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Saint Augustine’s College

Terminology associated with the Elements of Music

Reference and Workbook

Senior Music: Analysing Repertoire Dimension

Deconstruction: is the process of breaking a complex topic into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. This is similar to “analysis” and poses the question: “WHAT is in a piece of music?”

Evaluation: involves presenting and defending opinions by making judgments about information, validity of ideas or quality of work; usually from the information gained through deconstruction. When students evaluate repertoire, they make judgments about “WHY” and “HOW” musical elements, compositional devices and aspects of context, style and genre interrelate and are manipulated within pieces of music (to portray a particular style/mood, for example).

State Panel (Music) Report: 2010

TerminologyIntroduction

The study of Music Styles is designed to develop the knowledge and vocabulary necessary to discuss meaningfully familiar and unfamiliar music from many different styles. It further develops a knowledge of theoretical concepts, including the elements of music and compositional devices, and their roles in creating style, and also encompasses the study of related creative practices in the context of time and place. Throughout the study of Music Styles you will be asked to analyse music aurally and visually from a range of different musical styles. This is designed to develop a comprehensive vocabulary to use in analyses, and to develop the ability to discuss the context of musical style. Furthermore, it will develop the ability to respond critically to music from many different styles, drawing together knowledge and subjective perception.

The first stage of analysis should be identifying all the clear and obvious information about the piece of music. Visually analyzing familiar music presents some initial difficulty because obvious facts about well-known music can be overlooked. For example, when analysing melody, obvious factors such as the key, time signature, instruments/voicings and overall character form an important basis for further analytical discussion. A framework including these points should first be established before proceeding with an analysis of compositional devices.

The second stage of the analysis is to find the smaller structure, bot thematic/motivic constructions and compositional devices, which contribute characteristics to the element being discussed, and to the overall piece. If analyzing melody, this involves the discussion of the basic construction of pitches within phrases and the location of any patterns or compositional devices in the phrases.

The third and final stage of the analysis is to draw together the findings in stages one and two, commenting on how these points contribute to and are indicative of the overall character and mood of the melody. This often includes writing a critical response.

An important point to remember when discussing music of any kind is to avoid generalized, absolute statements. In music, there are very rarely rules and guidelines, which have been adhered to by every composer, or descriptions and analyses, which match every example. It is best to avoid statements such as “in every Classical piece of music…”

Without a good aural understanding of the musical elements, aural analysis can present further difficulty, however the three stage process remains the same. Small compositional devices are perhaps harder to detect aurally, but musical character and style are easier to describe after having heard musical examples. Therefore, it is recommended that aural competency is developed using the aural (musicianship) section of this booklet alongside theoretical knowledge.

It is important to develop a knowledge of analysis and aural skills before undertaking advanced analyses. In this booklet, analysis of unfamiliar musical styles relies more on the ability to discuss elements and devices in isolation than on knowledge of the particular musical style being analysed. Nevertheless, all music belongs in a specific context and knowledge of this will not only deepen an academic perception of its individual qualities, but will also foster enjoyment in listening to and appreciating unfamiliar music styles.

To further develop and deepen analysis skills and aural understanding, you need to listen actively to all music you hear. Many musical opportunities present themselves throughout the course of a day and in this subject, analysis of a song on the radio is just as useful as an analysis of a Mozart symphony. Make use of many different opportunities to study the music you hear and you will find yourself becoming more familiar with the process and more able to identify musical characteristics.

Terminology

Learning to discuss music in an intellectual way requires an extensive technical vocabulary. Some of the fundamental terms used in the discussion of music in the subject are listed below. Just as music is a combination of elements, each element is comprised of characteristic contributions from other elements. For example, it is difficult to describe melody without referring to tempo, rhythm, instrumentation, tonality and dynamics, as these things each contribute to melodic character. Therefore, when discussing an element, where appropriate, acknowledge the roles that the other elements play in creating ins inherent character.

The Elements of Music This term describes the component parts of any piece of music. Six elements can be defined as:

Duration Expressive Devices PitchStructure Texture Timbre

For a breakdown of the components within these elements, please see the back of the booklet.

Compositional Devices

This term describes the component parts of each element. For example, there are melodic compositional devices, rhythmic compositional devices, articulation compositional devices. Devices act on the basic material of an element to create change, contrast, interest, expansion, fragmentation or transformation.

