of 71

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlier


5. The obtained Qexp value is compared to a critical Q-value (Qcrit) found in tables.

6. This critical value should correspond to the confidence level (CL) we have decided to run the

test (usually: CL=95%).

7 If Qexp > Qcrit, then the suspect value can be characterized as an outlier and it can be rejected, if

not, the suspect value must be retained and used in all subsequent calculations.

8.The null hypothesis associated to Q-test is as follows: "There is no a significant difference

between the suspect value and the rest of them, any differences must be exclusively attributed to

random errors".

9.Only one point may be rejected from a data set using a Q test.

Table of critical values of Q

A table containing the critical Q values for CL 90%, 95% and 99% and N=3-10 is given below

Problem: Consider the data set 0.189, 0.167, 0.187, 0.183,0.186,, 0.182, 0.181,0.184, 0.181,

0.177. We hypothesize that 0.167 is an outlier. Calculate Q: With 10 observations and at

90% confidence, Qtable = 0.412 and , for 95 % Qtable = 0.466

Solution:

Given : 0.189, 0.167, 0.187, 0.183,0.186,, 0.182, 0.181,0.184, 0.181, 0.177.

Page 49 of 71

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_interval


Rearrange in increasing order

0.167, 0.177, 0.181,0.181,0.182,0.183,0.184,0.186,0.187,0.189

Q = Gap

Range

= |0.167−0.177|0.189−0.167

= 0.455

With 10 observations and at 90% confidence,

Q = 0.455 > 0.412 = Qtable,

so we conclude 0.167 is indeed an outlier.

However, at 95% confidence,

Q = 0.455 < 0.466 = Qtable

0.167 is not considered an outlier.

1114 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND COMPUTATION RULES.

The significant figures (also known as the significant digits) of a number are digits that

carry meaning contributing to its measurement resolution. This includes all digits except:[1]

COMPUTATION RULES.

All leading zeros. For example, "013" has 2 significant figures: 1 and 3;

Trailing zeros when they are merely placeholders to indicate the scale of the number (exact rules

are explained at identifying significant figures); and

Spurious digits introduced, for example, by calculations carried out to greater precision than that

of the original data, or measurements reported to a greater precision than the equipment supports.

Significance arithmetic is a set of approximate rules for roughly maintaining significance

throughout a computation. The more sophisticated scientific rules are known as propagation of

uncertainty.

Numbers are often rounded to avoid reporting insignificant figures. For example, it would

create false precision to express a measurement as 12.34525 kg (which has seven significant

figures) if the scales only measured to the nearest gram and gave a reading of 12.345 kg (which

has five significant figures). Numbers can also be rounded merely for simplicity rather than to

Page 50 of 71

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_interval


indicate a given precision of measurement, for example, to make them faster to pronounce in

news broadcasts.

Concise rules

All non-zero digits are significant: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

Zeros between non-zero digits are significant: 102, 2005, 50009.

Leading zeros are never significant: 0.02, 001.887, 0.000515.

In a number with or without a decimal point, trailing zeros (those to the right of the last non-zero

digit) are significant provided they are justified by the precision of their derivation: 389,000;

2.02000; 5.400; 57.5400.

Significant figures rules explained

All non-zero digits are considered significant.

For example, 91 has two significant figures (9 and 1), while 123.45 has five significant figures

(1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).

Zeros appearing anywhere between two non-zero digits are significant: 101.1203 has seven

significant figures: 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 0 and 3.

Zeros to the left of the significant figures are not significant.

For example, 0.00052 has two significant figures: 5 and 2.

Zeros to the right of the significant figures are significant if and only if they are justified by the

precision of their derivation.

For example, 12.2300 may have six significant figures: 1, 2, 2, 3, 0 and 0.

The number 0.000122300 still has only six significant figures (the zeros before the 1 are not

significant).

In addition, 120.00 has five significant figures since it has three trailing zeros.

