· Web viewEngland turned to other countries for cotton, and when America resumed cotton production, led to worldwide overproduction, immediately driving prices down, impoverishing

IB History of the Americas Final Study Guide

2 [Type text]Events leading to the American Revolution

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Latin American Independence Movements

European Circumstances at the Time

Spain: Portugal:

-1746 – Decreased colonial trade -Napoleonic Wars-1807-1808 – Napoleon invades -French Revolution-Misrule and wars bankruptcy -Political ideology – liberty -Spanish King abdicated and liberation-Napoleon puts Joseph in charge

Country Movement for Independence Details

Leaders/Revolutionaries Significance/Impact

Mexico -Hidalgo led some bloody battles originally-It was a Creole and native army

-Miguel Hidalgo-Jose Morelos-Augustine de Ilaneros

-Itubile becomes a dictator, he is then gotten rid of-Political unrest

Gran Colombia -Bolivar used nativism to get support and victory

-Simon Bolivar -Countries were liberated by Bolivar

Chile -Nativism-Armies of SM and O’H meet and fight together, winning control of Chile

-Bernardo O’Higgins-Jose de San Martin

-San Martin offered chance to rule, says no-O’Higgins becomes the ruler after he is beaten

Argentina -Bolivar led to freedom after San Martin went back to Europe

-Jose de San Martin

Brazil -Prince Pedro rallied the natives together, refused to listen to Portugal, and demanded independence

-Prince Pedro -Declared an independent monarchy-Makes itself a republic

Peru -Simon Bolivar-Jose de San Martin-Tupac Amatu II

Haiti -Slave revolt against leaders-Napoleon served as a distraction-GB tried to take advantage

-Toussaint L’Overture-Jean Jaques-Napoleon

-Only successful slave revolt ever-Creoles ended up on top, and mixed race were still below

Political Parties in American History

The First Two Party System, 1780s – 1801

Federalists Democratic Republicans Favored strong central gov. “Loose” interpretation of the Constitution Encouraged commerce and manufacturing Strongest in Northeast Favored close ties with Britain Emphasized order and stability

Emphasized states’ right “Strict” interpretation of the Constitution Preference agriculture and rural life Strength in South and West Sympathized with France Stressed Civil liberties and trust in the people

The Second Two Party System, 1828 – 1850

Democrats Whigs (revival of Federalists) Party of Tradition Looked back to past Spoke to the fears of Americans Opposed banks and corporations Opposed state-legislated reforms Preferred individual freedom of choice Jefferson agrarians who favored farms, rural

independence, and the right to own slaves Favored rapid expansion over space by

purchase or war Believed in progress through external growth Favored in the South

Party of modernization Looked to the future Spoke to the hopes of Americans Favored gov. promoted economic growth

transportation/banks Wanted reforms such as temperance, public

schools, and prison reform Favored industry, urban growth, and free labor Favored gradual territorial expansion Opposed the Mexican War Progress through internal growth Favored in the North

Mid-19th Century Political Crisis

Disputes over slavery in the territories first eroded, then destroy what had become the second two party system. The erosion began in the 1840s as various factions opposed to the post-Jackson Democratic political coalition begin to form.

Liberty Part (abolition) Free Soil Party (stop expansion) Ran abolitionist candidate James Birney for

president in 1844 Won 2% of the vote but drew votes from Whigs,

especially in New York

Opposed to expansion of slavery in the territories

Won 10% of the vote with Martin Van Buren as the candidate in 1848

Lost 50% of support in 1852 when the candidate repudiated the Compromise of 1850

Whigs American (Know Nothing) Party Southern “Cotton” Whigs eventually drifted to

the Democratic Party Northern “Conscience” Whigs moved to new

parties; Free Soil, Republican Fillmore is the last Whig president

Nativist party based on opposition to immigration and on temperance

Ran Millard Fillmore in 1856, won 21% of the popular vote

Absorbed into Republican Party post 1856

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Republican Party Formed in 1854 when a coalition of Independent Democrats, Free Soilers, and Conscience Whigs united

in opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill Stressed free labor and opposed extension of slavery in the territories Moderates could oppose slavery on “moral” grounds as wrong, while admitting that slavery had a “right”

to exist where the constitution originally allowed John C. Fremont was the first Republican presidential candidate in 1856