Conventions This term describes musical practices within a style of music that are particular to that style. It includes both technical

musical practices (eg. a “two slurred two tongued” articulation pattern in Baroque oboe music) and performance conventions (eg., in a treble choir, placing the sopranos on the conductor’s left and the altos on the right). A well known performance convention is the audience standing during the “Hallelujah Chorus” from Handel’s oratorio, Messiah

Context This term describes all the influences that affect a piece of music, a style, a composer, a performer or a musical tradition. These influences can be financial, historical, political, geographical, personal, cultural, religious or many more. One example is Handel’s Zadok the Priest which was composed specifically for the coronation of King George II on October 11, 1727.

Critical Response

A critical response is the synthesis of the analysis of musical construction and the effect that this has on the overall atmosphere and musical style of the piece. An example of this would be:“the soft, consistent ascending and descending sextuplets in the harp part personify the running water of the river whilst the alternating compound duple and triple time signatures give a rocking feeling to the music, such as that of a boat on water. The text of this song is about two lovers who have been parted and about their desire to be reunited. The sighing motif found in the melody of this song is characteristic of many songs about lost or unrequited love. The overall folk song style of this piece is created through a lyrical, diatonic tune with a simple but effective accompaniment.”Use two different coloured highlighters to highlight analysis and effect.

Pitch - Melody

Melody is partly the arrangement of pitches but its character is also greatly influenced by rhythm, tempo, dynamics, articulation, tonality, instrumentation and other factors. It is important when discussing melody, or indeed any element, to firstly discuss it in its purest form and then add comments, which draw on the other elements to support your description if necessary. Below is a list of vocabulary, which can be used in the technical description of melody. These can function as techniques used in the basic construction of themes, motifs and melodies and also as composition devices. You should add this to the list.

Pitch construction Form or Structure of Melody

Embellishing techniques

Scalar/scalic Ascending/descending/static

Passing notes

Arpeggiated Complementary phrasing Accented passing notesStepwise Balanced/uneven Upper appoggiaturaLarge leaps Sequence/pattern Lower appoggiaturaConjunct Repetition/imitation Upper mordentDisjunct Post-cadential

extension/precadential extension

Lower mordent

Sequenced Augmentation/diminution Turns and trillsPatterned Delayed

resolution/unresolvedAcciaccatura/grace note

Voice leading Improvised SuspensionsSubject/counter subject Cadenza

Harmonics/overtonestremolos

Mood or Atmosphere

Here you can use any words, which subjectively describe the sound or feel of the melody. Some examples are wistful, melancholic, sad, poignant, yearning, gloomy, scary, tense, joyous, happy, bouncy, strong, bold, grandiose, majestic, regal, playful, flowing, gentle, peaceful, mellifluous, haunting, calm, relentless, and fanfare-like.

“Melody” can be misused to describe the whole piece of music. Here are some statements about melody, which are actually descriptions belonging to other elements.

1. The melody was fast (rather – the tempo was fast OR the rhythmic durations were short (ie semiquavers)).

2. The melody was minor (rather – the tonality was minor)

3. The melody was loud (rather – the dynamic level was loud)

4. The melody was staccato (rather – the articulation was short and detached)

5. The melody was in binary form (rather – the structure was binary form)

6. The melody was muted (rather – the strings/brass were muted)

Task 1 Listen to and sing the Music Theory Song by Rakowski and focus on the features of pitch

Duration – Rhythm

Rhythm is constructed from patterns of note durations. Beat, beat subdivision and tempo help to give a rhythm its characteristic sound. Usually, rhythmic patterns are created from smaller rhythmic motifs which are repeated, sequenced and/or developed. Rhythm helps give a melody, or music in general, its character and sound. Here are some ideas for describing rhythm. You might like to add to this list.

Rhythmic Construction Common Rhythmic Patterns Even beat subdivisions (minims

crotchets, quavers etc) Uneven beat subdivision

(dotted notes, ties) Syncopated (ties, rests on the

beat) Notes of short/long durations,

or a mixture of these Based on a short rhythmic motif Repeated rhythmic motifs Development of a rhythmic

motif Imitation and repetition Sequences Isorhythms, polyrhythms Hemiola, cross-rhythms Duplets, triplets etc Additive rhythm Speech-like rhythms Hocket

Gavotte

Scotch Snap

Habanera

Swing

Some Rhythmic Descriptions driving, energetic, frenetic,

rapid, busy, relentless, constant relaxed, staid, stately, refined,

graceful, dance-like accented, metric, even syncopated, jerky, uneven

Task 2 Sing Four White Horses then derive the durational features of the work with emphasis on syncopation and anticipation

Duration – Tempo/Time

Tempo is the speed of a piece. Often, an extra marking complements the tempo marking, helping to create an overall musical character. An example of this would be Allegro con Fuoco, meaning “fast and lively with fire”. Although these markings rarely affect the actual metronome marking, they complement them closely, therefore they have been mentioned with this element.

