LEARNER GUIDE Apply a systems approach to decision making Unit Standard 252026 Level 5 Credits 6
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LEARNER GUIDE
Apply a systems approach to decision making
Unit Standard 252026Level 5 Credits 6
TABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................iPERSONAL INFORMATION.......................................................................3INTRODUCTION......................................................................................4
Programme methodology.................................................................................................5What Learning Material you should have..........................................................................6Different types of activities you can expect......................................................................7Learner Administration.....................................................................................................8Assessments.....................................................................................................................8Learner Support................................................................................................................9Learner Expectations......................................................................................................10
UNIT STANDARD 252026.......................................................................111. APPLY CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL SKILLS TO ANALYSE A PROBLEM.....15
Applying Critical and Analytical Skills to Analyse a Problem..................................15STEPS TO USING THE DECISION-MAKING MODEL (use previous example):.....................20
Pros and cons........................................................................................................23Apply Critical and Analytical Skills to Analyse and Define a Problem..............................23Information Gathering Techniques..................................................................................40Generating Solutions Techniques....................................................................................47Generating Solution Options Techniques........................................................................50Techniques to Make the Final Decision...........................................................................53Apply Critical and Analytical Skills to Determine Factors Impacting on the Problem.......55Formative Assessment 1 SO1 EEK1, 2 & 3......................................................................60
2. ENGAGE WITH STAKEHOLDERS IN ANALYSING THE PROBLEM AND DEVELOPING SOLUTIONS......................................................................61
Engaging with Stakeholders in Analysing the Problem and Developing Solutions.61Communicate the Purpose of Consultation to Stakeholders............................................61Explain the Processes for Analysing and Generating Ideas.............................................62Obtain Participation of Stakeholders...............................................................................63Obtain Participation of Team Members...........................................................................64Recognise and Respect Ideas, Values and Perspectives.................................................64Formative Assessment 2.................................................................................................65
3. SELECT FEASIBLE SOLUTIONS THROUGH A SYSTEMS APPROACH.........66Selecting Feasible Solutions through a Systems Approach...................................66
Analyse Inputs from Stakeholders...................................................................................67Prioritise Identified Solutions..........................................................................................67Select a Solution.............................................................................................................68Formative Assessment 3 SO3.........................................................................................70
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4. FORMULATE AND COMMUNICATE THE DECISION.................................71Formulating and Communicating the Decision......................................................71
Formulate the Decision on Addressing the Problem........................................................71Describe the Actions Required to Implement the Decision.............................................72Describe the Change Processes Required to Support the Implementation.....................73Communicate the Decision.............................................................................................74Formative Assessment 4 SO4.........................................................................................74
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENTS WORKBOOK.................................................74Formative Assessment 1 SO1 EEK1, 2 & 3......................................................................74Formative Assessment 2 SO2.........................................................................................79Formative Assessment 3 SO3.........................................................................................85Formative Assessment 4 SO4.........................................................................................88
References and Further Reading...........................................................................93
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PERSONAL INFORMATIONNAME
CONTACT ADDRESS
Code
Telephone (H)
Telephone (W)
Cellular
Learner Number
Identity Number
EMPLOYER
EMPLOYER CONTACT ADDRESS
Code
Supervisor Name
Supervisor Contact Address
Code
Telephone (H)
Telephone (W)
Cellular
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INTRODUCTIONWelcome to the learning programmeFollow along in the guide as the training practitioner takes you through the material. Make notes and sketches that will help you to understand and remember what you have learnt. Take notes and share information with your colleagues. Important and relevant information and skills are transferred by sharing!
This learning programme is divided into sections. Each section is preceded by a description of the required outcomes and assessment criteria as contained in the unit standards specified by the South African Qualifications Authority. These descriptions will define what you have to know and be able to do in order to be awarded the credits attached to this learning programme. These credits are regarded as building blocks towards achieving a National Qualification upon successful assessment and can never be taken away from you!
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Programme methodology
The programme methodology includes facilitator presentations, readings, individual activities, group discussions and skill application exercises.Know what you want to get out of the programme from the beginning and start applying your new skills immediately. Participate as much as possible so that the learning will be interactive and stimulating.The following principles were applied in designing the course:
Because the course is designed to maximise interactive learning, you are encouraged and required to participate fully during the group exercises
As a learner you will be presented with numerous problems and will be required to fully apply your mind to finding solutions to problems before being presented with the course presenter’s solutions to the problems
Through participation and interaction the learners can learn as much from each other as they do from the course presenter
Although learners attending the course may have varied degrees of experience in the subject matter, the course is designed to ensure that all delegates complete the course with the same level of understanding
Because reflection forms an important component of adult learning, some learning resources will be followed by a self-assessment which is designed so that the learner will reflect on the material just completed.
This approach to course construction will ensure that learners first apply their minds to finding solutions to problems before the answers are provided, which will then maximise the learning process which is further strengthened by reflecting on the material covered by means of the self-assessments.
Different role players in delivery process Learner Facilitator Assessor Moderator
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What Learning Material you should haveThis learning material has also been designed to provide the learner with a comprehensive reference guide.It is important that you take responsibility for your own learning process; this includes taking care of your learner material. You should at all times have the following material with you:
Learner Guide This learner guide is your valuable possession:This is your textbook and reference material, which provides you with all the information you will require to meet the exit level outcomes. During contact sessions, your facilitator will use this guide and will facilitate the learning process. During contact sessions a variety of activities will assist you to gain knowledge and skills. Follow along in the guide as the training practitioner takes you through the material. Make notes and sketches that will help you to understand and remember what you have learnt. Take and share information with your colleagues. Important and relevant information and skills are transferred by sharing!This learning programme is divided into sections. Each section is preceded by a description of the required outcomes and assessment criteria as contained in the unit standards specified by the South African Qualifications Authority. These descriptions will define what you have to know and be able to do in order to be awarded the credits attached to this learning programme. These credits are regarded as building blocks towards achieving a National Qualification upon successful assessment and can never be taken away from you!
Formative Assessment Workbook
The Formative Assessment Workbook supports the Learner Guide and assists you in applying what you have learnt. The formative assessment workbook contains classroom activities that you have to complete in the classroom, during contact sessions either in groups or individually.You are required to complete all activities in the Formative Assessment Workbook. The facilitator will assist, lead and coach you through the process.These activities ensure that you understand the content of the material and that you get an opportunity to test your understanding.
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Different types of activities you can expectTo accommodate your learning preferences, a variety of different types of activities are included in the formative and summative assessments. They will assist you to achieve the outcomes (correct results) and should guide you through the learning process, making learning a positive and pleasant experience.
The table below provides you with more information related to the types of activities.
Types of Activities Description Purpose
Knowledge Activities You are required to complete these activities on your own.
These activities normally test your understanding and ability to apply the information.
Skills Application Activities
You need to complete these activities in the workplace
These activities require you to apply the knowledge and skills gained in the workplace
Natural Occurring Evidence
You need to collect information and samples of documents from the workplace.
These activities ensure you get the opportunity to learn from experts in the industry.
Collecting examples demonstrates how to implement knowledge and skills in a practical way
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Learner Administration
Attendance RegisterYou are required to sign the Attendance Register every day you attend training sessions facilitated by a facilitator.
Programme Evaluation Form On completion you will be supplied with a “Learning programme Evaluation Form”. You are required to evaluate your experience in attending the programme.Please complete the form at the end of the programme, as this will assist us in improving our service and programme material. Your assistance is highly appreciated.
AssessmentsThe only way to establish whether a learner is competent and has accomplished the specific outcomes is through the assessment process. Assessment involves collecting and interpreting evidence about the learners’ ability to perform a task.To qualify and receive credits towards your qualification, a registered Assessor will conduct an evaluation and assessment of your portfolio of evidence and competency.This programme has been aligned to registered unit standards. You will be assessed against the outcomes as stipulated in the unit standard by completing assessments and by compiling a portfolio of evidence that provides proof of your ability to apply the learning to your work situation.
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How will Assessments commence?
Formative Assessments The assessment process is easy to follow. You will be guided by the Facilitator. Your responsibility is to complete all the activities in the Formative Assessment Workbook and submit it to your facilitator.
Summative Assessments You will be required to complete a series of summative assessments. The Summative Assessment Guide will assist you in identifying the evidence required for final assessment purposes. You will be required to complete these activities on your own time, using real life projects in your workplace or business environment in preparing evidence for your Portfolio of Evidence. Your Facilitator will provide more details in this regard.To qualify and receive credits towards your qualification, a registered Assessor will conduct an evaluation and assessment of your portfolio of evidence and competency.
Learner SupportThe responsibility of learning rests with you, so be proactive and ask questions and seek assistance and help from your facilitator, if required.
Please remember that this Skills Programme is based on outcomes based education principles which implies the following:
You are responsible for your own learning – make sure you manage your study, research and workplace time effectively.
Learning activities are learner driven – make sure you use the Learner Guide and Formative Assessment Workbook in the manner intended, and are familiar with the workplace requirements.
The Facilitator is there to reasonably assist you during contact, practical and workplace time for this programme – make sure that you have his/her contact details.
You are responsible for the safekeeping of your completed Formative Assessment Workbook and Workplace Guide
If you need assistance please contact your facilitator who will gladly assist you. If you have any special needs please inform the facilitator
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Learner Expectations Please prepare the following information. You will then be asked to introduce yourself to the instructor as well as your fellow learners
Your name:
The organisation you represent:
Your position in organisation:
What do you hope to achieve by attending this course / what are your course expectations?
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UNIT STANDARD 252026Unit Standard TitleApply a systems approach to decision making
NQF Level5
Credits6
Purpose Of The Unit Standard This Unit Standard is intended for managers in all economic sectors. These managers would typically be second level managers such as heads of department, section heads or divisional heads, who may have more than one team reporting to them.The qualifying learner is capable of:
Applying critical and analytical skills to analyse an issue or problem. Engage with stakeholders in analysing the issue/problem and developing solutions. Selecting feasible solutions through a systems approach. Formulating and communicating the decision.
Learning Assumed To Be In Place And Recognition Of Prior Learning It is assumed that learners are competent in:
Communication at NQF Level 4. Mathematical Literacy at NQF Level 4. Computer Literacy at NQF Level 4.
Unit Standard Range The learner is required to apply the learning in respect of this/her own area of
responsibility. Unit refers to the division, department or business unit in which the learner is
responsible for managing and leading staff. Entity includes, but is not limited to, a company, business unit, public institution, small
business, Non-Profit Organisation or Non-Governmental Organisation.
Specific Outcomes and Assessment Criteria: Specific Outcome 1 Apply critical and analytical skills to analyse an issue or problem. Assessment Criteria
Critical and analytical skills are applied to analyse and define an issue/problem affecting the functioning of a unit.
Critical and analytical skills are applied to determine factors impacting on the issue/problem and other areas in a unit and the entity affected by the issue/problem.
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Specific Outcome 2 Engage with stakeholders in analysing the issue/problem and developing solutions. Outcome Range Stakeholders include team members from own unit, managers and staff from other units in the entity, suppliers and customers. Assessment Criteria
The purpose of the consultation is communicated to stakeholders with reference to the aspects of the issue/problem and solutions to be discussed.
The critical and analytical processes for analysing the issue/problem and generating ideas on addressing the issue/problem are explained with examples.
The participation of stakeholders is obtained in analysing the unit's internal and external environment to identify factors relevant to the issue/problem.
The participation of team members is obtained in developing solutions to the issue/problem that would contribute towards the functioning of the unit and the broader system within which it operates.
The different ideas, values and perspectives of team members and stakeholders are recognised and respected in view of the value they add to the solution developed.
Specific Outcome 3 Select feasible solutions through a systems approach. Assessment Criteria
The inputs from stakeholders are analysed to identify feasible solutions to the issue/problem that would improve the functioning of the unit and the broader system within which it operates.
The identified solutions are prioritised in terms of their potential outcomes on the various processes/sections in the unit, the wider entity and external stakeholders.
A solution(s) is selected that is most appropriate within a systems context taking into consideration interrelated issues that impact on the solution and areas that will be impacted upon by the implementation of the solution.