In most contexts it is understood that trailing zeros are only shown if they are significant:

for example, if a measurement precise to four decimal places (0.0001) were to be given as

12.23, then it would usually be misunderstood to indicate that only two decimal places of

precision are available.

Stating the result as 12.2300, however, makes clear that it is precise to four decimal places (in

this case, six significant figures).

Page 51 of 71


The significance of trailing zeros in a number not containing a decimal point can be ambiguous.

For example, it may not always be clear if a number like 1300 is precise to the nearest unit (and

just happens coincidentally to be an exact multiple of a hundred) or if it is only shown to the

nearest hundred due to rounding or uncertainty.

An overline, sometimes also called an overbar, or less accurately, a vinculum, may be placed

over the last significant figure; any trailing zeros following this are insignificant. For example,

1300 has three significant figures (and hence indicates that the number is precise to the nearest

ten).

Less often, using a closely related convention, the last significant figure of a number may

be underlined; for example, "2000" has two significant figures.

A decimal point may be placed after the number; for example "100." indicates specifically that

three significant figures are meant.[3]

In the combination of a number and a unit of measurement, the ambiguity can be avoided by

choosing a suitable unit prefix.

For example, the number of significant figures in a mass specified as 1300 g is ambiguous, while

if stated as 1.3 kg it is not.

The number can be expressed in Scientific Notation (see below).

. The abbreviation s.f. is sometimes used, for example "20 000 to 2 s.f." or "20 000 (2 sf)".

Alternatively, the uncertainty can be stated separately and explicitly with a plus-minus sign, as in

20 000 ± 1%, so that significant-figures rules do not apply.

1214DATA PLOTTING

A plot is a graphical technique for representing a data set, usually as a graph showing the

relationship between two or more variables.

Graphs are a visual representation of the relationship between variables, which are very useful

for humans who can then quickly derive an understanding which may not have come from lists

of values.

Graphs can also be used to read off the value of an unknown variable plotted as a function of a

known one.

Page 52 of 71

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_of_a_function

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_set

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_technique

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plus-minus_sign

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_prefix

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_of_measurement

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_figures#cite_note-Chemistry_Significant_Figures-3

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underline

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinculum_(symbol)

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overline


The plot can be drawn by hand or by a mechanical or electronic plotter.

1314LEAST SQUARE ANALYSIS - CURVE FITTING

Let P1(x1,y1), P2(x2,y2), ….. Pn(xn,yn) be ‘n’ sets of observations and y = f(x) be

the suggested relationship between ‘x’ and ‘y’.

When x = x1, the observed value of y1 is y1 = P1N1 and the expected value of y is y1 = M1N1

The residual d1 = observed value – expected value

= P1N1 - M1N1

Similarly d2 = P2N2 - M2N2

The sum of squares of residuals S = d12 +d2

2 ……..

According to principle of least square the sum of squares of residuals should be minimum to

get curve of best fit.

Let the equation of best fitting straight line for the given data represented by the points

(xi, yi) be y = ax +b .

y1 = ax1 +b

y2 = ax2 +b

let the observed values of ‘y’ be y1,y2,y3…. then

The residual d1 = observed value – expected value

= y1 –( ax1 +b)

We define a quantity S such that

S = sum of squares of residuals

S = d12 +d2

2……

= [y1 –( ax1 +b)] 2 + [ y2 –( ax2 +b) ] 2

According to the principle of lest square, the constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ are so chosen that the

sum of squares of residuals should be minimum.