Metre, an organized pattern of accented beats, can greatly add to the character of a piece of music. For example, a range of different dance suite movements, such as the Gigue and the Courante, rely on a particular metre to give them their characteristic sounds. Other works, however, use alternating metres as a compositional device, which can give pieces a disruptive and unstable sound. Furthermore, some avant garde works are not composed within the constraints of a metre or tempo. But rely on seconds and minutes to demarcate sections of a piece. Cage’s 4’33” is an example of this, as are all the Sequenzas by Berio. Conversely, the beat patterns in Carter’s String Quartets are mathematically subdivided so that the performers need to hear a click track through headphones in order to be able to play their parts accurately.

For you to be able to discuss tempo and metre, you should familiarize yourself with many of the terms for tempo and associated style markings, as well as both common and uncommon metres. Some of the more well-known terms are listed below, however, you should make your own comprehensive list.

Italian Tempo Terms

Largo, larghetto, lento, grave, moderato, andante, guisto, allegro, allegretto, presto, prestissimo, adagio

German Tempo Terms

Gehande, etwas rascher, zeimlich bewegte, langsam, etwas weider, gehalten, ruhiger, lebhaft, schnell

French Tempo Terms

Vite, modere, cedez, retenu

Italian Terms

Agitato, allargando, amoroso, animato, agitato, dolce, expressive, fuoco, furioso, grazioso, leggiero, maestoso, marcato, rubato, tranquillo, vivace

German Terms

Belebt, bewegt, ruhig

French Terms

Abandonne, vif, doux, soutenu, en animant, legerement

Compositional Devices

AccelerandoCalandoRallentandRitardandoRitenutoRubatoStringendoMeno mossoPiu mosso

Task 3 Listen to Mikrokosmos – 146 by Bartok with a focus on duration – use of meter, tempo, time values, grouping, anacrusis and syncopation and

complete an analysis worksheetTask 4 Listen to Short Ride in a Fast Machine by Adams and independently

explain and analyse the durational features using the analysis worksheet.

Pitch – Harmony

Harmony can be created in two different ways. The first is “deliberate” harmony where the notes of different parts coincide in a planned way, creating intentional harmonic patterns. The second is “coincidental” harmony where harmonic structures occur with the coincidental intersection of different melodic lines. Composers can achieve a balance between the two – Bach’s music is a good example of this.

Chordal Harmony Harmonic Techniques and Devices

Triadic, quartal, secundalChordalInversions7th chordssuspensionsnon-chord tones9ths, 11ths, 13thsMajor, minor, diminished and augmentedItalian, German and French augmented 6thsNeapolitan 6th

Dissonance/consonanceCadenceTierce de PicardiePassing chordsSequenceRepetition/imitationDelayed resolutionVampBlock chordsBroken chordsExtended chordsCluster chordsCircle of 5ths

Parallel intervals: 3rds, 6thsSimilar/parallel motionContrary motionSequenceRepetition/imitationMotifs alternating between partsVoice exchangeDiatonic harmonyChromatic harmonyOvertones/harmonicsModulationCounterpointdescant

Task 5 Listen to and read score of II The Settlement – Port Essington by Sculthorpe and analyse the harmony in terms of chord usage, consonance and dissonance.

Task 6 Independently analyse the harmony of Amazing Grace then share and discuss with the class.

Texture

The term texture describes a number of musical characteristics, including the density of sound, the interaction of parts, and the combination and sonority of the instrumental timbres. The following are six points which can combine to create texture in a piece of music and any discussion of this element should refer to most or all of them. You can add your own as well.

Part Interaction

This term describes the homophonic/polyphonic (or other) nature of the individual instrumental or vocal parts in a piece of music and the ways in which they relate to each other.

Monophony – a single line with either a solo performer, or two or more performers playing together in unison. For example, Gregorian Chant.

Homophony – either simultaneous parts with the same or similar musical ideas (harmonic, rhythmic, melodic) or one or more parts playing a prominent melody line with other parts playing accompaniment. For example, Eine Kleine Nachtmusik, 1st movement.

Polyphony – simultaneous parts with independent lines of equal prominence. Includes imitative polyphony, chordal polyphony and contrapuntal writing. For example Brandenburg Concerto VI, 1st movement.