Specific Outcome 4 Formulate and communicate the decision. Assessment Criteria
The decision on addressing the issue/problem is formulated with reference to the impact of the decision on the unit and the broader system within which it operates.
Actions required to implement the decision in the unit are described with reference to activities, role players, resources and time lines.
Change processes that are required to support the implementation of the decision are described with reference to their impact on the success of the implementation of the decision.
The decision is communicated to relevant team members in the unit and other stakeholders who will be involved in its implementation in a user-friendly format.
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Unit Standard Accreditation And Moderation Options Anyone assessing a candidate against this Unit Standard must be registered as an
assessor with the relevant ETQA or an ETQA that has a Memorandum of Understanding with the relevant ETQA.
Any institution offering learning that will enable achievement of this Unit Standard must be accredited as a provider through the relevant ETQA or an ETQA that has a Memorandum of Understanding with the relevant ETQA.
Moderation of assessment will be overseen by the relevant ETQA according to the moderation guidelines and the agreed ETQA procedures.
Unit Standard Essential Embedded Knowledge The systems approach as applied to decision making and problem solving. Critical and analytical thinking techniques. Techniques for analysing and defining problems.
Critical Cross-field Outcomes (CCFO):
Unit Standard CCFO Identifying Identify and solve problems using critical and creative thinking processes in order
resolve issues, problems and challenges in a unit.
Unit Standard CCFO Working Work effectively with others as a member of a team, group, organisation or community
to ensure participation by team members in developing solutions to an issue/problem in a unit.
Unit Standard CCFO Organising Organise and manage oneself and one`s activities responsibly in order to proactively
address issues, problems and challenges in a unit.
Unit Standard CCFO Collecting Collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information in order to have all
relevant information available for addressing issues, problems and challenges in the unit.
Unit Standard CCFO Communicating Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language in the modes of
oral and/or written communication in involving team members in critical and analytical thinking processes.
Unit Standard CCFO Science Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility to the
environment and health of others when developing solutions to issues/problems.
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Unit Standard CCFO Demonstrating Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of interrelated systems by
recognising that problem solving contexts and challenges do not exist in isolation and that a variety of factors need to be taken into account in a systems approach to decision making.
Unit Standard CCFO Contributing Participate as responsible citizens in the life of local, national and global communities in
applying critical thinking practices within the unit and being culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of contexts in applying critical thinking practices within a unit.
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1. APPLY CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL SKILLS TO ANALYSE A PROBLEM
Specific Outcome 1 Apply critical and analytical skills to analyse an issue or problem.
Assessment Criteria Critical and analytical skills are applied to analyse and define an issue/problem affecting
the functioning of a unit. Critical and analytical skills are applied to determine factors impacting on the
issue/problem and other areas in a unit and the entity affected by the issue/problem.
Applying Critical and Analytical Skills to Analyse a Problem
A light-hearted look at something that can cause us much stress- a problem in the workplace
We all have problems from time to time. A ‘problem’ refers to uncertainties or difficulties encountered in getting from one situation to a better or preferred one. Problem solving can be defined as the process of transferring one set of circumstances into another, preferred state.
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PROBLEM RESOLUTION IN THE WORKPLACE
DON’T CHANGE ITDON’T CHANGE IT
DID YOUTRY TO FIX IT?
DID YOUTRY TO FIX IT?
DOES IT FUNCTION?
DOES IT FUNCTION?YES NO
YES
YOU IDIOT !YOU IDIOT !NO
ARE YOUGOING TO BE IN
TROUBLE?
ARE YOUGOING TO BE IN
TROUBLE?
NO
PRETEND YOU DON’T KNOW ABOUT
IT.
PRETEND YOU DON’T KNOW ABOUT
IT.
DOES ANYBODY KNOW ABOUT IT?
DOES ANYBODY KNOW ABOUT IT? YOU POOR
PERSON!
YOU POOR
PERSON!
YESYES
NO
HIDE ITHIDE ITCAN YOU
BLAME SOMEONEELSE?
CAN YOUBLAME SOMEONE
ELSE?
NO
THEN, THERE IS NO PROBLEM.
YES
By successfully eliminating problems the first time, you will save your company’s resources and improve its operation.Decision making on the other hand is reviewing all the information at hand to come to a conclusion from the choices available to you to solve the problem.
The Systems Approach to Problem Solving and Decision MakingA systems approach can be defined as:Management thinking that emphasizes the interdependence and interactive nature of elements within and external to an organisation.Systems thinking is the process of understanding how things influence one another within a whole. In nature systems thinking examples include ecosystems in which various elements such as air, water, movement, plant and animals work together to survive or perish. In organizations, systems consist of people, structures, and processes that work together to make an organization healthy or unhealthy.Systems thinking has been defined as an approach to problem solving, by viewing "problems" as parts of an overall system, rather than reacting to specific part, outcomes or events and potentially contributing to further development of unintended consequences. Systems thinking is not one thing but a set of habits or practices1 within a framework that is based on the belief that the component parts of a system can best be understood in the context of relationships with each other and with other systems, rather than in isolation. Systems thinking focuses on cyclical rather than linear cause and effect.
Problem-Solving and Decision Making SystemsThere are various systems used to solve problems and make decisions. We will look at a few below:
Carl Rogers’ problem solving stepsThis is a 5-stage approach attributed to psychologist Carl Rogers2.
STAGE 1: EXPLORATION OF THE PROBLEM During this stage, we gather all the information we can about both external aspects of the problem and internal aspects. Good information gathering is not an easy process. Scientists spend their whole lives trying to learn about some very small piece of the world. The type of information-gathering process we use will depend upon the type of problem we are trying to solve. The following are powerful skills to use:
Library reference skills Observational skills Informational interviewing skills Critical thinking skills Scientific method skills Data analysis and statistical skills
Learning how to become an expert at identifying problems and finding causes is essential to become an expert in any field. The above skills are useful in solving many types of problems-even intra-personal ones.
1 From: http://www.watersfoundation.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=materials.main2 Retrieved from: http://www.csulb.edu/~tstevens/index.html
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STAGE 2: EXPLORING ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS Gather all the best information you can about possible solutions. Use brainstorming techniques, observe and consult with people who have overcome similar problems, read relevant material, consult experts, and recall your own relevant past experience. Look at both internal and external solutions.
STAGE 3: CHOOSING THE BEST ALTERNATIVE The actual choice is made in stage 3 of the /problem-solving process:
List all the alternatives you are considering List all of the values or criteria that will be affected by the decision Evaluate each alternative by each criteria or value Choose the alternative which you predict will satisfy the criteria the best
STAGE 4: PLANNING AND ACTION (Experimenting); This is the stage of acting on your decision. Many people fear making mistakes and failure as if these were some terrible sins that they should never commit. That view of life of life makes every decision and action seem very serious and they often become very timid people who lack creativity and are plagued by guilt and fear of failure. Instead we can view every action as an experiment. If one of our overall goals in life is learning and growth, then we can never fail to learn. All people who have accomplished great success for themselves and contributed to others have shared the courage to act on their beliefs.
STAGE 5: GATHERING FEEDBACK Many people hate to be evaluated and dread finding out the results of what they have done out of fear that the feedback will be negative. These fears can be serious impediments to the growth that can only happen through getting open, accurate feedback. However, once learning and growth are important goals, then getting feedback becomes highly desirable. How else can we learn? Even negative outcomes can provide valuable information.
Decision-making flow chart Most flow charts are made up of three main types of symbol3:
Elongated circles, which signify the start or end of a process;
Rectangles, which show instructions or actions; and
Diamonds, which show decisions that must be made
Within each symbol, write down what the symbol represents. This could be the start or finish of the process, the action to be taken, or the decision to be made.However, remember that there are many different flowchart symbols that can be used. Therefore, remember that an important use of flow charts is in communication: If you use
3 Adapted from: www.mindtools.com
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Gather information & analyse the
problem
Monitor progress
Implement the solution
Develop alternative solutions
Evaluate each solution
DisadvantagesAdvantages
Rate each alternative
obscure symbols that only part of your audience understands, there’s a good chance that your communication will fail. Always keep things simple! Symbols are connected one to the other by arrows, showing the flow of the process.To draw the flow chart, brainstorm process tasks, and list them in the order they occur. Ask questions such as "What really happens next in the process?" and "Does a decision need to be made before the next step?" or “What approvals are required before moving on to the next task?"Start the flow chart by drawing the elongated circle shape, and labelling it “Start”.Then move to the first action or question, and draw a rectangle or diamond appropriately. Write the action or question down, and draw an arrow from the start symbol to this shape.
Work through your whole process, showing actions and decisions appropriately in the order they occur, and linking these together using arrows to show the flow of the process. Where a decision needs to be made, draw arrows leaving the decision diamond for each possible outcome, and label them with the outcome. And remember to show the end of the process using an elongated circle labelled “Fin
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Review & learn from the experience
(Finish)Define the problem
(Start)
Carkhuff decision-making modelThis decision-making model is based upon one designed by Dr. Robert Carkhuff4 and follows the general guidelines of a considerable amount of research on how people can make more effective decisions. It can also be used for any other type of decision- from buying a new car to choosing a mate. In this example, Henry is trying to decide whether to major in psychology or in computer science. Thus he has narrowed his alternatives to the following two:
majoring in psychology with a career goal of either going into high school counselling or teaching
majoring in computer science with a possible goal of working as a computer programmer.
These are represented along the top axis of the following matrix: (CAREER) SELECTION CRITERIA WEIGHTS IDEAL PSYCHOLOGY COMPUTER
SCIENCE Income 9 +5 (45) +2 (18) +4 (36)Vacation 7 +5 (35 ) +5 (35) +2 ( 14)Helping Others 10 +5 ( 50) +4 ( 40) +4 ( 40)Future job options 8 +5 ( 50) +3 ( 24) +4 (32)Supply/demand 6 +5 ( 30) -1 ( -6) 0 ( 0)Working hours 3 +5 ( 15) +4 ( 12) +3 ( 9)Opportunity to teach others 9 +5 ( 45) +5 ( 45) +4 (36)
Helping personal interactions 10 +5 ( 50) +5 ( 50) +1 ( 10)
Security/retirement plans 5 +5 ( 25) +4 ( 20) +3 ( 15)Enjoyment socialize with peers 5 +5 ( 25) +4 ( 20) +4 ( 20)
Opportunity to make own decisions 9 +5 ( 45) +4 ( 36) +3 ( 27)
Freedom for personal life as want 8 +5 ( 40) +5 ( 40) +5 ( 40)
Opportunities for continued learning 6 +5 ( 30) +4 ( 24) +4 ( 24)
Physical work environment 2 +5 ( 10) +3 ( 6) +2 ( 4)
Psychological environment and stress 3 +5 ( 15) 0 ( 0) -1 ( -3)
Variety of work 5 +5 ( 25) +2 ( 10) +3 ( 15)Opportunities for creativity 7 +5 ( 35) +3 ( 21) +4 ( 28)TOTAL POINTS (add "happiness points" in parentheses)
570=possible ( 347) ( 405)**
** is the WINNER-it has the most points of the two alternatives
4 Retrieved from: http://www.csulb.edu/~tstevens/index.html
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STEPS TO USING THE DECISION-MAKING MODEL (use previous example):
STEP 1: LIST YOUR CAREER ALTERNATIVES. This is your refined list of alternatives of which majors or occupations you are trying to decide between. Remember, that you can list as many as you want. You can list unusual combinations of simpler alternatives. For Henry those narrowed alternatives were psychology and computer science.
STEP 2: CAREER SELECTION CRITERIA. Review your Career Selection Criteria list and write all the important career selection criteria in the far left column. Note that repeating the same idea or leaving out an important idea can affect the decision outcome.
STEP 3: CRITERIA WEIGHTS. Evaluate the relative importance to you of each of your Career Selection Criteria on a scale of 1 to 10 (10 being the most important); Write your answer in the column next to the selection criteria.