The Election of 1860

Democrats Republicans Split at 1860 Convention in Charleston, SC when

a platform defending slavery was defeated and Deep South delegates walked out

At a splinter convention, Stephen Douglas was nominated as presidential candidate on a platform opposing Congressional interference with slavery

Southern delegates met and nominated John Breckenridge of Kentucky as a candidate on a pro-slavery platform

Overtly sectional and decidedly opposed to slavery draw in most northerners with a platform favoring a homestead act, protective tariff, and transportation improvements

Platform opposed extension of slavery but defended the right of states to control their own “domestic institutions”

Abraham Lincoln is nominated presidential candidate on the third ballot

Native American Removal

In the new nation, all rulers, no matter what party saw Native Americans as an impediment to expansion and growth of a Christian based civilization

Oppression of the Natives came in many different formso In Canada, church-run residential schools were established to educate, assimilate, and civilize

(abusively) Native children by separating them from their parentso In Latin America, natives were used as forced cheap labor on Creole owned haciendas

All over the Americas, natives were being pushed around by Europeans who believed that they had been chosen by God to rule the new world

Andrew Jackson, who became president in 1830, promised to expel Native Americans from many areas of the country

He supported the native way of life, but not if it impeded expansion Jackson’s plan was to take the natives away from their original land, and force them into “Indian

Territories” (current day Oklahoma) However, problems such as run away slaves, resident indigenous tribes, and land-hungry settlers soon

began to cause problems in these new lands Also in 1830, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which forced Natives to sign over their land,

and accept relocation to new territories Of all the tribes, the Cherokees suffered the most 15,000 people began the trail to their new land, and 1/3 didn’t make it- “Trail of Tears” By 1840, over 46,000 natives had been expelled, and the US government had gained 25 million acres of

prime agricultural land

Roots of the Supreme Court

Supreme Court decisions mirrored the nationalism at the time As chief justice, John Marshall greatly expanded the power and independence of the court By 1801, the court had decided only 100 cases, and met sporadically; at most six weeks per year However, a series of cases led to a huge increase in the courts authority:

o Marbury v. Madison: Established the Supreme Court as the final arbiter of the Constitution and its power to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional

o Fletcher v. Peck: Declared the Court’s power to void state lawso McCulloch v. Maryland: Established the constitutionality of the second Bank of the US, and

denied to states the right to exert independent checks on federal authorityo Dartmouth v. Woodward: The Court promoted business growth by denying states the right to

alter or impair contracts unilaterallyo Gibbons v. Ogden: Broadened federal power over interstate commerce

Two fundamental questions dealt with by the court were whether the federal government had the power to incorporate a bank, and whether a state had the power to tax a branch of the Bank of the US

The court decided yes to the first question, stating that Congress had the power to do whatever was necessary and proper to carry out its constitutional powers, in this case, the power to manage a currency

However, they decided no to the second question because they stated that the Constitution created a new government with sovereign power over the states

The distribution of constitutional powers established through these cases are still followed today These cases established the supreme court as the final arbiter of the constitutionality of federal and state

laws It also became clear that Congress had powers that were not limited to those specifically referenced in

the Constitution- Elastic clause

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Caudillos

There were several conditions that allowed caudillos to emerge. They include economic depression, the breakdown of law and order in a country, and the militarization of a country. Basically, the country needed to be going through a state of disarray, economically, politically, militarily, and socially.

A caudillo was a charismatic leader who advanced their own interests through military and political skills. They would adopt any form of government that would best suit their strategy for getting control over public funds to increase their power network.

Caudillos did not become a permanent fixture in Latin America because they existed during times of disarray. Therefore, they were able to exist and thrive when the countries of Latin America were going through periods of uncertainty, but when the countries got their feet again, caudillos began to decline.

The caudillos were most popular with the “folk” because if the folk obeyed the leaders, then it was up to the caudillos to protect them. There was a sort of give and take relationship, where one would obey the other and in turn would receive protection from them.