Antiphony – two parts sharing the melodic ideas between them in a call and response form. Often found in church music and African music. For example, the Swazi song Baba Yenzo.

Heterophony – a number of performers playing or singing similar versions of the same melodic line. Slight differences in rhythm, melody and ornamentation can be observed amongst the performers. For example Japanese or Irish Folk music.

Instrumentation The number and types of instruments or voices being used affect the texture – due to both a difference in density and in the timbral mix. For example, a string quartet will create a different texture from a symphonic wind ensemble.

Tessitura/Range The tessitura (relative height or depth of pitch) can cause a thick or thin texture depending on the instruments being used. Range will affect the texture according to the spread of notes from top to bottom. For example, a wide range of notes with only a few notes in between will create a thinner texture than a narrow range of notes which is well-filled out.

Articulation Articulation helps to “clear” or “muddy” the texture. For example, if the strings are playing pizzicato, the texture will be lighter than if they are playing tremolo. This is particularly the case with singers and text, where articulation and enunciation can brighten or darken the texture of the song.

Dynamics When combined with complementary compositional devices from the other musical element, dynamics can also affect the texture of a piece of music. For example, a loud passage can sound denser than a soft passage depending on the range and instrumentation.

Rhythm Rhythm can also affect the perception of texture. Busy, accented rhythms help to thicken a texture whereas long notes can provide a clearer sound.

Descriptive Words for Texture

Thick, rich, resonant, luscious, full, dense, filled out, cluttered, busy Thin, sparse, refined, empty, well spaced, clear, open, hollow, brittle, clean

Write your own into your books.

Task 7 Sing Ah Poor Bird in a round and discuss the variations to texture.Task 8 Listen to Alleluia: Vidimus Stellam (Anon) and Alleluia: Nativitus

(Perotin) with a focus on texture and its development and then complete an analysis worksheet.

Task 9 Listen to Little Fugue in G by Bach with a focus on texture and its development and then complete an analysis worksheet with class discussion.

Task 10 Listen to and independently explain and analyse the textures used in For Unto Us a Child is Born by Handel. Complete analysis worksheet

Expressive Devices

The term dynamics most often refers to the relative loudness or softness of the music. Unlike specific metronome markings for tempo, there are no decibel measurements for dynamics. How soft is soft? In one work a piano passage will be much quieter than in another depending on the loudest and softest dynamics requested by the composer.

A discussion of this element can also refer to the resultant musical character or atmosphere. For example, a soft (piano) passage of music an also be suspenseful or soporific, or a loud (forte) passage can be triumphant or fearsome. When using such descriptions in a critical response it is important to list both cause and effect. For example “the softness of the passage, together with cluster chords from the wind and harmonics from the violins created an eerie, tense sound”.

Many pieces of music have been both written and published without dynamic markings. Far from expecting a bland performance of his/her music the composer would expect the musicians to know the conventions of what dynamics to play, or to create their own to individualise the performance. The former is common in Renaissance and Baroque music whereas the latter is common in more contemporary music. Knowledge of the conventions of a particular style will help decode the composer’s wishes about the performance of dynamics.

Task 11 Sing Ah Poor Bird focusing on phrasing, dynamic and tempi variations. Discuss the experience as performed

Task 12 Listen to the Ancient Voices of Children by Crumb focusing on expressive devices used – dynamics, articulation, ornamentation and stylistic devices and then complete an analysis worksheet..

Timbre

Timbre, also referred to as tone colour, is the description of the sound of an instrument, or the sound of a piece of music as a whole. It attempts to capture in words the quality of the sound, and in doing so uses metaphor as a descriptive tool. There are many adjectives and descriptions that can be applied to describe timbre, limited only by your own imagination.

Tone colour has been used as a deliberate compositional device by composers, particularly since the late nineteenth century. Schonberg experimented with the sounds of various instruments and combinations of instruments in an attempt to create fresh sounds. In doing so, his music often had a sparse texture in order to make prominent particular timbres.

Ravel and Stravinsky were also interested in the idea of instrumental colour, and were among the first composers to experiment with the full range of orchestral sound. Ravel’s orchestration of Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition and his own Bolero are examples, also with Stravinsky’s Firebird.

Synaesthesia is the term given to the process of correlating sound with colour. It is perhaps best known in relation to the works of Messiaen and Scriabin, both of whom made conscious attempts to create colour through the use of combinations of notes. The colour is meant to be perceived inside the listeners head when hearing the sounds. For example, one particular chord in Messiaen’s Turangalila Symphony is reported to conjure “opal flecked with gold and blue”.