STEP 4: ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION SCALE. Each alternative is to be evaluated from the point of view of each selection criterion. You need to think about what this means for each selection criterion. For example Henry determined that for the selection criteria of income, a "minimally acceptable" income would be R25 000 pm starting with prospects of making up to R50 000 pm eventually. An outstanding salary would be starting at about R40 000 pm with prospects of making up to R100 000 pm. +5 = Maximum evaluation- outstanding (example: income begin R40 000 go to
R100,000 +4, +3, +2, +1 = intermediate values 0 = Minimally acceptable value. (example: income = begin R20 000 go to R45 000); -1, -2, -3, -4 = intermediate values -5 = Minimum evaluation- worst possible (example: income < R10 000)
STEP 5: EVALUATE EACH ALTERNATIVE BY EACH SELECTION CRITERION. Use the evaluation scale from step 3 to evaluate each alternative from the point of view of each Career Selection Criterion. Give it a rating from -5 to +5. In the example above, both alternatives were evaluated on the criterion of "income": Henry gave the psychology income an evaluation of "+2" and computer science income an evaluation of " +4."
STEP 6: MULTIPLY THE CRITERIA WEIGHTS WITH THE EVALUATIONS. In the example above for the selection criterion of "income," Henry multiplied the criterion weight of "9" times the evaluation of "+2" for "PSYCH" to get a result of "18." That is its SCORE OR POINTS for psychology on the criterion of income. Put it inside the parentheses. This score of 18 is an overall prediction of how much Henry's income in psychology will contribute to his overall happiness. Since he had a score of 36 in computer science, he is predicting that he will be much happier with his income in that field.
STEP 7: FIND THE OVERALL SUM OF THE SCORES FOR EACH ALTERNATIVE. Add together the numbers inside the parentheses for each alternative. In the example above, the overall sum for the "PSYCH" alternative is "405."
STEP 8: COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH EACH OTHER AND WITH THE "IDEAL." The "ideal" is the maximum possible number of points. Once you have determined all the totals and compared them to each other, try to figure out why one alternative came out ahead of another - where it got its points. Play with the points until you think the points match your true feelings and values.
The alternative with the most points is the one you are predicting will make you the happiest person.
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Kepner-Tregoe decision making systemKepner-Tregoe decision-making5 is a structured methodology for gathering information and prioritising and evaluating it. It was developed by Charles H. Kepner and Benjamin B. Tregoe in the 1960s.
This is a rational model that is well respected in business management circles.
An important aspect of Kepner-Tregoe decision-making is the assessment and prioritising of risk.
The idea is not to find a perfect solution but rather the best possible choice, based on actually achieving the outcome with minimal negative consequences. It is a way to make unbiased decisions in that it is said to limit conscious and unconscious biases that draw attention away from the outcome.
There are four basic steps when making decisions Kepner-Tregoe style: Situation appraisal - is used to clarify the situation, outline concerns and choose a
direction Problem analysis - here the problem is defined and it's root cause determined Decision analysis - alternatives are identified and a risk analysis done for each Potential problem analysis - the best of the alternatives is further scrutinised against
potential problems and negative consequences and actions are proposed to minimise the risk.
Following the step-by-step approach of Kepner-Tregoe decision-making allows for the use of critical thinking skills in considering many possible factors that may be vital in making the decision.
Kepner-Tregoe decision analysis:
Prepare decision statement -includes not only the desired result but also the action required
Define: Strategic requirements - 'must haves' Operational objectives - 'want to haves' Restraints - limits in the system
5 Retrieved from: http://www.decision-making-confidence.com/kepner-tregoe-decision-making.html
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Rank The Objectives And Assign Relative Weights
Objective Weight
Want A 6
Want B 4
Want C 7
Want D 2
List Alternatives Generate as many potential courses of action as possible whether immediately feasible or not
Score Each Alternative Firstly, eliminate any alternative that does not fit the 'must haves'. Going through each alternative one by one, rate it against each Want on a scale of 1 to 10. Next, multiply the weight of the objective by the satisfaction score to come up with the weighted score.
Objective Weight Alternative 1
Satisfaction Score
Weighted Score
Want A 6 4 24
Want B 4 6 24
Want C 7 6 42
Want D 2 7 14
Repeat this for each alternative
Choose The Top Two Or Three Alternatives And Consider Potential Problems Or Negative Effects Of Each
Consider Each Alternative Against All Of The Negative Effects One at a time again, rate alternatives against adverse effects, scoring for probability and significance
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Adverse Effect
Probability
Significance
Weighted Score
A 4 7 28
B 3 2 6
C 6 5 30
Adversity Rating for Alternative 1 64
Analyse The Weighted Score Versus The Adversity Rating For Each And Choose The High-Scoring One.
Consider The Winning Option Against Each Negative Consequence And Suggest A Plan Of Action To Minimise The Adverse Effects.
Pros and consThis step-by-step, systematic approach makes it easy to do the Kepner-Tregoe decision analysis. It can be very useful where there are many potential options to consider as well as many possible unwanted effects. Built into it is the ability to minimise some of these negative effects.
Although it is offered as an unbiased decision matrix, somebody has to decide the relative importance of the objectives, the probability of occurrence of adverse reactions and the relative significance of each of these reactions, so there’s bound to be some bias.
Apply Critical and Analytical Skills to Analyse and Define a Problem
When we need to analyse and define a problem, it is important to understand the difference between a problem and a challenge:
A problem is usually some difficulty that we want to overcome, or a situation we want to change. When the course of action towards a desired objective is not easy or routine, then we say we have a 'problem'.The solution to the problem is the difference between the present situation and desired result.
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Problem:
A problem is a situation which is experienced by a person as different from the situation which the person ideally would like to be in. It could be:
1. A question to be considered, solved, or answered: math problems; the problem of how to arrange transportation.
2. A situation, matter, or person that presents confusion or difficulty: was having problems breathing; considered the main problem to be his boss.
3. A misgiving, objection, or complaint: I have a problem with his behaviour.
(http:// www.thefreedictionary.com /)
We can solve a problem through a sequence of actions that reduce the difference between the initial situation and the goal. Problems come in many shapes and sizes, e.g.:
Something, like your car did not work as it should and you don't know how or why. Something you need is unavailable and something must be found to take its place. Employees are undermining a new programme. The customers are not buying. What do you do to survive? Customers are complaining. How do you handle their complaints?
Problems arise from every side of human and mechanical functions as well as from nature. Some problems we cause ourselves (e.g., a hasty choice was made and the wrong person was selected for the job); other problems are caused by forces beyond our control (e.g., a warehouse is struck by lightning and burns down).Problems are a natural, everyday occurrence of life and in order to suffer less from the tensions and frustrations they cause, we must learn how to deal with them in a wise, logical fashion.If we accept the fact that problems will arise on a regular basis, for a variety of reasons and from a variety of sources, we can:
learn to approach problems from an balanced point of view learn how to expect some of them prevent some of them from becoming larger problems
Challenge is another word that is often used when we solve problems. Have your ever heard someone say “Don’t look at it as a problem, rather see it as a challenge”. The difference is that when we say “This is a challenge” it shows that we are prepared to look for a solution.
Challenge:
1. A demand for explanation or justification; a calling into question: a challenge to a theory.
2. A test of one's abilities or resources in a demanding but stimulating undertaking: a career that offers a challenge.
(http:// www.thefreedictionary.com /)
The word challenge is therefore used when the individual knows that there is a problem or that something is not “quite right” or that it will take some creativity to make something work.
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Examples: Jane says: “Steve is very fat.”
We would challenge this statement if we believe the statement to be incorrect or if we feel that this is an overstatement. Jenny believes that she will never be pretty.
We would challenge this statement by replying that Jenny has beautiful eyes and that she should not be measuring her beauty (prettiness) against others. John and Jack are two of my best friends, but they do not like one another. It would be a
challenge to have them both attend the dinner party tonight.We would find the situation challenging, as it would demand that we be creative about seating arrangements at the party, ensuring that both John and Jack are kept happy and entertained at the dinner party. It would therefore be a demanding, yet stimulating undertaking if we succeed in having a successful dinner party where both John and Jack are happy. The supervisor requests the newest member of the team, Sarah, to facilitate the next
sales meeting.Sarah would see this task as a challenge to prove her abilities in a demanding but stimulating way if she has the self-confidence and a positive attitude to take it on.
Sarah would however see it as a problem, if she is not self-confident, negative and if she is not sure of her abilities to facilitate a meeting.
Critical and Analytical ThinkingCritical and analytical thinking involves questioning and reflecting upon ideas. You must look deeper into what you are learning and think about its relation to the ‘bigger picture’. You should be able to present your critique in a structured, clear, well-reasoned and supported way.
Critical analysis is a central process in most job functions. It involves thinking critically, which is applying rational and logical thinking while deconstructing the texts you read (and write) at university.Browne and Keeley6 define critical thinking as:
awareness of a set of interrelated critical questions the ability to ask and answer critical questions at appropriate times desire to actively use the critical questions.
When we think critically we are being active; we are not passively accepting everything we read and hear, but questioning, evaluating, making judgements, finding connections and categorising. It means being open to other points of view and not being blinded by our own biases.Critical thinking is useful for most activities, such as forming judgements and when reading, writing essays and assignments, making decisions and developing arguments.Critical thinking involves various processes in the disciplines:
In science and technology it can include asking questions, identifying problems, describing, predicting, analysing, categorising and establishing cause and effect.
In the arts, social sciences and commerce it can include asking questions, identifying problems and solutions, relating theory to practice, stating an argument and supporting it with evidence, making comparisons and evaluating.
The critical thinking skills are:
6 Browne, M & Keeley, S 2001, Asking the right questions: a guide to critical thinking
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Interpretation - Comprehend and express meaning or significance of wide variety of experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures or criteria.
Analysis - Identify the intended and actual inferential relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions or other forms of representation intended to express belief, judgment, experiences, reasons, information or opinion.
Evaluation - Assess the credibility of statements or other representations which are accounts or descriptions of a person's perception, experience, situation, judgment, belief or opinion; and to assess the logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships among statements, descriptions, questions or other forms of representation.
Inference - Identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form conjectures and hypotheses; to consider relevant information and to educe the consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgments, beliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions or other forms of representation.
Explanation - State the results of one's reasoning; justify that reasoning in terms of evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological and contextual considerations upon which one's results were based; and to present one's reasoning in the form of cogent arguments.
Self-Regulation - Self-consciously to monitor one's cognitive activities, the elements used in those activities and the results deduced, particularly by applying skills in analysis and evaluation to one's own inferential judgments with a view toward questions, confirming, validation or correcting either one's reasoning or results7.
Good critical thinkers can also be described in terms of how they approach specific issues, questions, or problems and would have some (or all) of the following characteristics:
clarity in stating the question or concern, orderliness in working with complexity, diligence in seeking relevant information, reasonableness in selecting and applying criteria, care in focusing attention on the concern at hand, persistence through difficulties are encountered, precision to the degree permitted by the subject and the circumstances.
Critical and Analytical Thinking TechniquesCritical analytical thinking is a key part of any management job function and means looking very closely at the detail and not taking what you read or hear for granted. You are expected to:
7 Adapted from: http://www.livestrong.com/article/14710-overview-of-critical-thinking/#ixzz0tMriwudY
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Evaluate how far information / materials are appropriate, and up-to-date. Evaluate how far the evidence or examples used in materials really proves the point
that the author claims. To weigh up opinions, arguments or solutions against appropriate criteria. To think a line of reasoning through to its logical conclusion. Check for hidden bias or hidden assumptions. Check whether the evidence and argument really support the conclusions.
Critical thinking8 consists of three steps:1. Becoming aware that assumptions exist2. Making assumptions explicit3. Assessing their accuracy
Do these assumptions make sense? Do these assumptions fit reality as we understand and live it? Under what conditions do these assumptions seem to hold true? Under what conditions
do they seem false?