South Americans supported caudillos originally because they were a form of government over areas of disarray. They provided protection to some people, and were able to unite the people under one common thread.

The Civil War

Causes of the Civil War:• The fundamental cause of the Civil War was that the North did not wantslavery to spread to the West and the South did.• The North opposed slavery because:

o Slavery held down wages.o By the 1850s it was seen as an "old fashioned" embarrassment.o Northerners wanted western agricultural land farmed by free whites, not black slaveso The North was rapidly industrializing and favored "free labor."

• The South supported slavery because: o It was profitable.o Southern capital was heaviIy invested in slaves.o Slave ownership helped determine one's status.o It was a method of race control.o It ensured a reliable labor supply for the plantation economy.

• The expansion of slavery was necessary for slavery's survival.• The region that controlled the West wouId control the country.• Neither the North or South believed in racial equality.

Expansion:• The 1820 Missouri Compromise-MO a slave state; ME a free state. No slavery north of 36°30" in the LA

Territory with the exception of Missouri.• Texas gained its independence from Mexico in 1835 but was not admitted into the Union until 1845

because of the issue of slavery.• The annexation of the Oregon Territory (1/54°40" or fight") in 1846 counterbalanced the admittance of

Texas

The Mexican War (1846-1848):• Mexico refused to recognize the borders with Texas• Territory lost by Mexico In 1848• President Polk believed in "Manifest Destiny" and he wanted California• of Texas. • USand Mexican troops clashed in disputed land south of the Nueces River and the US declared war.• Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Mexico ceded the U.S. its land north of the Rio Grande River

for $15 million.• The Wilmot Proviso attempted to block the expansion of slavery in the Mexican cession. • The Mexican War forced Congress to deal with the slavery question. The expansion of slavery became a

huge issue.•

The Compromise of 1850:o California came into the Union as a free state.o Arizona and New Mexico organized by popular sovereignty.o The slave trade was abolished in Washington, DC.o A stronger fugitive slave law was enacted.

Uncle Tom's Cabin (1854) reinforced regional stereotypes.

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) terminated the MO Compromise and opened the LA Purchase to slavery "Bleeding Kansas" resulted.(The Whig Party disappeared and the Republican Party became the “Free Soil” /anti-slavery party. )

Dred Scott In the 1857 Dred Scott decision the Supreme Court ruled that popular sovereignty was unconstitutional.

John Brown's 1859 raid on the armory at Harper's Ferry raised fears in the South of a slave insurrection.

Election of 1860: The election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency in 1860 with no Southern electoral votes meant that the South would be subservient to the North so it seceded.

The Civil War:• The war began April 12, 1861 when SC fired on Ft. Sumter.• South made three major errors:

o Did not prepare for a war of attrition. o Put its faith in King Cotton. o Fought a defensive war.

• The North: • Blockaded the Confederate coast.• Divided the South along the Mississippi River and through Georgi• Captured the Confederate capital of Richmond to end the war.

• The Emancipation Proclamation and Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg ensured that European powers wouId not support the South .• The South surrendered on April 9, 1865 and Lincoln was assassinated on April 14.

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The Civil War

War in the South:o The south was plagued with bad leadership, in the form of Jefferson Davis, the man charged

with the task of rallying public support for the Confederacyo Davis was a stubborn plantation owner, and lacked Lincoln’s common touch and political

flexibilityo Politically, the absence of a party system in the south became a problem, as Davis lacked a

counterpart to the well-organized republican partyo Under Davis, the south became far more centralized, and the Confederate government took

control of many thingso They also urged farmers to grow food instead of cotton, hoping that the shortage would force

Britain to intervene on the side of the Confederacyo However, the plan backfired. England turned to other countries for cotton, and when America

resumed cotton production, led to worldwide overproduction, immediately driving prices down, impoverishing farmers all over

o Davis also had problems in dealing with obstructionist governors, o As the war went on, the south became more divided, and the struggle for independence became a