Stockhausen and Dallapiccola, as two of the first composers to use electronically generated sound, were revolutionary in their use of tone colour. Both used early computers to create tape loops and sampled sounds and focused on creating “colour” with the resultant sounds. These ideas progressed with the advent of new technology, and today’s DJs are using similar techniques to create techno music. These examples use sampled sounds, which are spliced and looped, with each repetition introducing a subtle change of tone colour. Some examples of this are to be found in the music of the Chemical Brothers and Fate Boy Slim.

Timbre is perhaps used to its richest effect in some non-Western musical traditions. The study of a non-Western musical instrument, such as the Japanese shakuhachi, means learning to play with many different timbres or tone colours. In this way, the expressiveness of the instrument is enhanced with many different colours to draw upon. The tone colours of the shakuhachi range from resonant and mellow, to clear and shrill, to breathy and plaintive. Other non-Western instruments include a range of other sounds to complement the tone colour of the instrument, such as the metal jingles attached to an African mbira and the sympathetic strings attached to an Indian sarod. Non-Western musics have influenced Western art music for centuries and some of these timbral variances can be found in Western compositions. For example, Brahms often requires the violins to use a timbre derivative of Rom (Gypsy) music.

Despite tone colour having occupied such a prominent place in the history of music, it is one of the most difficult elements to discuss. Adjectives for timbre are limited only by your own imagination. The following is a list of vocabulary, which can be used when discussing tone colour. Add your own to the list.

Descriptive Words for Instrumental and Vocal Timbres

Mellow, rich, bell-like, sonorous, resonant, tremulous, reverberant, vibrant, dulcet, sweet, dark, brilliant, pure, colourful, strident, piercing, harsh, raucous, shrill, rasping, bleak, desolate, abrasive, penetrating, dull, husky, tinny, twangy, monotonous, mellifluous, lark-like, booming, whispery, clarion, rounded, throaty, husky, nasal, clear, forced, breathy, clean.

Task 13 Listen to Define Dancing by Newman with a focus on timbre and then complete an analysis worksheet with class discussion.

Task 14 Listen to Girl with the Flaxen Hair by Debussy and complete an analysis worksheet

Pitch – Tonality

Tonality refers to a group of pitches, which are used throughout a piece of music. Normally, these are organized into scales as a point of reference for defining the tonality. Terminology for tonalities varies from one musical culture to another, and it is useful to know some of the more common types.

Some Examples of Tonalities in Western MusicTonalities used by European composers include Major, minor, modal (Ionian, Dorian, Phyrigian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian, Locrian), whole tone, anhemitonic, pentatonic (without semitones), hemitonic pentatonic (with semitones), dodecaphonic (12 tone), atonal (without a tonal centre) and octatonic (alternating tones and semitones). The octatonic scale was used by Rimsky-Korsakov, Scriabin, Messiaen in the Quatour pour la fin du temp, Bartok in Mikrokosmos, Debussy in Nuages and Stravinsky in Rite of Spring. The version which begins with a semitone, is used in jazz improvisation and is known as the “half-step dimished scale”. Another twentiety-century scale is the non-octaviating scale which uses a pattern of intervals which does not generate the repeat of the lower tonic an octave higher. American Harry Partch took the idea of further dividing the octave and wrote compositions which demanded 45 divisions of the octave.

Extension Task

Answer these questions below about tonality.

1. Listen to Debussy’s “Nuages” from Nocturnes and identify fully the tonality of the flute and harp duet. Discuss the effect.

2. Listen to Schonberg’s Verklarte Nacht and identify the change in tonality from the first section to the second section. Discuss the effect.

3. Listen to Placebo’s “Pure Morning” from the Without You I’m Nothing album and work out which mode is being used. Describe how you worked out the answer.

4. Listen to Yothu Yindi’s “Ghost Spirits” from the Garma album and discuss the two tonalities being used (one in the verse and one in the chorus). Discuss the effect.

5. Listen to an excerpt from Berg’s Wozzeck and discuss the tonality and its effect.

Structure/Form

The form of a work can be either prescriptive or descriptive. If a work conforms to a common structure, such as a sonata form or rondo form then it is prescriptive and there exists specific terminology to describe form. However, if a work does not conform to a common structure then it is descriptive and it is discussed by outlining the order of the sections.