Critical Thinking Model9
The problem or issue needs to be identified and clarified up front, yet consistently revisited as other elements of the model are considered. The term ‘concern’ is preferred over the term ‘problem’ because a critical thinker must be proactive as well as reactive. In many cases, the critical thinker will encounter information that causes him to identify related or subsequent issues that should be addressed. A critical thinker ensures that he has considered all the complexities of the problem at hand and focused his mental energy appropriately. An assessment needs to determine whether the concern has unidentified root causes or unaddressed sub-components. A critical thinker must ensure that the problem or issue is not framed in a way that unduly limits response options.
There are many critical and analytical thinking techniques. We will explore but a few of them:
8 Read more: http://www.livestrong.com/article/14710-overview-of-critical-thinking/#ixzz0tMqydg1C9 http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/army-usawc/crit_thkg_gerras.pdf
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Techniques of critical thinking include the following 16 basic techniques10:1. Clarify - State one point at a time. Elaborate. Give examples. Ask others to clarify or give
examples. If you’re not sure what you’re talking about, you can’t address it.Unclear: “How can we fix education?”Clear: “How can teachers better prepare students for the workforce?” or “How can we change policies to encourage better teaching?”
2. Be accurate - Check your facts.Inaccurate: “Most people these days are obese” or “Just vent your anger; you’ll feel better.”Accurate: “Most people in the U.S. are not obese” or “Studies show that venting your anger actually increases angry feelings and actions.”
3. Be precise - Be precise, so you are able to check accuracy. Avoid generalizations, euphemisms, and other ambiguity.Imprecise: “Mary is overweight.”Precise: “Mary is 6 pounds overweight according to her Body Mass Index, which is a deceptive measure of healthy weight anyway.”
4. Be relevant - Stick to the main point. Pay attention to how each idea is connected to the main idea.Irrelevant: “Why do I believe in the Christian God? Well, the human eye is too complex to have happened by chance, so God must have created it.”Relevant: “The human eye is a complex system. Its origins, Darwinian or otherwise, are not fully understood. But our ignorance is not evidence for God or anything else.”
5. Know your purpose - What are you trying to accomplish? What’s the most important thing here? Distinguish your purpose from related purposes.
6. Identify assumptions - All thinking is based on assumptions, however basic. Assumptions not identified: “Logically, God cannot exist.”Assumptions identified: “Logic is only a process applied to assumptions. If you apply logic to the assumption that ‘scientific evidence is the only reliable means of knowing something,’ then of course non-physical entities cannot be known using your assumptions.”
7. Check your emotions - Emotions only confuse critical thinking. Notice how your emotions may be pushing your thinking in a certain direction.
8. Empathize - Try to see things from your opponent’s perspective. Imagine how they feel. Imagine how you sound to them. Sympathize with the logic, emotion, and experience of their perspective.
9. Know your own ignorance - Each person knows less than 0.0001% of the available knowledge in the world. Even if you know more about relevant issues than your opponent, you still might be wrong. Educate yourself as much as possible, but still: be humble.
10. Be independent - Think critically about important issues for yourself. Don’t believe everything you read. Don’t conform to the priorities, values, and perspectives of others.
11. Think through implications - Consider the consequences of your viewpoint Not thinking through implications: “A foetus is biologically alive and mentally conscious. Therefore, killing a foetus is wrong.”
10 Adapted from: www.lukeprog.com/science/16_techniques_of_critical_thinking.html
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Thinking through implications: “Monkeys, dogs, and many other animals are alive and almost certainly conscious. Is killing them always wrong, too? Why do they have fewer rights than a foetus? Let’s think about this.”
12. Know your own biases - Your biases muddle your thinking. Notice how they might be pushing your thought toward a particular end, regardless of the logical steps it took to get there.Biased: “I’m not sure how to defeat the Kalam cosmological argument for God’s existence, but I know it’s flawed somewhere because God doesn’t exist.”Unbiased: “The Kalam cosmological argument is compelling. I’ll have to think it through before I can say whether or not it indicates God’s existence.”
13. Suspend judgment - Critical thinking should produce judgments, not the other way around. Don’t make a decision and then use critical thinking to back it up. If anything, use the method of science: take a guess about how things are and then try to disprove it.Immediate judgment: “We’re here to promote Johnson’s plan for education reform. What logical arguments can we construct in its favour?”Suspended judgment: “What do we want from our educational system? Once we know, let’s use critical thinking to find the best ways to do those things.”
14. Consider the opposition - Listen to other viewpoints in their own words. Seriously consider their most persuasive arguments. Don’t dismiss them.Narrow-minded: Reading an essay and letting it persuade you.Open-minded: Reading an essay, then reading an essay that argues the opposite point.
15. Recognize cultural assumptions - People from different times and cultures thought much differently than you do. In fact, your ideas might have arrived only in the last 50 years of human history! Why is your perspective better than that of everyone else in the world today and throughout history?
16. Be fair, not selfish - Each person’s most basic bias is for themselves. Selfish: “I can’t know everything. It’s not my fault I made that error.”Fair: “I can’t know everything, but I could easily have done some basic research before making such a bold statement.”
There are many analytical thinking techniques to use: Bench marking is one technique which is used to compare and measure an activity
against an internal or external source. There is also a technique called SWOT analysis which is the assessment of the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of a situation or problem. Another technique is the Cost Benefit analysis in which you compare total equivalent
cost against the equivalent value in benefits.
Self-talkThe following is a list of some negative thoughts that you might have, or you might hear other people using when trying to solve a problem. You need to catch these thoughts and change them before you start solving the problem.
This is too hard. I know other people have done this, but it's much harder for me. If only I had more (time, money, help, talent, name your excuse), I might be able to
solve this.
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Why does this always happen to me? The world is out to get me. I'm the only one with this problem. This is an emergency! I don't have time to think about this!
Being aware of these thoughts that create a negative attitude will allow you to change them into ones that will create a better, more positive problem-solving attitude.
Examples: "This is too hard." This statement is very close to "I can't." The better way to think is, "I
really don't know how difficult this problem is to solve." Why? Because we all have had what seemed to be huge problems that were solved with some minor changes. Then there were the problems that seemed simple and ended up being very difficult to solve. The great thing about creative problem solving is that you just might think up a simple solution to what seemed to be a difficult problem. So enter into every problem solving situation with an open mind. You don't ever really know how hard or simple a problem is going to be. "I know other people have done this, but it's much harder for me."
This statement is close to the first, but it adds that element that you are somehow less adequate to solve the problem than others are. If you think you are less adequate, chances are you will be less adequate. There is no need to enter into problem solving with this thought. It will just make you less creative. "If only I had more (time, money, help, talent, etc.) I might be able to solve this."
This is an excuse for not doing anything. This one is straight out of the time-waster’s handbook. This thought allows you to wait around for some good fortune to come your way before you start to work. Time, money and help may or may not be part of what you need to solve a problem. If you need them, then that's another problem to be solved. "The world is out to get me. I'm the only one with this problem."
The world is not out to get you or anyone else. If you take problems personally, you end up feeling sad and angry. Neither is going to help you solve problems. In every life there are thousands of problems to be solved. Everyone has thousands, everyone. "This is an emergency! I don't have time to think about this!"
We call it being in "emergency mode." That means you don't have to think much. You just make a gut decision and go with it. Never mind about the long-term consequences, just make the decision!The fact is that 99.9% of life is NOT an emergency. You have time to think. Your brain, however, does not want to take time to think. It knows that it is a supercomputer and it wants to act like one. For some parts of your life this is a good thing. You don't want to be taking time to consider every little move you make during a day. You would never get much of anything done.There are a many things that do require you to slow down and think. You know what they are because you really don't have the answers to them. You just take stabs at solutions and hope for the best. So when you catch yourself saying, "This is an emergency" - slow down. Ask yourself, "Is someone going to die or get really sick if I don't make the decision fast?" If the answer is "No," then chances are you have time to think.
There may be many thoughts you can have that get in the way of problem solving. You will know when you are having them by how you feel about the problem. If you are motivated to take it on, then your thoughts are probably fine. If you feel sad, mad or frightened of the problem, check out the thoughts you are having about it. Find the negative thoughts and turn them into positive ones. Tell yourself you can and you will do it; then believe it!You are more likely to succeed at solving problems when you have a positive attitude. This attitude indicates that you believe that the problem has a solution, which when put into action, will increase productivity. Believing that a solution exists can help you overcome setbacks and other frustrations when developing solutions. Moreover, your positive attitude might also motivate others to use their knowledge to assist you in finding the best solution.
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Creative Thinking Techniques Using different techniques helps you conduct a thorough analysis of the problems you face. It helps you look at as many factors as possible in a structured and methodical way. Creative thinking techniques work to stimulate original ideas. New ideas happen when two or more ideas are accidentally or deliberately merged when otherwise they would never have been merged. Creative thinking techniques provide the method for deliberately combining ideas in ways which you would not normally think about. This combination then generates a truly original idea. The creative thinking process can be pictured in the following way:
(http:// www.mycoted.com /)Being creative means using a different approach to the way you solve certain problems. This is not something you need to do all the time, for example when a problem and it solution is clear or when a problem only has one solution. However, if a problem is open-ended and has a number of potential solutions, we need to use the techniques we have learnt to find a suitable solution.Creative thinking skills use very different approaches to critical thinking skills. They involve a much more relaxed, open, playful approach. This can require some risk-taking. Creative thinking skills involve such approaches as:
Looking for many possible answers rather than one. Allowing yourself to make wild and crazy suggestions as well as those that seem
sensible. Not judging ideas early in the process - treat all ideas as if they may contain the seeds
of something potentially useful. Allowing yourself to doodle, daydream or play with a theory or suggestion. Being aware that these approaches necessarily involve making lots of suggestions that
are unworkable and may sound silly. Making mistakes. Learning from what has not worked as well as what did.
“Thinking is a skill that can be learned, practiced and developed. But you have to want to develop that skill. You need to learn how to ride a bicycle or drive a
car…”Edward de Bono – Teach Yourself to Think
We will now look at what Edward de Bono the leading authority in the field of creative thinking, says. He has written thirty-six books in the field of creativity and thinking - including the international best-seller Six Thinking Hats, Lateral Thinking and Six Action Shoes - and he has made two television series.
We can no longer wait for ideas to occur by change or through the slow process of
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evolutionary pressure. There is a need to focus directly on the generation, design and development of new ideas.
Edward de Bono
Edward De Bono’s 6 Thinking Hats
Six Thinking Hats, one of several creativity tools developed by Edward deBono, is designed to block the disagreements that happen when people with different thinking styles discuss the same issue. Approaching the conversation from each of the six "thinking hat" points of view, for example, helps participants move outside their usual thinking styles and helps the whole group get a more complete view of a situation.
The six hats represent six ways of thinking and are instructions on how to think rather than labels for thinking.
Example:The directors of a property company are looking at whether they should construct a new office building. The economy is doing well and the amount of vacant office space is reducing sharply. As part of their decision they decide to use the 6 Thinking Hats technique during a planning meeting.Looking at the problem with the White Hat, they analyse the data they have. They examine the trend in vacant office space, which shows a sharp reduction. They anticipate that by the time the office block would be completed, that there will be a severe shortage of office space. Current government projections show steady economic growth for at least the construction period.With Red Hat thinking, some of the directors think the proposed building looks quite ugly. While it would be highly cost-effective, they worry that people would not like to work in it.When they think with the Black Hat, they worry that government projections may be wrong. The economy may be about to enter a 'cyclical downturn', in which case the office building may be empty for a long time. If the building is not attractive, then companies will choose to work in another better-looking building at the same rent.With the Yellow Hat, however, if the economy holds up and their projections are correct, the company stands to make a great deal of money. If they are lucky, maybe they could sell the building before the next downturn, or rent to tenants on long-term leases that will last
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through any recession.With Green Hat thinking they consider whether they should change the design to make the building more pleasant. Perhaps they could build prestige offices that people would want to rent in any economic climate. Alternatively, maybe they should invest the money in the short term to buy up property at a low cost when a recession comes.The Blue Hat has been used by the meeting's Chair to move between the different thinking styles. He or she may have needed to keep other members of the team from switching styles, or from criticising other peoples' points.