“rich man’s war and a poor man’s fight”o Economic problems also hindered the southo The south, like the north, borrowed a lot to finance the war, but unlike the north, the south

printed far too much money, leading to great amounts of inflation, rather than levying taxeso Women also served a part in the confederate causeo Many were left alone on farms to deal with everything that needed to be doneo They were also mobilized to support soldiers in the fieldo As the war went on though, the increased death toll led to women wondering whether or not the

goal of independence was worth ito Another significant thing in the south was the position of slaves in the waro After soldiers became more scarce, the south decided to let slaves enlisto The war ended before the recruitment of black soldiers actually began, but the army did employ

blacks as laborers

Impact of the War on Slavery and African Americans

o The most dramatic change the Civil War had on American life was the destruction of slaveryo Lincoln said that slavery was irrelevant to the war, in an effort at the beginning to keep the border

states (which had slavery) including Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri from joining the confederacy

o In the early days of war, Congress adopted a resolution saying that the north had no intention of interfering with slavery

o When slaves began escaping to northern territories, the military adopted a plan of treating escaped blacks as property of military value subject to confiscation

o As the northern army began to occupy the south, slaves in mass numbers began moving toward northern lines

o They provided the northerners with detailed accounts of the southern terrain, and the confederate movements

o Antislavery northerners said that emancipation was necessary to weaken the south’s ability to sustain the war

o Slavery became a growing focus of the war as time went on, and several act were conducted to further emancipation

o Missouri even voted to free its slaves, but Lincoln, fearing the reaction of the border states rescinded it, saying that those states should introduce gradual emancipation

o It was even proposed to send blacks to an island near Haiti, so that they wouldn’t mix with the white Americans

o By the summer of 1862, Lincoln decided that emancipation was a political and military necessityo After the north’s victory at Antietam, Lincoln delivered the Emancipation Proclamation, officially

bringing abolition into the war causeso The emancipation did not actually free many slaves right away, and the nearly 3 million slaves in the

confederacy would have to wait for northern victory for it to affect themo The proclamation did however inspire hope in the minds of slaveso It also altered the course of the war itself. Blacks were allowed to enlist in the union army, and the

war included abolition, and not just to preserve the prewar uniono It changed the way that Lincoln acted, becoming the “Great Emancipator”o At the beginning of the war, the union army did not accept black volunteers, except as sailors and

other jobs such as cooks and laborerso The administration feared that whites would be unwilling to fight with blacks, and worried that this

would have bad effects in the border stateso Only after the emancipation Proclamation did black enlistment begin o For black soldiers, military service proved a liberating experienceo For most, it was their first taste of freedom, one which would stay with them throughout their liveso In the navy, blacks were treated equal to whites, receiving the same pay, food, living quarters, and

promotion opportunitieso In the army however, black soldiers were put into segregated units, often under abusive white

generalso They received less pay, often assigned worse labor tasks, and could not rise to the same positions as

whiteso Black soldiers however, played a key role in the success of the uniono Toward the end of the war, many believed that with emancipation should come equal rightso Even Lincoln changed his views, claiming that blacks should receive the same treatment as whites

when captured, and also pushing for black suffrage in some areas

Role of Govt/War in the North

o Problems emerged for both the north and south early in the war when each side enacted a drafto New York City – Draft Riotso Lincoln goal: PRESERVE THE UNIONo The mobilization of the north led to increased power of the federal government, as well as the rise of

a capitalist class of men who made tremendous money off the production of war goodso Strong feelings of nationalism led Republicans equated criticisms as treasono This led to the imprisonment of many people throughout the country, sometimes at the hands of

Lincoln himself – Suspension of Writ of Habeas Corpuso However, as Lincoln was not a true despot, all of those taken were quickly released

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o These events continued to be published by the democratic press, and several contested elections occurred as a result

o Another key development during this time period was the first transcontinental railroado Built mainly by the Union and Central Pacific lines, and the brainchild of entrepreneur Asa Whitney,

the railroad took 20,000 men and several years to buildo Also at that time, the financial system of the country changed - For the first time, the federal

government and its national banks began printing uniform billso Additionally, it was the first time that an income tax was instated, and also included large

purchasing of government bondso The role of women also increased at the time, as they began to take more positions in the army

Post Civil War

After the Civil War, blacks began meeting with each other to make plans for their newly obtained independence