An example of the form of a popular song could be: introduction, verse 1, chorus, verse 2, chorus, instrumental interlude, bridge, verse 3, chorus, chorus, play-out. Another way to describe sections of a work is to use letters. The order would then be A, B, A, B, C D, A, B, B, E(where the verses use the same tune). In the absence of a specific term to describe this or any other structure, a description of the order of events is equally valid as would be a term.

Aurally determining the form of an unfamiliar work can be difficult to achieve in only a few hearings. However, the process of determining form is the same aurally and visually – note the similarities and differences as you hear/see them and then label them in sections.

GenresSome genres of works, such as opera, oratorio and mass, have a fairly consistent internal, formal structure of movements but with some flexibility. For example, an opera will include an overture, arias, recitatives, choruses, ensembles and instrumental interludes. A mass will include various liturgical texts such as a Kyrie, a Gloria, a Credo and a Sanctus in a predefined order. Other genres which have internal movements which can follow a structure, are symphony, concerto, suite, and a theatrical musical.

Large Scale FormLarge scale form generally describes the form of movements which make up a larger genre, such as those mentioned above. In a symphony, some movements will usually be in sonata form, and one movement could be in a dance form, such as Minuet and Trio, or later Scherzo and Trio. In a solo movement of a mass or a song from an opera the form could be that of a da Capo aria. Some large scale works, such as the symphonic poem, can be through composed or can have repeated sections. Other examples of large scale form can include abridged sonata form (sonata form with no development section) and arch form similar to sonata form but with A and B presented in reverse order in the recapitulation) strophic, through-composed, verse/chorus, and theme and variations.

Task 15 Listen to and deconstruct the Theme and Variation form of II Surprise Symphony by Haydn. Focus on the structure and complete an analysis worksheet.

Task 16 Independently explain and analyse the structure of Catch my Disease by Ben Lee.

Medium Scale FormThe form or structure of a work’s internal phrasing can also be described. Often it is the structure of the phrasing that determines the overall form. It is most common to use the lettering system when discussing medium scale form, including the use of “variant” (v) to describe phrases which are similar. An example of a medium scale form of a song might be A, Av, B, C, A, Av. It is also possible to use specific terminology for phrases, some of which include antecedent and consequent phrases (before and after), and complementary phrases (two phrases which match). Some medium scale forms include binary, ternary, rondo, themes, subjects and musical ideas. Larger formal structures can have an internal structure of their own. For example, the first subject of the exposition of sonata form could be binary.

Small Scale FormWithin the structure of each work, small compositional devices and thematic material provide form and cohesiveness. Many of the motivic techniques and compositional devices mentioned earlier contribute to this cohesiveness. Some examples include melodic sequences, functional harmonic progressions, imitation and repetition. Small entities such as motifs, fragments and idees fixe also comprise small scale forms.

Contextual influences

It is true that all music is a product of its time. It is also true that music is a product of many other complex and entwined influences which all determine the shape and style of musical development. Contextual influences are many and varied, some of which are mentioned below. Discussions about contextual influences should be focused on a particular outcome – the effect on the msuic, the composer, the compositional style or on the effect of an overall musical style or movement, such as Classicism.

The following examples of pieces of music have fairly clear contextual influences. For each category find at least one other example.

Musical This is perhaps the easiest category in which to find examples, as there is often a clear line of musical development through generations of composers. One example is the 4th movement of Brahms’ Symphony No. 1 in which the tune is derivative of the tune in the 4th movement of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9.

Social With an emphasis on human interaction, social influences can be found in a multitude of musical works. Haydn’s chamber works such as his String Quartets were written for his employers’ (the Eszterhazy family) social functions. This can be seen in the melodic construction of the work and its general character. The character of these works is light and clear, being easily absorbed into the background of a social gathering. However, Haydn also used his background-music quartets to experiment with new musical ideas whilst no-one was really listening.

Political Powderfinger’s “On the Day You Come” from their album Internationalist was written in response to the outcome of the Australian Federal election in 1997 and provides powerful political commentary through its lyrics. Additionally, the sense of despair and hopelessness for the future can be heard in the minor tonality, the depressingly repetitive melody and the use of the sigh motif.

Geographical Australian composer Barry Conyngham wrote a four movement work for orchestra called Vast which uses musical imagery to portray the different features of the Australian landscape. The movements are entitled “the sea”, “the coast”, “the centre” and “the cities”. Each movement uses motifs and devices to portray the character of the title. For example, in “the coast” the waves can be heard in the constant rise and fall of the dynamics in the violins.