Using the Six Hats: Minimum of six individuals in a group Recorder Spokesperson Six team members each choose a color hat There are six figurative hats and the thinker can put on or take off one of these hats to
indicate the type of thinking being used. This putting on and taking off is essential. Expect all to participate in all thinking hats The person wearing the hat is to make sure that all contribute to her/his thinking hat
area discussion Spend 5 minutes on each thinking hat, starting with the Blue hat Discuss the specific given topic using the thinking hat Make sure that at least one crazy and unusual idea is discussed and recorded Use a form to document the results (see later in this section) Spokesperson and recorder names Notes for each thinking hat and Conclusion Share the conclusion + the crazy idea When done in group, everybody wears the same hat at the same time.
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White Hat thinking
INFORMATION: pure facts and figuresThis covers facts, figures, information needs and gaps. "I think we need some white hat thinking at this point..." means “Let's drop the arguments and proposals and look at the data base”. While wearing the white hat we ignore arguments and proposals, we examine the facts, figures and information that we have and identify what information we don’t have and how we might get it What information do we have here? What information is missing? What information would we like to have? How are we going to get the information? What more information do I need?
(the analytical, data view)Red Hat thinking FEELINGS: emotions, hunches and intuition
This covers intuition, feelings and emotions. The red hat allows the thinker to put forward a feeling without any need to justify it. "Putting on my red hat, I think this is a terrible proposal." Usually feelings can only be introduced into a discussion if they are supported by logic. Usually the feeling is genuine but the logic is false. The red hat gives full permission to a thinker to put forward his or her feelings on the subject at the moment.Intuition may be a complex judgement based on years of experience and it can be valuable even if the reasons behind it cannot be spelled out consciously Putting on my red hat, this is what I think about the
project ... My gut feeling is that it will not work I don’t like the way this is being done My intuition tells me that prices will fall soon How do I feel about this?
(the intuitive, emotional view)Black Hat thinking
CAUTION: negative judgment, devil’s advocateThis is the hat of judgment and caution. It is a most valuable hat. It is not in any sense an inferior or negative hat. The black hat is used to point out why a suggestion does not fit the facts, the available experience, the system in use, or the policy that is being followed. The black hat must always be logical.It is the most used hat and perhaps the most valuable hat as mistakes may be disastrous. At the same time, it is very easy to overuse the black hat and therefore to kill creative ideas with early negativity. The regulations do not permit us to do that We do not have the production capacity to meet that
order When we tried a higher price the sales fell off He has no experience in export management Let’s ask critical questions…
(the pessimistic view)
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Yellow Hat thinking
BENEFITS: optimism, positive, opportunityThis is the logical positive. Why something will work and why it will offer benefits. It can be used in looking forward to the results of some proposed action, but can also be used to find something of value in what has already happened.The yellow hat is for optimism and the logical positive view of things. It looks for feasibility and how something can be done and it looks for benefits, but they must be logically based. That might work if we moved the production plant
nearer to the customers The benefit would come from repeat purchases The high cost of energy would make everyone more
energy efficient What are the opportunities here?
(the optimistic view)Green Hat thinking
CREATIVITY: new and innovative ideasThis is the hat of creativity, alternatives, proposals, what is interesting, provocations and changes.Putting on the green hat makes time and space for creative effort. This is where we engage in lateral thinking and other creative techniques. We need some new ideas here Are there any additional alternatives? Could we do this in a different way? Could there be another explanation? How can we grow this idea?
(creativity view)Blue Hat thinking MANAGING: order, control, process, conclusion,
orchestra conductorThis is the overview or process control hat. It looks not at the subject itself but at the 'thinking' about the subject. In technical terms, the blue hat is concerned with how things fit together.The blue hat is the thinking overview or process control hat. It is usually used by the chairperson of the meeting to set the agenda for thinking, to suggest the next step for thinking, or to ask for summaries, conclusions and decisions. We have spent far too much time looking for someone
to blame Could we have a summary of your views? I think we should take a look at the priorities I suggest we try some green hat thinking to get some
new ideas What is the process here? Have we thought of
everything?(the process control view))
The information on "Six Thinking Hats" is Copyright ©The McQuaig Group Inc. Reproduced here by permission from APTT
In a group we can ask members to ‘put on’ different hats in a sequence to aid the problem solving process. This can help overcome the problem of each group member adopting random
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positions at random times. It also permits us to control people who insist on sticking to one perspective (i.e. process) - we can ask them to assume a different hat.
Effective use of the Six Thinking Hats can: Improve brainstorming results Focus thinking more clearly Lead to more creative thinking Improve decision making and communication
Edward De Bono’s 6 Action Shoes Creative Thinking TechniqueAfter having used an appropriate style of thinking you choose an appropriate style of action. What are some of the things you need to do? Where are you going to take action? What is your action style? As a specialist in creativity, Edward de Bono identifies a simple "six shoes" approach to taking action. De Bono lays out the actions associated with six types of "shoes" and explains that while someone may naturally be better at responding in one particular style - say taking emergency action ("orange gumboots") rather than accumulating information ("grey sneakers") - the truly successful person will master all six action styles and learn to adapt his or her actions to the situations at hand. Take a look at the six different action shoes and decide if you have a preference or if you think you have a balanced action style.The value of the Six Action Shoes is to help you do something – not to analyse what has been done. It groups actions into six categories symbolised by certain kinds of shoes. The shoes are just reminder devices. When you examine what kind of actions you’re doing, you are more likely to become more purposeful.
Navy formal shoes
The military is good at formalising routine behaviour, symbolised by this shoe. Routines help us do repeated tasks efficiently. For example: You formalise a new program by writing a staff manual or organisation flow.
This mode covers routines and formal procedures
Dark blue or navy blue is the colour of many uniforms. Navy blue suggests the navy itself, with its drills and routines and formality.
Orange Gumboots
Like the firemen who wear these, sometimes you have to “fight fires.” Emergency situations demand urgent action. For example: The receptionist calls in sick on Monday morning. Recognise emergency action and make immediate decisions to solve the problem.
This mode covers danger and emergency. Safety is a prime concern.
Orange suggests danger, explosions, attention, warning. Rainboots suggest fire fighters and rescue workers.
Pink slippers
Soft and cosy, they symbolise compassionate, caring, people oriented acts. There are a lot of tasks to be done in the workplace, but don’t forget your people! They need encouragement. Have ways to say thank you to your workers at least
This mode covers care, compassion and attention to human feelings and sensitiveness
Pink suggest warmth
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once a year. Regularly take time to check up with each other – how’s your group? How are things going?
and tenderness. Slippers suggest home, domesticity and comfort.
Brown brogues (lace-up shoes)
This classic, practical shoe symbolises sensible action, practicality, doing what can be done. You wish you had a better teacher for that workshop, but you don’t. So you do what can be done: use a video series, or provide them with extra reading material. Recognise it’s only temporary; don’t let it become permanent.
This mode covers practicality. Work it out as you go along, be practical and flexible
Brown is a practical colour, it suggests earth and basics and feet solidly standing on the earth. It also suggests mud and messy situations that are not clearly defined.
Grey sneakers
This shoe is quiet and doesn’t attract attention. It represents actions you take to collect information and think about it. Sometimes you want to change the way you do things. You need to take time to evaluate, listen to people and find out their needs and opinions. People may pressure you to “act”, but you are acting: you are investigating.
This mode covers exploration, investigation and the collection of evidence.
Grey suggests grey cells and grey matter in the brain. Grey also suggests fog and mist and the difficulty of seeing clearly.
Purple riding boots
Like the general on a horse who leads his army, “take charge” actions are occasionally called for. Take authority. Show leadership. Sometimes it takes a bit of nerve, but people need and want leadership!
This mode means playing the role given by virtue of a position - an element of leadership and command.
Purple was the colour of imperial Rome, it suggests authority. Riding boots also suggest policemen on horses and motorbikes.
Actions must be consistent with duties, obligations and expectations of that role.” De Bono highlights the need to identify to others which foot the boot is on and what kind of boot it is that is going to be doing the kicking, persuading or caressing. Others can wear complementary or opposing footwear to create a balanced team, but each team member must stay in their shoes until everyone agrees to take them off. Telling a member of staff or a client that you are putting on a Purple riding boot and a Pink slipper means that you want to take authority and be gentle. De Bono brings insight and approachability to difficult subjects, in this case using something that we are all familiar with; even if we normally wear them in pairs.
Techniques for Analysing and Defining ProblemsIn this section we will be investigating different techniques for solving problems and making decisions as an individual and in groups. We will start by exploring the role of brainstorming in problem-solving and decision-making to give an indication of the power of group decision-
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making. We will then investigate other techniques that are often used during the process of finding solutions and making decisions when a problem is solved.
Brainstorming during Problem Solving SituationsThe term “brainstorming” has become a commonly used word in the English language as a standard term for creative thinking. Brainstorming is a method for developing creative solutions to problems. It works by focusing on a problem and then coming up with as many solutions as possible even if some of them are a bit unusual. During the brainstorming session there is no criticism of ideas - the idea is to open up as many possibilities as you can and break down fixed ideas about the limitations of the problem.
Killer Phrases Are Not Used During Idea Generation
1. "Yes, but. . . "2. "We tried that before."3. "That's irrelevant."4. "We haven't got the manpower."5. "Obviously, you misread my request."6. "Don't rock the boat!"7. "The boss (or competition) will eat you alive."8. "Don't waste time thinking."9. "Great idea, but not for us."10. "It'll never fly."11. "Don't be ridiculous."12. "People don't want change."13. "It's not in the budget."14. "Put it in writing."15. "It will be more trouble than it's worth."16. "It isn't your responsibility."17. "That's not in your job description."18. "You can't teach an old dog new tricks."19. "Let's stick with what works."20. "We've done all right so far."
21. "The boss will never go for it."22. "It's too far ahead of the times."23. . . . laughter. . .24. . . . suppressed laughter. . .25. . . . condescending grin. . .26. . . . dirty looks. . .27. "Don't fight city hall!"28. "I'm the one who gets paid to think."29. "What will people say?"30. "Get a committee to look into that."31. "If it ain't broke, don't fix it."32. "You have got to be kidding."33. "No!"34. "We've always done it this way."35. "It's all right in theory. . . but. . ."36. "Be practical!"37. "Do you realise the paperwork it will create?"38. "Because I said so."39. "I'll get back to you."40. . . . silence. . .
Reference: “What A Great Idea” by Charles “Chick” Thompson, 1992, HarperCollins Publishers
Once the ideas have been generated the results of the brainstorming session can be analysed and the best solutions can be explored using further brainstorming.
The Brainstorming RulesThe following rules are important to brainstorm successfully:
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A leader / facilitator should take control of the session, initially defining the problem to be solved with any conditions that must be met and then keeping the session on course.
The leader should encourage an enthusiastic, uncritical attitude and encourage participation by all members of the team.
A specified time should be set for the brainstorming session and the leader should ensure that no train of thought is followed for too long.
The leader should try to keep the brainstorming on course and should try to steer it towards the development of some practical solutions.
Participants in the brainstorming process should come from as wide a range of disciplines with as broad a range of experience as possible. This brings many more creative ideas to the session.
Brainstormers should be encouraged to have fun brainstorming, coming up with as many ideas as possible, from solidly practical ones to wildly impractical ones in an environment where creativity is welcomed.
Ideas must not be criticised or evaluated during the brainstorming session. Criticism introduces an element of risk for a group member in putting forward an idea. This could limit the creativity during the session.
Brainstormers should not only come up with new ideas in a brainstorming session, but should also 'spark off' from associations with other people's ideas and develop other people’s ideas.
A record should be kept of the session either as notes or a tape recording. This should be studied later for evaluation. It can also be helpful to jot down ideas on a board or flipchart which can be seen by all brainstormers.
Clarify and conclude the session. Ideas that are identical can be combined, all others should be kept. It is useful to get an agreement on which ideas should be looked at further or what the next action and time period is.
Individual vs. group brainstormingBrainstorming can either be carried out by individuals, groups or both:
Individual brainstorming tends to produce a wider range of ideas than group brainstorming, but tends not to develop the ideas as effectively, perhaps because individuals on their own run up against problems they cannot solve. Individuals are free to explore ideas in their own time without any fear of criticism and without being dominated by other group members.