New freedoms: own property, vote, and do things without the permission of whites Many moved to cities and towns, as they found more freedoms in those areas New religions based out of black churches began to arise in the south, totally changing the religious map

of the southern states Additionally, many blacks felt that education was key to independence, and they began educating

themselves Many felt that the right to hold office and to vote was proof of independence, and those events were

key in the road to equality At that time, the role of women changed too. Without slavery, many black women stayed at home more

often to raise their children and run the household Plantation owners and white southerners found the reconstruction time very difficult—labor shortage Many found that the money they had invested in things like Confederate bonds were no longer worth

anything Overall, the mood of the white southern population was grim, and angry that they now had to “submit to

the demands of the north” The reuniting of the union was largely left to Lincoln’s successor, Andrew Johnson Many opposed his ideas, but those in the north felt that they deserved a chance In the end- Republicans turn against him when he grants pardons to the 1,000s of Southerners and

former confederates

Reconstruction

At the time of reconstruction, several members of congress were Radical Republicans They were the ones who pushed for the most freedom for blacks, and they were also the ones most

opposed to Johnson’s plans Two bills, the first extending the life of the Freedman’s Bureau, and the second making all those born

in the US citizens, were both vetoed by Johnson The vetoes split the president and the republicans even more, however they overturned his veto in the

case of the Freedman’s Bureau in 1866 Later on, congress passed the Fourteenth Amendment, which placed in the Constitution the principle

of citizenship for all persons born in the US, and allowed the federal government to protect their rights The amendment did not however grant blacks the right to vote This amendment even further split the parties at the time

After that, came the Reconstruction Act, which divided the south into five military districts with new state governments

Congress again overturned a presidential veto in the case of the reconstruction act In 1867, congress began proceedings to impeach Johnson for trying to remove members of his cabinet The impeachment failed, under promises that Johnson would stop interfering with reconstruction policy Soon after, republicans nominated Ulysses S. Grant for president, and he won the election by a medium

sized margin After Grant’s election, the Fifteenth Amendment was passed, prohibiting the federal government from

denying any citizen the right to vote because of race All of these acts and amendments transformed the constitution to a document that was living, and into a

source for which members of vulnerable minorities could stake claims to freedom During the reconstruction period, blacks began to enjoy the freedoms that they had recently obtained Several were also elected to office, and for the first time, there was integration in politics Blacks at the time made up most of the republican party supporters, especially in the south, where the

republican party in favor of equal rights reigned supreme Carpetbaggers were reconstruction officials who were northerners who had moved to the south after

the war. The name came from the idea that they had packed everything they had into a blanket, and moved south

Scalawags, the more hated group were mostly non slave-holding white farmers from the southern upcountry. Many had been wartime Unionists, and they now cooperated with republicans to prevent rebels from returning to power

Biggest success of Reconstruction: public schools available to blacks and white

Marcus Garvey

Marcus Garvey, aka Black Moses was a key player in the advancement of blacks in the early twentieth century

Unlike Booker T. Washington and WEB DuBois, Garvey didn’t preach assimilation, or even fully reject segregation, but rather the violence’s associated with it

Born in Jamaica, Garvey came from a family that he later quoted as being “black negroes” Garvey worked throughout his life to advance the position of blacks, not necessarily by assimilation Although Garvey and Washington disagreed on assimilation, they agreed on the idea of a trade school

for blacks, and Garvey then dreamt of creating his own school in Jamaica In 1914, Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association The group had a pan-African agenda, including a call for Africans (no matter where) to unite, and on the

other hand, a push to have the entire African continent under on government Garvey came to the US in 1916, partly because the UNIA was not taking ground in Jamaica, but also to

try and do something about his trade school While in America, Garvey really spoke to black economic power Garvey also had a newspaper, Negro World, which was his way of communicating his ideas (including

African history and society) to his followers Garvey founded the Black Star Line, in an attempt to make a company that could deal with shipping and

trade between Africans around the world In 1922, Garvey is arrested on 12 counts of mail fraud, which was all lawyers wanted against Garvey, as

they were indeed charges This then brought about questions regarding the Black Star Lines finances The Black Star Line however ultimately contributed to Garvey’s downfall, in that the company afford to

buy a ship from the US Shipping Board As his popularity plummeted, Garvey tried to get the worst allies possible, including the KKK He is convicted in 1923, and sentenced to federal prison for six years, but his sentence is commuted by