Financial Mozart’s Requiem was written as the result of a commission

from an anonymous benefactor. Although exhausted and close to death, Mozart continued work on the Requiem as he needed the money and also because he believed that it was to be his own requiem. The poignancy of his imminent death can be heard in the violence of the Dies Irae in contrast with the haunting passages of the Lacrimosa.

Historical Tchaikovsky wrote his famous 1812 Overture as a celebration of Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow. In the work, the French national anthem can be heard being drowned out by the pealing of “all the bells of Russia” from the percussion section. Other historical symbols such as cannon fire are also used in this piece.

Cultural Yothu Yindi’s “Timeless Land” from their album Freedom reflects Yolnu (northeast Arnhem Landers) ties to the land and how there are fundamental ways of understanding the land in Australia that can be appreciated across different cultures. It describes a way of seeing and appreciating the land, and of appreciating the people who have expressed the land for countless generations of direct ancestry. The melody, rhythm and articulation for the setting of the text “this is our land” musically reinforces this statement by sounding definite and sure.

Religious French composer Olivier Messiaen was a deeply religious man who wrote many works inspired by his Christian beliefs. An example of this is Vint Regards sur I’Enfant-Jesus. He aimed to create a divine and ethereal sound and this can be observed in the wafting, high melodies, almost devoid of tonality, giving a floating feeling.

Employment Employment by either the church or the nobility was one of the few ways in which musicians of earlier periods could earn a regular wage. In 1724 and 1725 whilst working as the cantor of St Thomas’ Church in Leipzig Bach wrote one Cantata per week as part of his contract. In this situation, one would expect the cantatas to lose their freshness and vitality, but Bach managed to use new thematic material in each. An example of his melodic originality can be heard in Wachet Auf.

Exoticism Composers have long been interested in unfamiliar musical traditions. As early as the Renaissance new instruments, tonalities and musical styles entered the common musical language of Western art music, enriching its melodies and tone colours. One example of this is the use of Janissary (Turkish) music in eighteenth century Europe by Classical composers. The rondo from Mozart’s piano Sonata in A, K331 imitates the percussive Janissary sound.

Personal Many composers have drawn on their own personal experiences of life as influence for their works. Alban Berg’s “Violin Concerto” was written as a “requiem to an angel” after the death of Manon Gropius, the young daughter of Walter and Alma Gropius (former wife of Mahler). The tragic nature of her death and her friends’ and family’s sense of loss and bewilderment can be heard in the tonality and melody. Dissonant passages reflect the anguish, whilst the singing melodic lines symbolize Manon’s beauty and purity.

Critical Response

The focus of this booklet is designed to develop an understanding of how music is constructed and how the treatment of individual elements together can create mood and character. A critical response is an intelligent and informed piece of writing which is a musical and technical justification for the subjective emotions and mood evoked by a piece of music. Remember that these subjective judgments are culturally specific and will largely be a product of what, through enculturation, sounds “normal” to Western ears.

A critical response should include: A discussion of the main musical elements which are prominent in a given

example. An identification of the compositional devices used in each musical

element. A description of how these things combine to create the mood,

atmosphere and character of the piece.

How to write a critical response:1. Choose three of four short descriptions which best describe the

emotion/feeling/mood evoked by the piece of music.2. Using a description of the treatment of the elements of music discuss how

the mood outlined above is created.3. Locate specific compositional devices to support your argument and

discuss their roles in the creation of the mood.4. Finally, give a description of the combination of all of the above in the

creation of musical character and style.

When writing a critical response to a piece of music in a named musical style, it is also necessary to remark on why and how the excerpt is indicative of the particular musical style. For example, if discussing why a piece of vocal polyphony is characteristic of Baroque style it would be important to mention that the

“unceasing, relentless semiquaver movement in each individual voice is a result of the Baroque ideal of ‘filling space’ and therefore rests, silences or lengthy breath pauses are not used”.

Normally, a list of musical characteristics can be derived from an example to support a claim that it is from a particular style. For example, an excerpt from a Classical work by Mozart might be said to have the following Classical characteristics: balanced and equally proportioned phrasing, singable melodies, functional and chordal harmony, clear and defined form, graceful and refined melodic and rhythmic ideas and a contrast of mood throughout the work.

Example of Critical Response – Deep Forest, Vol 2, Track 1 Bohemian BalletBelow is an example of a critical response which draws together the points made above. It is an example of cross-cultural music, albeit one where European

composers have simply “taken” from the source culture, rather than working collaboratively with African musicians. Read the following background information o the work, including a description of its treatment of two musical elements.