Group brainstorming develops ideas more deeply and effectively, as when difficulties in the development of an idea by one person are reached, another person's creativity and experience can be used to break them down. Group brainstorming tends to produce fewer ideas (as time is spent developing ideas in depth) and can lead to the control of the creative but quiet people by the loud and uncreative ones.
Individual and group brainstorming can be mixed, perhaps by defining a problem and then letting team members firstly come up with a wide range of possibly shallow solutions. These solutions could then be developed further by group brainstorming.
Group Problem Solving and Decision MakingGroup problem solving and group decisions can benefit not only the group but also the entire organisation. The techniques used to make group decisions are similar to those that individuals use to make decisions. Group problem solving and decisions include the thoughts and opinions of several individuals who share many viewpoints and decision frameworks. Groups also tend to have a good information pool on which members can base their decisions. When individual team members
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have varied viewpoints, they can discuss the issue with the entire group and arrive at a decision that benefits the organisation.To make effective decisions, a group needs to develop decision making plans. These plans will help it make the best possible decisions without destructive conflict, which can hold back a team’s decision making ability. There are various guidelines to check the success of a decision.
Ensuring the success of a group’s decisionSome benefits of developing decision making plans include effective brainstorming efforts and an increased ability to work well as a group. By developing strategies together, the group will develop good relationships among its members. It will also create a sense of ownership of the decisions, which will compel each group member to provide useful feedback and ideas to the group.For your group to be valuable to the organisation, it must make good decisions. You can use the following steps to assure the success of your group's decisions:
Determining standards - The nature of the decision will tell you what the standards are. For example, let’s say your group is implementing a Customer Relationship Management (CRM) programme to improve communications, sales and customer service. One performance standard for this decision can be to increase the company’s customer retention rate by 16 percent without exceeding the CRM budget.
Measuring results - To complete the measuring results step, your group should first set a definite date on which the results can be accurately measured. On that date, measure the effect of the decision on each group of stakeholders, as well as on the company’s finances and resources.
Information Gathering TechniquesThere are various information gathering techniques that involve asking questions:
Four W’s and H Questioning techniqueThis technique is often used to gather information in order to analyse the cause and effects of the problem. Use the following formula: H + 4 W’s = E
H = How (much) (Quantity)
= Cause & Effects
W = Who (People)
W = What (Occurrence of problems)
W = Where (Place)
W = When (Time)
This all adds up the E or Effect(s) of the problem.
The Four W’s and H, is a powerful, exciting and imaginative checklist. The technique uses basic questioning techniques by asking open questions that helps you gather information. The method is useful at any level from a formal checklist to complete informality during the problem solving process.
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Five Why’s techniqueIn this technique, the problem solver asks individuals a series of five why-based questions to uncover the real issues of the problem. To be effective and avoid irritating the person being questioned, you should listen attentively to the answers and ask questions based on the responses. The Five Why’s approach can separate complex problems into distinct parts and point to the potential root causes.
Example:Where the question and answers are related, you ask why C happened and the answer is related to another event B and so the same question can be reiterated, i.e.
WHY did C happen, because B did WHY did B happen, because A did WHY did A happen, because (etc…..)
Six Universal Questions techniqueWhen generating ideas, you should be aware of a simple universal truth. There are only six questions that one human can ask another:
What? Where? When? How? Why? Who?
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Poem by Rudyard KiplingFrom his book: Just So Stories
I keep six honest serving-men(They taught me all I knew);Their names are What and Why and WhenAnd How and Where and Who.I send them over land and sea,I send them east and west;But after they have worked for me,I give them all a rest.
I let them rest from nine till five,For I am busy then,As well as breakfast, lunch and tea,For they are hungry men.But different folk have different views;I know a person smallShe keeps ten million serving-men,Who get no rest at all!She sends em abroad on her own affairs,From the second she opens her eyesOne million Hows, Two million Wheres,And seven million Whys!
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Senses Questioning techniqueThis technique is similar to other questioning techniques, but forces you to identify what you can observe from using your senses:
Fact Finding Questioning techniqueThe questions in the following table will help you uncover relevant facts of a problem:
Facts Questions to be askedSignificance of the impact
Are the effects general or specific in nature?How is this situation affecting employee morale?Does the problem appear to be simple or complex?Does it involve a single issue or multiple issues?
Problem location
Is the problem local or distant?Does this involve one location or several?Is this an isolated event or part of a series of widespread events?
Time frame Is this a recent situation or has it been building up for a long time?Is the problem constant or intermittent?Is the problem impending or has it already happened?
Fishbone Diagram techniqueThe fishbone diagram was originally developed by Professor Kaoru Ishikawa. It is a technique that can help to structure the process of identifying possible causes of a problem. The diagram encourages the development of an in depth and open-minded account ensuring all participants stay on track. It discourages partial or early solutions and shows the importance and relationship between different parts of a problem.The method is ideally organised over a number of meetings, enabling the team to become deeply involved in the problem. Fresh suggestions regarding possible causes can arise during the break and members are more likely to forget who started off every idea, thus making later discussions less inhibited.The technique is used to examine and graphically communicate the reasons or root causes for a problem. It attempts to cure the illness, rather than just treating the symptoms.
Horizontal line/arrow to effect on right
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Major causes placed parallel to and some distance from line Minor causes clustered around major causes they influence The initial major causes, called the 4 M’s, are man, materials, methods and machinery
The following is an example of a fishbone diagram:
Another example as it was used while solving the problem of the inability of the project team to meet deadlines:
(http:// www.mycoted.com /)The procedure used to create the fishbone is as follows:
Identify The Problem. Write down the problem that you face in detail. State who is involved if possible. You need to write down: what the problem is, when and where it happens. Write the problem in a box on the left hand side of a large sheet of paper. Draw a line across the paper – from left to right from the box.
Work Out The Major Issues Involved. Next identify the things that add to the problem. Draw lines off the “spine” for each of these and label each of them. These could be the people involved with the problem, systems, equipment or materials. They may even be outsiders. Try to add as many things as possible to your diagram. If you have a group solving the problem, do some brainstorming.
Identify The Possible Causes: For each of the factors that you thought of in stage two, try brainstorming the possible causes of the problem that may be related to each factor. Show these as smaller lines coming off the bones of the fish.
Analyse: By this stage you should have a diagram showing all the possible causes of your problem. Depending on the importance and difficulties of the problem, you can now investigate the most likely causes a bit further.
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Force-Field AnalysisForce Field Analysis is a method used to get a whole view of all the forces for or against a plan so that a decision can be made that takes the interest of all parties concerned into consideration. Where a plan has been decided on, force field analysis allows you to look at all the forces for or against a plan. It helps you to plan or reduce the impact of the opposing forces and strengthen and reinforce the supporting forces. To carry out a force field analysis, you need to:
List all forces for change in one column and all forces against change in another column Assign a score to each force from weak (1) to strong (5) Draw a diagram showing the forces for and against and the size of the forces
Source: www.mindtools.com
SWOT Analysis
- (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats)A successful technique for identifying your Strengths and Weaknesses and study any Opportunities and Threats you face in a problem situation within a business environment. The SWOT analysis requires you to write down answers to the following questions:Once brainstorming has been completed (ideas on table), apply SWOT to determine particular areas to focus on.
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Strengths Weaknesses
Opportunities Threats
StrengthsWhat do you do well? What are your advantages? Consider this from your point of view and that of others. Be realistic but not modest, add to this a list of your characteristics, hopefully some of these will be strengths.
WeaknessesWhat is done badly? What could be improved? What should be avoided? Consider this question from an internal and external perspective – is it possible others see weaknesses you do not? Are your competitors doing better? Be realistic, looking any unpleasant truths face on.
OpportunitiesWhat are the interesting trends? Where are the opportunities available to you? Useful opportunities can arise from
New technology, changes in the market place Alterations in government policies related to your field Changes in social patterns, population profiles, lifestyle changes etc. Local event
ThreatsWhat obstacles do you face? How are your competitors fairing? Could changes in technology threaten your position? Do you have bad debt or cash-flow problems?
Example:The following scenario is based on a business-to-business manufacturing company, who rely on distributors to take their products to the end user market. The opportunity and therefore the subject for the SWOT analysis, is for the manufacturer to create a new company of its own to distribute its products direct to certain end-user sectors, which are not being covered or developed by its normal distributors.
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Strengths End-user sales control and direction. Right products, quality and
reliability. Superior product performance vs.
competitors. Better product life and durability. Spare manufacturing capacity. Some staff have experience of end-
user sector. Have customer lists. Direct delivery capability. Product innovations ongoing. Can serve from existing sites. Products have required
accreditations. Processes and IT should cope. Management is committed and
confident.
Weaknesses Customer lists not tested. Some gaps in range for certain
sectors. We would be a small player. No direct marketing experience. We cannot supply end-users abroad. Need more sales people. Limited budget. No pilot or trial done yet. Don't have a detailed plan yet. Delivery-staff need training. Customer service staff need training. Processes and systems, etc Management cover insufficient.
Opportunities Could develop new products. Local competitors have poor
products. Profit margins will be good. End-users respond to new ideas. Could extend to overseas. New specialist applications. Can surprise competitors. Support core business economies. Could seek better supplier deals.
Threats Legislation could impact. Environmental effects would favour
larger competitors. Existing core business distribution
risk. Market demand very seasonal. Retention of key staff critical. Could distract from core business. Possible negative publicity. Vulnerable to reactive attack by
major competitors.
Generating Solutions TechniquesThese are some examples of process-based approaches to solve problems:Listing techniqueA listing is used to organise information to assess, relate, compare and contrast possible solutions effectively. List the root causes, the facts generated during the information gathering phase and the solution criteria. Reviewing this list of information might generate ideas for solving the problem.
Flow Chart techniqueA flow chart is an illustration of a series of questions and answers that generally follows a “Yes” or “No” or an “If … then” explanation. Asking a series of questions about the problem can lead to ideas for solving it. Flow charts can also be used to illustrate the relationships between root causes, problems and symptoms to show how a series of actions will produce a specific result. You can combine this information with the listing technique for more possibilities.
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Example:A supervisor suggests a team have a clear and common vision of the product and process relevant to Machine #7:
Frequency Distribution techniqueA frequency distribution is a graphic description of the frequency of actions, events, or objects in an established period. This description can help you understand when a process failed and help you generate options for fixing it. When creating and examining this description, you should ask questions, such as “Why did this problem happen at this location, but not at that one?” or “Why does this situation occur only during this time of the year, but not during that time?” This technique focuses on those aspects of the problem that make it different from the normal situation by studying its frequency and its occurrence within an organisation.
Example:In this example a group is looking at the reasons why a specific product keeps being produced with major defects. Note how they are identifying the root causes of the problem.
Mind Mapping techniqueMind mapping is a form of creative problem solving that can be used as an individual brainstorming technique. It is used to generate as many ideas as possible to maximise the chances of identifying a problem accurately or creating quality solutions. After you have
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exhausted your own creative process, evaluate your ideas and critically analyse them to determine their value.Mind mapping are also called ‘spider diagrams’ represents ideas, notes, information, etc. in far-reaching tree-diagrams. To draw a mind-map:
Lay out a large sheet of paper in landscape and write a short heading for the overall theme in the centre of the page.
For each major sub-topic or cluster of material, start a new major branch from the central theme and label it.
Each sub-sub-topic or sub-cluster forms a subordinate branch to the appropriate main branch
Carry on in this way for ever finer sub-branches.
It may be appropriate to put an item in more than one place, cross-link it to several other items or show relationships between items on different branches. Coding the colour, type of writing, etc. can do this. Alternatively using drawings in place of writing may help bring the diagram to life.
Mind mapping can be used as follows:49
Core Message The most important part of my text
What comes next?
Another idea, important to follow on.
The ideas are now flowing!
Keep working at it; let the message expand!
One more?
See how easy it is?
That’s brilliant! I knew there was something else.