Calvin Coolidge after only two

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He is then deported to Jamaica, but ends up in London, where he dies in obscurity

Causes of the Great Depression

Herbert Hoover became president in 1929 - Laissez Faire The Great Depression was a severe and persistent worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929 and

lasted until 1949 The economic interdependence of nations at the time resulted in economic distress that included causes

beyond the borders of any one nation Since the founding of the US, economic panics were a common occurrence, After the Panic of 1911, the US economy grew steadily throughout the twenties The Great Depression can be divided in to the following phases:

o Pre-1929: Period leading up to and including the crasho 1929-1933: Movement from panic to deep depressiono 1933-1937: Recoveryo 1937-1941: Concluded with the US joining WWII

Causes:

In the twenties, under Calvin Coolidge, the US economy grew This was a time of hands-off government in business, and therefore a time where the “Titans of Wall

Street” grew to extreme prominence throughout the nation It was the first time that common individuals owned stock, made possible by a new way of purchasing

shares: buying on margin Extension of credit became a huge deal throughout the twenties, and helped make even common

household items available to Americans Signs of economic trouble, such as decreasing farm prices did exist, but the tremendous success of the

stock market led most investors to believe that it was a safe investment regardless After the market hit its high on September 3rd, 1929, it began taking wild swings throughout the rest of

September and October On October 24th, it crashed, but banks assured people that they could fix the problem by making funds

available to purchase more stocks Then, on October 29th, Black Tuesday, the market crashed again, and this time, the banks could do

nothing to fix it People began selling stocks as quickly as possible, and some small investors lost their entire life savings

in a day This led to “bank runs”, where people would rush to their bank to take out their savings Additionally, US industries faced both domestic economic weakness as supply far outstripped demand,

as well as a sharp drop in European markets Hoover decreased government spending, took money out of the economy to put in the federal reserve,

and passed legislation such as the Hawley-Smoot Act, which imposed high protective tariffs on international goods

The Hawley-Smoot Act was met with tariffs on American goods from other counties, decreasing worldwide exports by more than 50%

Hoover was sensitive to the plight of Americans, and tried to improve the status of some:o He encouraged companies to keep people employed even if they were not needed at the time,

and he urged governors to increase infrastructure projects and put people to work

o He did not give money directly to individuals thougho Encouraged “rugged individualism” and private charityo Some direct aid given, but too little too late

The Great Depression

Sales of most all goods rapidly declined throughout the depression, as did average incomes The one thing that was on the rise however, was the unemployment rate Unemployment hit women and blacks particularly hard, as they were often let go of jobs so that white

men could replace them International trade was also a negative factor, as European countries could not afford American goods to

begin with, but also protective tariffs in response to the American Hawley-Smoot Act Socially, the Depression caused great amounts of tension among Americans People would actually pretend to be going to work simply out of embarrassment of not having a job

anymore During the Depression, both the marriage and childbirth rates declined, while the suicide rate increased A lack of intervention from the government, and a sense of ill-preparedness also magnified both the

economic and social problems caused by the depression Relief programs were virtually nonexistent, and those that were in order, had barely enough money to

cover a few people, let alone the millions that were unemployed or in need of assistance

Depression in Argentina

Latin American countries, including Argentina, relied heavily on US and European (namely British) trade and investment

Primary Products, or those that have not been manufactured were already on the markets from South America by the 1920s, and included coffee and cotton

Latin American countries depended on foreign trade and investment for a number of reasons, including:o Geographical factors made trade with each other difficulto Most Latin American populations were comparatively poor and could not afford manufactured

goodso Industrialized nations demanded food and natural resource imports, and looked for outlets for

their manufactured products Throughout the 1920s, US investment in Argentina especially grew The US funded a large part of Argentinean oil exploration, mainly through Standard Oil Such involvement though led to fear in many native Argentineans, who looked to Britain rather than the