S = ∑r=1

n

¿¿ 2 is least

The necessary condition for the above relation is

∂ S∂ a = 0 and

∂ S∂ b = 0

Page 53 of 71

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotter


Dropping the suffix,

S = [ y - ( ax +b¿¿ 2 is least

Differentiating S partially with respect to ‘a’

∂ S∂ a = - 2 [y - ( ax +b¿ ] [ 0- x +0]

= - 2 [y - ( ax +b¿ ] [- x]

equating to zero

0 = - 2 [y - ( ax +b¿ ] [- x]

Dividing by ‘-2-

0 = yx -ax2 – bx

yx = ax2 + bx

considering all values we get

∑ x y = a∑ x2 + b∑ x --------------1

Differentiating S partially with respect to ‘b’

∂ S∂ b = - 2 [y - ( ax +b¿ ] [ 0 -0 +1]

equating to zero

0 = - 2 [y - ( ax +b¿ ]

Dividing by ‘-2-

0 = y –ax - b

y = ax + b

considering all values we get

∑ y = a∑ x + b n ------------2

solving equations (1) and (2) we get the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ and hence the equation of the best

fitting straight line.

Laws reducible to linear law:

1. Y = axn

Taking log on both sides,

Log y = log a + n log x

Let Y = log y, A = log a and X = log x, then the equation becomes

Y = A +nX which is a linear equation

Page 54 of 71


Problem:

Find the equation of best fitting straight line to the following data.

x 0 1 2 3

y 5 10 15 20

Solution:

∑ x = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 = 6

∑ y = 5 + 10 + 15 + 20 = 50

∑ xy = 0 +10 + 30 +60 = 100

∑ x2 = 0 + 1 + 4 + 9 = 14

Let the equation of best fitting straight line be y = ax +b

a∑ x2 + b∑ x = ∑ x y

a (14) + b (6) = 100 -------------1

a∑ x + b n = ∑ y

a (6) + 4 b = 50 -------------2

14 a + 6b = 100

6a + 4b = 50

Multiplying equation 1 by ‘2’ and equation 2 by ‘3’ we get

28 a + 12b = 200

18a + 12b = 150

-----------------------------

10 a = 50

a= 5

6(5) + 4b = 50

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30 +4b = 50

4b = 20

b= 5

The required equation of the best fitting line is

y = 5 x + 5

1414 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS.

CORRELATION

If two quantities vary ,in such a way that the movements in one tend to be accompanied

by corresponding movements in the other , then they are said to be correlated.

If the amount of variation in X, bears a constant ratio to the corresponding amount of

variation in Y, then the correlation between X and Y is said to be linear. Otherwise it is non-

linear. The degree of linear relationship between two variables is known as correlation

coefficient ( Karl Pearson coefficient of correlation)

Determination of correlation:

Correlation between two variables may be determined by the following methods.

1. Two way frequency table

2. Scatter diagram

3. Co-variance method ( Karl Pearson’s method)

4. Rank method.

Determination of coefficient of correlation by Karl Pearson’s( co-variance) method

If ( x1,y1), ( x2,y2) ... ( xn, yn) be n pairs of observations on two variables X and Y , then

co variance of X and Y ( joint variation) is given by

Cov ( X,Y) = 1n ∑ (X−X ¿)¿¿

Correlation coefficient is given by

r = cov (X , Y )

σ xσ y

= ∑ (X−X ¿)¿¿¿

If x = ∑ (X−X ¿)¿ , y = ∑ ¿¿ then

Page 56 of 71


¿σ x = √∑ x2

n ¿σ y = √∑ y

2

n

the above equation becomes

r =

∑ xy

n√∑ x2

n √∑ y2

n

= ∑ xy

√∑ x2 √∑ y

2

PROBLEMS:

1. The value of pressure and volume in a certain experiment is given below. Find the coefficient

of correlation.

Pressure( atm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Volume( lit) 6 8 11 9 12 10 14

Solution:

Correlation coefficient is given by

r = ∑ xy

√∑ x2 √∑ y

2

where x = ∑ (X−X ¿)¿ , y = ∑ ¿¿

X = 1+2+3+4+5+6+7

7 = 4

Y = 6+8+11+9+12+10+14

7 = 10

X Y x = X - X y = Y - Y x2 y2 xy

1 6 -3 -4 9 16 12

2 8 -2 -2 4 4 4

3 11 -1 1 1 1 -1

4 9 0 -1 0 1 0

5 12 1 2 1 4 2

6 10 2 0 4 0 0

7 14 3 4 9 16 12

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28 70 0 0 28 42 29

r = 29

√28√42

= 0.845

UNIT 4. THESIS AND ASSIGNMENT WRITING:

1. Conventions Of Writing

2. The General Format

3. Page And Chapter Format

4. Use Of Quotations And Footnotes

5. Preparation Of Tables And Figures

6. Referencing

7. Appendices Revising,

8. Editing And Evaluating The Final Product

9. Proof Reading

10. Meanings And Examples Of Commonly Used Abbreviations.

Page 58 of 71


110CONVENTIONS OF WRITING

The six basic traits of effective writing have been identified as ideas, organization, voice, word

choice, sentence fluency, and conventions.

We can define conventions as a set of generally accepted standards for written English.

We use conventions to make our writing more readable.

In other words, we do things in a certain way so the reader can figure out what we’re trying to

say.

Conventions include spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and sentence structure.

Students should:

Apply spelling rules correctly.

Use correct punctuation to smoothly guide the reader through the paper.

Use verb tenses correctly.

Write sentences that express complete thoughts.

Demonstrate paragraph organization and use smooth transitions.

In addition, each kind of writing has its own conventions. For instance:

Page 59 of 71


Narrative writing must have characters, setting, and plot.

Descriptive writing must appeal to the senses through use of vivid, colorful, precise

vocabulary.

Expository writing must inform, clarify, explain, define, or instruct.

Persuasive writing must present an argument based on facts and logic, and attempt to sway

the reader’s opinion.

..210THE GENERAL FORMAT

The required format includes

the title in the bottom,

headings on every page in the upper corner

, Times New Roman

12 pt.,

double-spaced,

1-inch margins from all sides,

and black color of the font.

Each page should be numbered.

310PAGE AND CHAPTER FORMAT

The titles of the five chapters are:

(1) Introduction,

(2) Review of the Literature,

(3) Methods,

(4) Results,

(5) Discussion.

The structure of the five chapters is the same whether you are conducting a qualitative or

quantitative stud

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Literature review

Page 60 of 71


Chapter 2 of your Project Paper is called the Review of Literature (or Review of Related

Literature or Literature Review). It is the chapter in which you analyse critically published

works (theoretical articles and research studies) related to your problem statement

and research questions. Disciplines

CHAPTER 3 Methods and Procedure

This chapter presents the methods to be used in the study. It also describes the subjects of

the study, the instruments used, the procedure of data gathering, and the statistical treatment of

the data.

Chapter 4:

The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the collected data and the statistical treatment,

and/or mechanics, of analysis. The first paragraph should briefly restate the problem, taken

from Chapter 1

Chapter 5: Conclusion OR summary

may include the following: (1) objectives of the study; (2) statement of the problem; (3)

respondents; (4) sampling procedures; (5) method/s of research employed; (6) statistical

treatment/s applied or hypotheses tested, if there is any; (7); and results

Appendices - May include CD, DVD or other material, also reviews & methods papers

410USE OF QUOTATIONS AND FOOTNOTES

When writing research paper ,we use a footnote to cite sources of facts or quotations.

Anytime you use somebody else's words, you must put them in quotation

marks and footnote your source

A footnote is a reference, explanation, or comment1 placed below the main text on a printed

page. Footnotes are identified in the text by a numeral or a symbol. In research papers and

reports, footnotes commonly acknowledge the sources of facts and quotations that appear in the

text

.purpose of a footnote or endnote

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Footnotes and endnotes are both ways to add clarifying information into a document. They

provide important details with which the reader may be unfamiliar. They often save the reader

from looking up unfamilar words, people, places or sources.

footnotes only be used to provide content notes (such as providing brief, supplemental

information about the text or directing readers to additional information) and to denote copyright

permissions.

510PREPARATION OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Research papers are often based on copious amounts of data that can be summarized and easily

read through tables and graphs. When writing a research paper, it is important for data to be

presented to the reader in a visually appealing way.