Don’t forget this one
Oh right! That’s good
As a personal brainstorming tool; in a group or on your own To assist you in identifying a problem To help you find possible solutions To generate ideas without feeling pressured Can be used in combination with other problem solving techniques for more effective
solutions.
Deconstruction techniqueEven when you have identified the problem successfully, there may be a number of smaller issues or events.
By continuing to break the problem down into issues and events, you can tell where changes in procedures could correct the current problem. These details might also help you generate ideas that prevent it from happening again. It is very similar to mind mapping and you can use the same diagram.
Generating Solution Options TechniquesTo find possible solutions to problems, you will need to use your imagination. There are a number of methods that you can use to help you to find these solutions; including:
Brainstorming techniqueWhen you are sure the brainstorming session is over, it is time to select a solution.1. By using a show of hands (or another voting method), allow each person to vote for as
many ideas on the original list as they want. Note that they only have one vote per generated ideal.
2. Write the vote tallies next to the ideal. You can use a different colour than the ideal to help it stand out.
3. Once the voting is completed, delete all items with no votes.4. Next, look for logical breaks. For example, if you have several items with 5 or 6 votes and
no 3 or 4 and only a couple of 1 and 2, then retain only the 5 and 6 votes. The group can help to decide the breaking point.
5. Now, it is time to vote again. Each person gets half number of votes as there are ideals left. For example is you narrowed the number of generated ideals down to 20, then each person gets 10 votes (if it is a odd number, round down). Each person will keep track of his or her votes. The scribe should again tally the votes next to the ideal, only this time use a different colour.
6. Continue this process of elimination until you get down to about 5 ideals.Put the remainder ideas into a matrix. Put each ideal into its own row (first column). Next label
some columns using selected criteria. For example: 50
Generated Idea Low Cost
Easy to Implement and
Feasible
Will Help Other
ProcessesTotal
Outsource to a vendorHire a new employeeShare the extra workload
7. Next, working one column at a time, ask the group to order each idea. Using the above example, which one will cost the least, the most and will be in the middle.
8. Repeat by working the next column until you have completed all columns. Total each column until it looks similar to this:
Generated Idea Low Cost
Easy to Implement and
Feasible
Will Help Other
ProcessesTotal
Outsource to a vendor
2 2 2 6
Hire a new employee
3 1 1 5
Share the extra workload
1 3 3 7
9. It this case, the lowest number column, "Hire a new employee," would be the best solution.Note that you should work each column first (not each row).
Some of the columns will require much discussion, as choosing an arbitrary number will not be that easy in some cases.
Often, you will have a couple of ideas that tie, but having it diagrammed out in a matrix makes it much easier to make a decision.
Simplification techniqueIf the problem is complicated, take it apart. Break it down so that each issue is easy to see and understand. For example, if the problem covers several departments and happens every quarter, imagine that the problem involves only one department and happens in one quarter.
Find out what needs to change and what needs to stay the same. Next, find ideas that solve the problem at that simpler level.
Exaggerated objectives techniqueSay, you are solving a distribution problem for your product. Use your imagination to find the ideal situation for your company, such as possible free deliveries that are always on-time and reaching a number of outlets. You know this situation is unrealistic for a number of reasons. You need to cut it back so that you have a solution that is workable. Gathering more ideas may suggest that instead of free shipping, you would prefer to negotiate a flat delivery fee rather than a percentage of the total expected profits.
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Storyboarding techniqueStoryboarding is a popular management tool used to help the creative-thinking process. Storyboarding is a series of panels using pictures, numbers and words, important changes, in order of occurrence.
This is done by writing down each thought on a piece of paper. Each one is then placed on a wall for everyone to see, as you continue to solve the problem. Storyboarding helps you find a solution either in a group or as an individual and it is often used:
stimulate creative thinking planning a project collecting ideas exploring an organisation communicating a concept understanding the big picture
Nominal group techniqueWhen using the nominal group technique, the team leader posts the problem statement and gives team members a specified period to write their solutions to the problem. After the time expires, everyone takes a turn and shares one idea until all ideas are explained. The leader then reads out each idea asking if anyone needs clarification. If so, the originator of the idea has a defined period, usually not more than 30 seconds, to explain the idea. Participants then vote on or rank the ideas by secret vote. The nominal group technique helps prevent one person from dominating the meeting.
New Perspectives techniqueBringing in an individual with no prior knowledge of the problem can introduce a new and different view of the situation. This person will have a fresh perspective that is not influenced by previous discussions, which might help find additional options.
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Techniques to Make the Final Decision Three common techniques you can use to make your final decision include:
Using Intuition techniqueWhen you have had experience of certain situations in the past, you can use your gut-feel or intuition for choosing a solution to implement. This is the quickest and easiest method when investing more time for analysis is not likely to improve your decision.When you use intuition, it’s difficult to examine whether the process you used for the decision was good or bad, because there’s no clear process. For this reason, intuition is not the best method to use when you need to explain the reasons for your decision.While it might be tempting to rely solely on experience when making decisions, you might overlook important issues if you rely on this method. You may recall a situation in which a quick decision based on intuition turned out brilliantly. Nevertheless, you shouldn’t be deceived by these results. Research suggests that most decisions based on intuition result in middle-of-the-road results.
Using Rules techniqueAlthough rules can help you save time and provide an explanation of how you reached your conclusions, you shouldn’t rely too heavily on them. Before applying the rules, you should consider whether they’re appropriate for the situation. Because rules don’t account for changes in the environment surrounding decisions, they can become outdated.Some rules you may come across include industry- or occupation-specific guidelines, company policies and legal and regulatory needs. Other rules that provide simple methods of removing options are:
Threshold rule. The threshold rule consists of creating a preset list of conditions that the decision options need to meet. Take out the options that do not meet these conditions. This method can produce a quick decision, but it’s often too strict and might cause you to overlook certain aspects of the option.
Ranking rule. In this method, the conditions are listed and prioritised; the options are then compared against each of them. Options that don’t meet a criterion are taken out as required. Eventually, you have just one option remaining. A pitfall of this method is that it tends to make too much of the first condition. In fact, you might cut out high-quality options because they do not meet the first condition, but they might meet or exceed all the remaining ones. For example, if you are trying to decide which candidate you should choose for a vacant position. You compare all the candidates with the first condition on your list, taking out those that do not meet it. Then, you move on to the next condition and so on, until you have one applicant left. However, this method might not guarantee that you have selected the best person for the job. It is possible that one of the applicants you took out early in the process might have been strong in all the other job requirements.
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Weighted-decision modelUsing a weighted-decision model is helpful for complex decisions that involve the consideration of a large amount of information when making your decision. For these types of decisions, you need a technique that is more systematic than rules or intuition, either of which might oversimplify the situation. By using a systematic approach, you can explain difficult decisions to others when seeking their approval or acceptance. The logical approach also helps cut out human irregularity that might occur when you are stressed, tired, or bored.To create a weighted-decision model, you should complete these five steps:1. Identify the factors that affect the method. For example, if you need to decide which
employee should be promoted to the new position, determine all the factors that are important in this decision.
2. Quantify each of the factors. Decide on a scale by which they can be measured. Some factors might be quantitative, which makes them handy to rate. However, for qualitative factors, you need to create a scale that helps you to express the information with numbers. For example, to quantify the quality of individuals’ past performances you might create a scale that includes four levels, such as, did not meet expectations, met expectations, exceeded expectations and far exceeded expectations. You could allocate these levels the numerical values of one through four, respectively.
3. Rate how each of your options performs on each factor. Assign each option the appropriate rating for the scales you created.
4. Apply weights to each of the factors. Place factors in order of importance and assign the weight accordingly. A convenient way to do this is to allocate a percentage to each factor. All the percentages should equal 100. You should consider carefully how to weight the factors, because emphasising the wrong factors will lead you to choose an option that does not meet your needs.
5. Calculate the weighted score of each option. Multiply the factor ratings by the weight you assigned to each factor. The result will give you weighted scores that will reflect how each option performed based on each factor. You can add the weighted scores to obtain the final weighted score for the option. The option with the highest score is the best choice.
Example:Problem: My car is always breaking down; but it costs a lot of money to replace.There is one possible solution and that is to buy a new car.
Decision Option: Should I Buy A New Car?Pro’s Con’s
Better comfort – 3 Cost outlay will mean making some sacrifices - 5
Lower fuel costs – 3 Higher insurance - 3Lower servicing costs – 4 Time and hassle to choose and buy it
– 2Better for family use – 3 Disposal or sale of my old car - 2Better reliability – 5 Big decisions like this scare and upset
me – 4It’ll be a load off my mind – 2Total : 6 Pro’s : Total Score 20
Total : 5 Con’s : Total Score 16
You can see from this example that there is a clear benefit to buying a new car. I have weighted each issue for and against buying the car and the score shows that it will be the best option.
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Apply Critical and Analytical Skills to Determine Factors Impacting on the Problem
Identifying the Actual ProblemThe following steps are useful in identifying actual problems:
Step One: Recognise that a Problem ExistsBefore a problem can be solved, you must first recognise that a problem exists. This is where your approach to problem-solving is very important. You should not allow the problem to scare you. You should approach it sensibly and remind yourself that every problem is solvable if it is tackled properly.
Fear can block your ability to think clearly, but if you: 1. Follow a workable procedure for finding solutions; 2. Accept the fact that you can't foresee everything; 3. Assume that the solution you select is your best option at the time; and4. Accept the possibility that things may change and that your solution may fail; you will enter
the problem-solving process rationally. You should try to view the problem solving exercise as an intellectual exercise. Once you recognise that a problem exists, your next step is to start identifying the problem.
Step Two: Discover How the Problem Occurred
In this step you need to discover how the problem came about. Ask yourself the following questions:1. Did something go wrong?2. Did something breakdown?3. Were there unexpected results?4. Is something that once worked no longer working?
Step Three: Find the Nature of the Problem
In this step you need to know the nature of the problem:
1. Is it people, operational, technical, etc.?2. Is it with a particular department, product or service, etc.?3. Is it something tangible or intangible?4. Is it an external or internal problem?
Step Four: Decide how Significant the Problem is
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In this step you need to decide how important the problem is. Based on the level of importance, you may choose to deal or not to deal with the problem. Sometimes what you think is a small problem, when analysed, proves to be a major problem. The reverse is also true. To determine this, you should ask yourself the following types of questions:1. Is it upsetting operations?2. Is it getting in the way of sales?3. Is it causing disagreement among people?4. Is it an everyday occurrence or is it infrequent? 5. Is it affecting personnel and their efficiency?6. Is it common or unusual?7. Is it affecting goals and if yes, which ones?8. Is it affecting customers, vendors and any other external people?
Step Five: Classify the Type of ProblemIn this step you should narrow down the type of problem:1. Is it basically a problem which happened in the past and the main concern is to make
certain that it doesn't happen again?2. Is it a problem which currently exists and the main concern is to clear up the situation?3. Is it a problem which might happen in the future and the basic concerns are planning and
taking action before the problem arises?
The answer to all of the above questions will help you focus on the true problem. You cannot effectively research the causes of a problem until you have a clear understanding of what the problem is. Sometimes, people spend many hours on what they see as a problem only to find out, after seeking the causes, that something else was really the problem.
Step Six: Do More Research
To appropriately identify the problem and its causes, you must do some research. To do this:
list all the previous questions in checklist form go about gathering as much information as possible.
Keep in mind the relative importance and urgency of the problem, as well as your own time limits. Interview the people involved with the problem, asking them the questions on your checklist.
Step Seven: Gather and Review the InformationHaving gathered the information and reviewed it, you will have a pretty clear understanding of the problem and what the major causes of the problem are. At this point, you can research the causes further through observation and additional interviewing. You should then summarise the problem as briefly as possible, list all the causes you have identified and list all the areas the problem seems to be affecting.
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Before proceeding to finding solutions, there is some additional research that could be done. If possible and if justified, you might wish to find out:1. What has been done previously in regards to this problem? 2. What have other companies done?3. What formal knowledge might you need to acquire?4. What has been learned from past experience?5. What do experts say about the problem?