US partly as a result of Dollar Diplomacy Since the late eighteen-hundreds, many Latin American countries had been developing forms of

democracies Regardless of who actually ruled, effective power in these countries still was largely in the hands of the

powerful landowners, while most of the populations were ill-educated In the years leading up to 1920, there was considerable industrial unrest in the region, resulting in

successful strikes When the Depression finally came, it hit the countries of Latin America hard as they were ill-equipped

to deal with it However, earlier on in the 1920s, Argentina has great potential for development Its capital, Buenos Aires developed primarily as a port, eventually handling the majority of the imports

and exports to Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay, and also was the hub of the railway system

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Bad leadership, in the form of clashes between the radicals, conservatives, communists, and others plagued the country for years throughout the late teens and twenties

Additionally, the weak leaders such as Hipolito Yrigoyen, Marcelo T. de Alvear, Jose Felix Uriburu, and General Agustin Justo did not help the cause

Political tensions became so escalated that violence eventually broke out between strikers and policemen, leading to what is now known as “Tragic Week”

Economic problems began to arise at the time also, including a crisis in the beef industry, tariffs and debt, and the oil industry

The Fordney-McCumber Tariff tried to restore European trade with Argentina to counteract the US When this original try expired, a new one came into play that was even less in Argentina’s favor The 1930s in Argentina became known as the “Infamous Decade” because of the corruption and

intimidation This was a period of military dictatorship, where the leaders governed as civilians The conservative regime of this era was known as the Concordancia, and included old-style

conservatives, the Socialist party, and the Nationalists The Depression hit Argentina quite badly Agricultural production fell huge amounts, as did the exchange value of the peso, as well as exports The government tried to fix these problems by reducing debts, cutting spending, and increasing trade Argentina entered the Roca-Runciman Agreements with Britain in 1932, which guaranteed Argentina

a fixed share in British markets for meat and ruled out tariffs on British cereal imports for tree years The treaty was only signed after many conditions were agreed upon, most all of which supported Britain When the three years had expired, Argentina and Britain then made the Eden-Malbran Treaty, which

was even more in favor of Britain During the 1930s, Argentina tried to maintain its key industries, including oil and meat packing The 1930s also saw a growth of nationalistic fervor in Argentina, particularly aimed against foreign

(namely British) involvement Unions also grew at the time, as economic conditions began to improve Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) came about around this time as well, with its purpose

being to develop industry so economies were not so dependent on primary products Other economic activity at the time included the introduction of an income tax, the creation of a central

bank, and the creation of juntas (organizations created to manage the production and marketing of specific products)

The New Deal & First 100 Days

In the months between Roosevelt’s election in November, 1932, and his inauguration in March, 1933, the Depression worsened considerably

Two new things that Roosevelt became known for were his effective use of the media, and his appointment of personnel

He used the media more than any president before him, and really worked it to his advantage by getting himself out into the public’s ear, especially through his “Fireside Chats”

In terms of appointments, he tended to look for the best people for the job regardless of political affiliations

This strategy inspired intense loyalty among government workers In his First 100 days in office, Roosevelt used his power in a similar fashion used when at war The most pressing concern at the time was the collapse of the banking system To fix this, Roosevelt passed a number of Acts, including:

o Emergency Banking Relief Act: Banks across the country were closed for four days to give time for emergency legislation to be drafted

o Reconstruction Finance Corporation: This group was allowed to buy their stock to support banks, as well as taking on their debt

o Glass-Steagall Act: Commercial banks that relied on small depositors were banned from investment in the

type of banking that had fueled speculation Bank officials were not allowed to take personal loans from their own banks Authority over open-market operations such as the sale of government securities was

centralized Individual bank deposits were to be insured up to $2500 by the newly created FDIC

Roosevelt also tried to manipulate the value of the dollar by both taking America off of the gold standard, and by increasing the amount of money in circulation

By removing the gold standard, the value of the dollar decreased, allowing foreign countries to afford more American goods

By increasing the amount of money in circulation, the value of the dollar fell again, making it able to buy less, thus causing prices to rise, which would hopefully help revitalize American industry and agriculture