Effective Use of Tables and Figures in Research Papers

The data in figures and tables, however, should not be a repetition of the data found in the text.

There are many ways of presenting data in tables and figures, governed by a few simple rules.

How do you know if you need a table or figure? The rule of thumb is that if you cannot present

your data in one or two sentences, then you need a table.

Using Tables

Tables and figures in scientific papers are wonderful ways of presenting data.

Effective data presentation in research papers requires understanding your reader and the

elements that comprise a table.

Tables have several elements, including the legend, column titles, and body.

Title: Tables should have a clear, descriptive title, which functions as the “topic

sentence” of the table.

The titles can be lengthy or short, depending on the discipline.

Column Titles: The goal of these title headings is to simplify the table.

The reader’s attention moves from the title to the column title sequentially.

A good set of column titles will allow the reader to quickly grasp what the table is about.

Table Body: This is the main area of the table where numerical or textual data is located.

Construct your table so that elements read from up to down, and not across.

The placement of figures and tables should be at the center of the page.

It should be properly referenced and ordered in the number that it appears in the text.

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http://writingcenter.unc.edu/figures-and-charts/

http://cancer.dartmouth.edu/documents/pdf/effective_use_tables_figures.pdf


In addition, tables should be set apart from the text.

Using Figures

Figures can take many forms, such as bar graphs, frequency histograms, scatterplots, drawings,

maps, etc.

When using figures in a research paper, always think of your reader.

What is the easiest figure for your reader to understand?

How can you present the data in the simplest and most effective way?

For instance, a photograph may be the best choice if you want your reader to understand spatial

relationships.

610REFERENCING

Select one of the three methods below to cite in-text references:

Superscript numbers

At the end of the cited information:

Fluoridated water as well as various fluoride products such as toothpaste provide fluoride ions

necessary for remineralization.¹

Within the cited information:

Rakita¹ states that fluoridated water as well as various fluoride products such as toothpaste

provide fluoride ions necessary for remineralization.

Italic numbers



necessary for remineralization (1).


Rakita (1) states that fluoridated water as well as various fluoride products such as toothpaste

provide fluoride ions necessary for remineralization.

Page 63 of 71


Author name and year of publication



necessary for remineralization (Rakita, 2004).


Rakita states that fluoridated water as well as various fluoride products such as toothpaste

provide fluoride ions necessary for remineralization (2004).

Note: for two authors use "and": Rakita and Smith. For more than two authors use "et al.": Rakita

et al.

How to Format Reference Lists

Books

Single

author

Chang, R. General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts, 3rd ed.; McGraw-Hill:

Boston, 2003.

Edited Book Gbalint-Kurti, G. G. Wavepacket Theory of Photodissociation and Reactive

Scattering. In Advances in Chemical Physics; Rice, S. A., Ed.; Wiley: New York,

2004; Vol. 128; p 257.

Book in

Series

Goh, S. L. Polymer Chemistry in an Undergraduate Curriculum. In Introduction

of Macromolecular Science/Polymeric Materials into the Foundational Course in

Organic Chemistry; ACS Symposium Series 1151; American Chemical Society:

Washington, DC, 2013; pp 113-127.

Article from

a reference

book

Powder Metallurgy. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd ed.;

Wiley: New York, 1982; Vol. 19, pp 28-62.

Articles

Article in a

scientific

journal

Evans, D. A.; Fitch, D. M.; Smith, T. E.; Cee, V. J. Application of Complex

Aldol Reactions to the Total Synthesis of Phorboxazole B. J. Am. Chem.

Soc. 2000, 122, 10033-10046.

Article in a Manning, R. Super Organics. Wired, May 2004, pp 176-181.

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popular/non

-scientific

magazine

Article from

an online

journal

Peacock-Lopez, E. Exact Solutions of the Quantum Double Square-Well

Potential. Chem. Ed. [Online] 2007, 11, 383-393

http://chemeducator.org/bibs/0011006/11060380lb.htm (accessed Aug 23, 2007).