Deep ForestThe tracks on the Deep Forest albums are the work of French composers Michel Banchez and Eric Mouquet. Their albums are “an extravagant musical introduction to a rich tapestry of sound taken from African cultures and woven in to a wall of ambient techno sounds” (Deep Forest: Boheme, 1995: notes). For their first album they used tapes of various African peoples’ singing held by UNESCO, who gave them permission to use the tapes as sound sources. In the second album the composers used sampled sound sources from a range of musical cultures across the world, including Eastern European folk traditions, Indian tabla playing, Taiwanese and Chinese music, and Inuit music.

Bohemian BalletThis piece is based largely on samples from a Rom (Gypsy) song Babam, Babam from the album “Rom Som Ame, Hungarian Gypsy Traditions”. It is placed in a framework of synthesized techno sounds, and includes other sampled sound sources such as Iking (Pygmy) calls used in the first album, vocables (voiced calls) and hand claps.

Summary of Musical Material Verse/chorus form, with the verse longer and more complex than the

two-phrase chorus Male solo and male chorus with synthesized accompaniment of string

chords and rock beat Syllabic and speech-like rhythms in the vocal part Rhythmic drive and syncopation used in the folk melody and the

synthesized accompaniment Minor tonality with non-Western inflection in the tuning of the vocal line Homophonic with some heterophony in the male chorus The male chorus uses a strident vocal timbre with a big sound and

dynamic fullness Harsh but rich and fairly nasal vocal quality with quite a bright sound The only “live” music in this song is the sampled sounds of the male

singers.

Critical Response

(1) Folk song with rock beat 2) minor-sounding melody 3) dance music 4) cross-cultural)This piece is a verse-chorus structured cross-cultural combination of a Transylvanian folk song sung by men, and a Western rock beat with a synthesized accompaniment. Because of the techno beat and the syncopated synthesized sounds, the piece sounds indicative of a dance-mix or 90s dance party music. Also, the fairly small melodic range and repetitive nature of the tune are qualities found in many modern techno tracks and would sound familiar to this audience.

The minor-sounding tonality together with the “sighing” quality of the phrasing, the prominence of the semitone, and the non-Western vocal techniques of heterophony, bending notes, using rapid vibrato and letting the last not of the phrase “fly-away” in pitch all contribute to a “sad” sound, however, without a text translation it is impossible to comment on the subject matter and actual emotional content of the text. Motivic techniques such as syncopated and repetitive chordal patterns with suspensions together with synthesized sound effect including Ikung (Pygmy) vocal calls, are inserted between phrase and sections to maintain momentum. Long, sustained notes in a thick string sound are also played on the synthesizer giving the song a lyrical underpinning.

In summary, this song includes both modern music technology and contemporary rhythms combined with recorded sounds from live performers from different musical traditions to generate a cross-cultural work. Because of the technology being used, examples of post-production techniques such as sampling, phasing and reverb can be heard throughout. The contemporary musical influences of the French musicians can be heard in the techno beat and the use of the synthesizer. The piece is cross-cultural because these things are then combined with melodic material from the Ikung people.

The result of this combination is the creation of a song which will sound ultimately familiar to the targeted Western market, but introduces new sounds and a sense of “exoticism” as well.

The Elements of Music

Element Definition Concepts which could be used to explore the elements

Duration The relative lengths of sounds and silences in music

Beat and pulse Metre Accent and syncopation Tempo rhythm

Expressive Devices

Ways of influencing mood and character of music

dynamics contrast instrumental and vocal

techniques articulation

Pitch

melody

harmony

tonality

The relative frequency of sound

melody harmony tonality

The horizontal arrangement of sound

melodic patterns melodic shape and contour intonation range and register

The vertical arrangement of sounds (describes the ways in which combinations of sounds progress throughout a piece of music)

consonance and dissonance chord progressions countermelodies cadence

The organisation of pitches that establishes tonal relationships

keys and modes scale forms modulation

Structure The form and design of music

Repetition, variety, contrast, development, and unification

Treatment of thematic material Multi-movement and

contemporary structuresTexture The density of sound Monophony, homophony,

heterophony, polyphony Linear and vertical

arrangement Voicing Sequencing and track layering

Timbre Characteristic quality of sound sources, or tone colour

Instrumentation Instrumental and vocal

techniques and devices Manipulation of sound quality Register