To regulate the stock market more than in the 1920s, the following actions were taken:o The Truth-in-Securities Act, 1933, required brokers to offer clients realistic information about

securities they were concerned witho The Securities Act, 1934, set up a new agency, the SEC, to oversee stock market activities and

prevent fraudulent activities such as insider trading Agricultural recovery was given a higher priority than industrial recovery Groups and actions such as the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Farmers’ Holiday Association, the

Agricultural Adjustment Act (1933), and the extension of farm credit all tried to restabilize agriculture by decreasing the overflow of production, and by increasing the income of farmers

Industrial recovery was a priority of the New Deal Roosevelt wanted to put Americans back to work, and increase consumer demand At the time, some businessmen supported the idea of a laissez-faire approach, while others pushed for

large government intervention and regulation of business Roosevelt passed the National Industry Recovery Act in 1933, which included:

o National Recovery Administration (NRA): Set up to oversee industrial recovery This gave employees the right to collective bargaining Established codes for many industries at the time Eventually favored big, rich companies Was declared unconstitutional in 1935 by the Supreme Court

o Public Works Administration (PWA): This administration tried to bring economic growth though government spending Eventually put hundreds of thousands of people to work Pumped billions into the economy, and was responsible for massive public work projects

The Federal Emergency Relief Act established the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) in 1933, to distribute money it was given by the federal government evenly among the 50 states for direct relief, and also as an incentive to put more into relief

FERA faced much opposition, and its effectiveness was therefore limited It did however establish the idea of federal government giving direct relief funds- WPA (Works

progress Administration) – biggest direct employment undertaking of the depression. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) started in 1933, and gave unemployed men between the ages of

17 and 28 a chance to work on government projects

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Workers (mainly white males) were paid $30 per month, of which $25 had to be sent back to the boys’ families

The Civil Works Administration (CWA) was created in 1933, primarily to provide emergency relief during the winter of 1933-34

Native Americans at the time, and in the future often had it the worst of all, and lived in extreme poverty The Home Owners Refinancing Corporation was created in 1933, and helped homeowners by offering

new mortgages at lower rates over longer periods The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) was established in 1934 to offer federal insurance to

protect the ability to repay low-interest long-term mortgages This resulted in a massive shift to suburban life by many white, middle-class families, leaving foreigners

living in squalid, inner-city properties

New Deal Impacts

Both blacks and women did not enjoy the same advantages provided to white males by the programs of the New Deal

Often, blacks or women would be fired before and hired after white men Jobs that were typically held by blacks and women at the time were also being turned over to men, as it

was felt that men should provide the source of income in families Women often received less pay than men did for performing the same job Blacks however did benefit from many of the direct relief measure, and man y saw Roosevelt as a savior As the country shifted from the boom of the 1920s into the Depression, people and states increasingly

looked to the government for help with problems The US was quickly becoming noticeably urbanized, and people in rural areas sometimes felt that New

Deal actions benefitted cities more Programs such as the TVA and REA however had helped rural areas to move into a modern era with

provisions of facilities such as electric power The Depression showed that the economy was not self-righting, and ultimately eroded much of the

American dream, namely the sense of self-reliance Thus, the New Deal served as a way to address this harsh reality Literature pertaining to the Great Depression, from such authors as John Steinbeck, John Dos Passos,

and William Faulkner focused on the tragedies of the time and the hopelessness of humans, and provided a generally pessimistic response

Some in the Communist Party supported such literature, however, the Communist’s main voice, the “New Masses”, insisted that writers toe the party line and stifled creativity

The Federal Writers Project was set up largely to provide employment to authors, and ended up compiling works of local and oral histories

The cinema was also important during the Depression, in that it gave Americans a short amount of time where they could escape from the Depression

Movies inspired hope in Americans, and characters such as John Wayne tried to show audiences that people could overcome their problems with determination and honesty

Some films though, such as the Grapes of Wrath (adapted from a John Steinbeck novel) did showcase the miseries of the Depression

Radio was also very popular at the time, and was listened to in many American homes every day Popular music was yet another way to inspire hope and happiness in Americans, such as through the

song “We’re in the Money” by Al Dubin Photography was used at the time to expose some of the truths of the Depression