Theses, Patents, Conferences, Technical Reports

Theses Thoman, J. W., Jr. Studies of Molecular Deactivation: Surface-Active

Free Radicals and S(O)para-difluorobenzene. Ph.D. Dissertation,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1987.

or

Gehring, A. PhD. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1998.

Patents Diamond, G.; Murphy, V.; Leclerc, M.; Goh, C.; Hall, K.; LaPointe, A.

M.; Boussie, T.; Lund, C. Coordination catalysts. US 20020002257 A1,

January 3, 2002.

Conference/Meetings

(full-text)

Winstein, S. In University Chemical Education, Proceedings of the

International Symposium on University Chemical Education, Frascati

(Rome), Italy, October 16-19, 1969; Chisman, D. G.. Ed.; Butterworths:

London, 1970.

Conference/Meetings

(abstract only)

Kaplan, L.J.; Selder, A. Books of Abstracts, 213th ACS National

Meeting, San Francisco, CA, April 13-17, 1997; American Chemical

Society: Washington, DC, 1997; CHED-824.

Technical Report or

Bulletin

Crampton, S.B.; McAllaster, D. R. Collision and Motional Averaging

Effects in Cryogenic Atomic Hydrogen Masers; WMC-AFOSR-002;

NTIS: Springfield, VA, 1983.

Web/Online

Web page National Library of Medicine. Environmental Health and Toxicology:

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Specialized Information Services. http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro.html (accessed

Aug 23, 2004).

Article from

an online

journal

Peacock-Lopez, E. Exact Solutions of the Quantum Double Square-Well

Potential. Chem. Ed. [Online] 2007, 11, 383-393

http://chemeducator.org/bibs/0011006/11060383ep.htm (accessed Dec 6, 2018).

Article from

full text

database

Begley, S. When Does Your Brain Stop Making New Neurons? Newsweek

[Online] July 2, 2007, p 62. Expanded Academic Index. http:/galegroup.com

(accessed Aug 23, 2007).

Article

published

online in

advance

Chung, J.M. and Peacock-Lopez, E. Cross-diffusion in the Templator model of

chemical self-replication. Phys. Lett. A [Online early access].

DOI:10.1016/j.physleta.2007.04.114. Published Online: June 12, 2007.

http://www.sciencedirect.com (accessed Aug 23, 2007).

Computer

Program

SciFinder Scholar, version 2007; Chemical Abstracts Service: Columbus, OH,

2007; RN 58-08-2 (accessed Aug 23, 2007).

710APPENDICES REVISING,

An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but

which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of

the research problem or it is information that is too cumbersome to be included in the body of

the paper.

Appendices are always supplementary to the research paper.

As such, your study must be able to stand alone without the appendices, and the paper

must contain all information including tables, diagrams, and results necessary to

understand the research problem.

The key point to remember when including an appendix is that the information is non-

essential; if it were removed, the reader would still be able

to comprehend the significance, validity, and implications of your research.

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It is appropriate to include appendices for the following reasons:

Including this material in the body of the paper that would render it poorly structured or

interrupt the narrative flow;

Information is too lengthy and detailed to be easily summarized in the body of the

paper;

Inclusion of helpful, supporting, or useful material would otherwise distract the reader

from the main content of the paper;

Provides relevant information or data that is more easily understood or analyzed in a

self-contained section of the paper;

Can be used when there are constraints placed on the length of your paper; and,

Provides a place to further demonstrate your understanding of the research problem by

giving additional details about a new or innovative method, technical details, or design

protocols.

Examples of items you might have in an appendix include mathematical proofs, lists of

words, the questionnaire used in the research, a detailed description of an apparatus used in

the research, etc. Your paper may have more than one appendix. Usually, each distinct item

has its own appendix.

8

10 EDITING AND EVALUATING THE FINAL PRODUCT

, editing samples need to show your work. Markups, files with changes tracked electronically, or

before-and-after documents are all fine, but a finished piece (without an indication of

your editing) is not an informative sample.

910 PROOF READING

Proofreading involves correcting all spelling, punctuation, grammatical and typographical

errors that appear within a document. Proofreading is a highly developed skill that requires

extensive knowledge of the English language and the ability to concentrate for long periods of

time

Page 67 of 71


1010MEANINGS AND EXAMPLES OF COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS.

Abbreviations are the short form of a word or phrase. It is a group of letters taken from the word or

phrase. Sometimes, abbreviations are read as a word itself.

In simple words, an abbreviation is a shortened, reduced or contracted word or phrase. Most

abbreviations start with a capital letter and end with a period (full stop).

Importance of Abbreviations

Abbreviation provides a quick, easy, and convenient way of indicating something

It saves time, effort, and spaces

It is easier to use in everyday writing

An abbreviation makes reading easier

BBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

No. Abbreviation Compound name

3 ADP adenosine 5'-diphosphate

4 AIBN 2,2'-azobisisobutyronitrile

5 AMP adenosine 5'-monophosphate

6 Ar aryl

Page 68 of 71


ASSIGNMENT

Problem The melting point of some organic compounds is normally distributed with a mean of

54 and SD of 12. What proportion of compounds have melting point between 46 and 56. Given

z 0.67 = 0.2481 , z 1.7 = 0.0675 Ans : 31.56%

Solution:

Problem The optical density of some compounds follows normal distribution with mean 45 and

SD 10. Find the probability for an iten to fall a. Beyond 60 b. between 40 and 56.

[0.0668, 0.5558]

Solution:

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Problem The λmax values for 100 compounds follow normal distribution. With mean and SD

80 and 15 respectively. Find the probability that a randomly chosen compound will be greater

than 100.[ 0.0968]

Solution:

Problem .Find the mean and SD of the normal distribution of marks in an examination where 44

% of the candidates obtain marks below 55 and 6 % got above 80 marks. Z 1.55 = 0.44 ,Z 0.15 =

0.06 [ mean = 57.2, SD = 14.66]

Solution:

Problem Optical density ( OD) for 10 samples are given below. 70, 120,110, 101, 88, 83,95, 98,

107, 100. Do these data support the assumption of the population mean 98? Find the range in

which the most of the OD values lie. [ 107.5 and 86.99]

Solution:

i.Null hypothesis H0: The given data supports that the population mean μ =98

ii.Alternate hypothesis : population mean ≠ 98 ( μ > 98) or ( μ< 98)

Test statistic , t = X−μ

S√n

where s = √∑ (x−xi )2

n−1

To find X = 70+120+110+101+88+83+95+98+107+100

10

Problem The mean of inner diameter of a sample of 5000 test tubes produced by a machine is

0.502 and SD is 0.005. The purpose for which these tubes are intended allows a maximum

tolerance in the diameter of 0.496 to 0.508. otherwise the tubes are considered as defective.

What percentage of tubes produced by the machines is defective if the diameters are are found

to be normally distributed? Z 1.2 = 0. 3849. [ non defective = 76.98%, defective = 23.02

Solution:

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Problem The mean rate of a reaction for different temperatures was 146.3 . After the addition

of catalyst, the mean rate for 22 different temperatures increased to 153.7 and showed SD of

17.2. Was the catalyst successful? t 21 = 2.08

Problem Absorption of light by curcumin complexes in alcohol and aqueous medium was

tested. The following data gives the result

water alcohol

Number of complexes 8 7

Mean absorbance 1234 1036

SD of absorbance 36 40

Is the difference in the mean , sufficient to warrent that water is superior to alcohol regarding

absorption. ? t13 = 2.16

Problem Poly propylene pellets were produced by two machines . The average number of

pellets per day ,on the basis of records of 25 days production, are 200 and 250 with SD 20 and

25 respectively. Can you regard both the machines equally efficient at 1% level of significant?

t48 for 1 % is 2.58

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