Step Eight: Solve the Problem ad Make a Decision
Use a problem solving and decision making process to ensure that you have taken all the variable into consideration.
Example:There seems to be a problem, because many employees are late for work.
Step One: Recognise that a Problem ExistsThe problem definitely exists as there are a few of my team members that are often late for work and arrive up to about thirty minutes late for work.Step Two: Discover How the Problem Occurred
Did something go wrong? Some team members have mentioned that the bus was late.
Did something breakdown? Sometimes the bus did break down.
Were there unexpected results or outcome?
Too many staff are late arriving for work. This makes it difficult to monitor and control.The unexpected results have become the norm, in that when the busses break down then there is no alternative transport method and therefore they will be late getting to work.
Is something that once worked no longer working?
Yes, the bus service is not operating on the promised timetables.
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Step Three: Find the Nature of the Problem
Is it people, operational, technical, etc.?
The problem seems to be operational, in that it stems from the operations of the bus service company, not being able to deliver the required service.
Is it with a particular department, product or service, etc.?
The problem is in various departments where staff need to use public transport (bus).
Is it something tangible or intangible?
The problem is tangible – no bus = late for work
Is it an external or internal problem?
External problem
Step Four: Decide how Significant the Problem is
Is it disrupting operations? Yes, some staff need to fill in for those who arrive late
Is it hampering sales? Yes, the sales team cannot function at full capacity until everyone is at work
Is it causing conflict among people?
Yes, the conflict stems from not everyone doing the same amount of work
Is it an everyday occurrence or is it infrequent?
Yes, it seems to be happening every day
Is it affecting personnel and their productivity?
Yes, Productivity is very low until about 09h00
Is it common or unusual? Common
Is it affecting goals and if yes, which ones?
Yes, sales target goals and team work effectiveness
Is it affecting customers, vendors and any other external people?
Yes, it is affecting customers and vendors that want to speak to specific people early in the morning, but who are not available as they are late for work.
Step Five: Classify the Type of Problem
Is it basically a problem which occurred in the past and the main concern is to make certain that it doesn't occur again?
No, it seems to be here to stay
Is it a problem which currently exists and the main concern is to clear up the situation?
No, it seems to be a constant
Is it a problem which might occur in the future and the basic concerns are planning and taking
No, it seems to be a problem that is going to be here
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action before the problem arises?
Step Six: Do More ResearchI sent out a questionnaire to all the departments at our offices to find more details and specifics about the identified problem. I used the above questions as the basis for the questionnaire.
Step Seven: Gather and Review the InformationFrom the questionnaire that I sent out to all the departments at our offices, it seems that about 20% of the staff is affected by the public bus service in the East Rand areas.
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Additional research has revealed the following: What has previously been done in
regards to this problem?Nothing has been done in our company
What have other companies done?
ABC company has implemented a company bus service free of charge to their employees.XYZ company has a similar service but charge the normal public bus rates to their employees
What formal knowledge might you need to acquire?
Public bus service timetables and routesCost information incurred by ABC and XYZ companies
What has been learned from past experience?
That the problem does not go away if you ignore it.Happy staff are productive
What do experts say about the problem?
The Department of Transport is aware of the problem and are trying to rectify it.
The Actual Problem Answer:The actual problem can then be defined as 20% of our company’s employees are late for work due to the inefficiency of the public bus service in the East Rand area.
Formative Assessment 1 SO1 EEK1, 2 & 3
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2. ENGAGE WITH STAKEHOLDERS IN ANALYSING THE PROBLEM AND DEVELOPING
SOLUTIONS
Specific Outcome Engage with stakeholders in analysing the issue/problem and developing solutions.
Outcome Range Stakeholders include team members from own unit, managers and staff from other units
in the entity, suppliers and customers.
Assessment Criteria The purpose of the consultation is communicated to stakeholders with reference to the
aspects of the issue/problem and solutions to be discussed. The critical and analytical processes for analysing the issue/problem and generating
ideas on addressing the issue/problem are explained with examples. The participation of stakeholders is obtained in analysing the unit's internal and external
environment to identify factors relevant to the issue/problem. The participation of team members is obtained in developing solutions to the
issue/problem that would contribute towards the functioning of the unit and the broader system within which it operates.
The different ideas, values and perspectives of team members and stakeholders are recognised and respected in view of the value they add to the solution developed.
Engaging with Stakeholders in Analysing the Problem and Developing Solutions
We have seen that the best way to work through a problem is to follow an orderly and linear process, working from problem to solution. The process would usually start by understanding and defining the problem. This involves gathering and analysing data and other evidence and consulting with stakeholders. Once the problem is specified, and the evidence and stakeholder views are analysed, options and a preferred option can be determined. Outcomes and outputs are identified, implementation plans are designed and performance targets specified. The more complex the problem is, the more important it is to follow this orderly flow.
Communicate the Purpose of Consultation to StakeholdersThe preliminary problem assessment and analysis help to determine which individuals and groups need to be involved directly in actions to manage the problem, and whether and how to proceed with actions. Initial stakeholder analysis often results in a long list of stakeholders who are to some degree affected or influenced by the outcome of a problem. Deciding on the final list of stakeholders can take time. Sometimes practical constraints mean that the list has to be cut to include only essential stakeholders.
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In other situations, a wider involvement is necessary in order to obtain enough information on and understanding of the causes and perceptions of the problem. In the end, it is important to be clear about who agreed the list of stakeholders, when, and for what reasons it was kept short or long. For stakeholder support of your problem-solving effort to be most effective, stakeholders or their representatives should be engaged, where practical, from the earliest possible opportunity. Do not wait until a plan is developed and actions are to be implemented before engaging the various stakeholders.Since time is usually at a premium for meeting participants, it is important that the participants understand why they are at the meeting and what the expected outcomes of the meeting are:
Explain that the purpose of the meeting is to conduct a problem-solving session Explain how your unit will use the outcome of the meeting – that the results are
important because the information will serve as a foundation for the unit’s workforce and strategic planning.
Before beginning the problem-solving part of the meeting, establish ground rules (an agreed upon set of norms on how the meeting and in particular the problem-solving sessions will be conducted)
Acknowledge existing actions and solutions by the stakeholders, and inform them that these will be used as a base from which to consider extended or improved stakeholder engagement opportunities.
If stakeholders are involved from the early stages of the problem-solving process, mutually agreed processes and timelines can be developed, stakeholder priorities and concerns can be incorporated, and mutual trust and positive working relationships can be built.
Explain the Processes for Analysing and Generating IdeasExplain the critical and analytical processes for analysing the issue/problem and generating ideas on addressing the issue/problem to the stakeholders. Select the problem-solving and decision-making techniques that you are most comfortable with using, and get the stakeholders involved by practising the techniques in a group situation; for example:
Group BrainstormingIf you are planning a group brainstorming session, take time before the session to develop some ideas. Failing to do some independent thinking beforehand might limit your creativity, because the ideas of others might influence how you view the problem solving or the decision.
Five why’sPractise the method using simple examples from everyday life before tackling the problem at hand, e.g.
Why is our client, ABC, unhappy? Because we did not deliver our services when we said we would.
Why were we unable to meet the agreed-upon timeline or schedule for delivery? The job took much longer than we thought it would.
Why did it take so much longer? Because we underestimated the complexity of the job.
Why did we underestimate the complexity of the job? Because we made a quick estimate of the time needed to complete it, and did not list the individual stages needed to complete the project.
Why didn't we do this? Because we were running behind on other projects.
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Conclusion: We clearly need to review our time estimation and specification procedures.Remind stakeholders to base proposed root causes (answer to the "why" questions) on direct observation and not speculation or deduction. If you cannot see or observe "why" firsthand then you are only guessing. Obviously guessing is counterproductive. Masters of the technique enforce precision by asking the 5 Whys again for each proposed root-cause - only this time asking why the team thinks the proposed root-cause is correct.To validate those potential root causes that are under your control, you can apply the following validations to your answers or root causes. Ask the following questions for every possible root-cause you identify at all levels of the 5 Whys:
Is there any proof (something you can measure or observe) to support this root-cause determination?
Is there any history or knowledge to indicate that the possible root-case could actually produce such a Problem?
Is there anything "underneath" the possible root-cause that could be a more probable root cause?
Is there anything that this possible root-cause requires in order to produce the Problem? Are there any other causes that could possibly produce the same Problem?
If you add these validating questions and results to the description of the problem and your questions and answers, you will produce a much clearer indication of the Problem and you may identify other possible solutions. If you diagram this process, you will end up with a tree of factors leading up to the problem. Even if you do not come to a resolution, the understanding of the issue or problem is greatly enhanced, often providing direction for further diagnosis. Drawing Ishikawa (cause-and-effect or "fishbone") diagrams on the flipchart makes the 5 Whys an especially effective tool for group problem-solving.
Obtain Participation of StakeholdersBy obtaining the participation of the stakeholders in analysing the unit's internal and external environment to identify factors relevant to the issue/problem you achieve the following:
Generation of more solutions Buy-in and commitment of all stakeholders as they have been involved in the process
from the beginning and thus take ownership.Some suggestions for encouraging stakeholder participation during your brainstorming sessions include the following:
Encourage open discussion by making it clear at the outset that everyone's input will be valued. Emphasise that creative disagreement is essential to the development of alternatives, but it should never be personal.
Suggest that people try to think “outside the box”. They should focus on what is best for the group using all of the available information.
Provide guidance at the end of the brainstorming session by assigning actions and deadlines so people know what to do to move the process forward.
Recognise and thank people who share their ideas and viewpoints in a positive manner—especially those who are willing to take the risk to challenge you.
Obtain Participation of Team Members Of course your team members are the ones who will be implementing the solutions and
so they are the most important stakeholders of all. It is therefore imperative that you obtain their participation in developing solutions to the issue/problem that would
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contribute towards the effective functioning of the unit and the broader system within which it operates.
Besides, your team members are your most effective consultants as they deal with problems in the unit daily and are intimately acquainted with the constraints and possible solutions.
Team Decision-Making BarriersYou should ensure that the barriers that the team has are overcome in order to solve problems and make decisions:
There can be different types of disagreements in groups. Some disagreements that hinder decision making are harmful, while those that help the group to reach a decision need to be encouraged. As a result, we must understand and recognise the difference between constructive disagreement and destructive disagreement.
Another decision making barrier that prevents team members from expressing ideas freely is groupthink. When a group has been together for a long time, they tend to think alike. Therefore they could make decisions quickly based on incomplete information, failing to consider alternatives and risks.
Recognise and Respect Ideas, Values and PerspectivesA successful team is a result of two things: mutual respect among team members and a common vision about where the team is going. The different ideas, values and perspectives of team members and stakeholders must be recognised and respected in view of the value they add to the solution developed as a group.There is strong evidence (e.g. research by Meredith Belbin [1981] on team effectiveness) that groups which have a diverse mix of experience, skills, knowledge and approach to work, are generally more creative and productive than groups with a more uniform profile. Diversity is therefore a valuable organisational asset and people should be encouraged to perceive it as such.Encourage team members to acknowledge:
The experiences, skills, knowledge and approaches which they themselves contribute in their work with other team members
The contribution their team members make to their work, especially by introducing different perspectives and ideas
Ways in which their own personal attributes and those of their colleagues complement one another and work together to deliver required results
“Walk the talk” by demonstrating through your management style that you value and respond to the differences in your team members:
Identify what each member needs from you as his/her leader Review your management style and the message it sends out about your attitude
towards diversity.- are you seen to be treating everyone equally and with respect?
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Formative Assessment 2
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3. SELECT FEASIBLE SOLUTIONS THROUGH A SYSTEMS APPROACH
Specific Outcome Select feasible solutions through a systems approach.
Assessment Criteria The inputs from stakeholders are analysed to identify feasible solutions to the
issue/problem that would improve the functioning of the unit and the broader system within which it operates.
The identified solutions are prioritised in terms of their potential outcomes on the various processes/sections in the unit, the wider entity and external stakeholders.
A solution(s) is selected that is most appropriate within a systems context taking into consideration interrelated issues that impact on the solution and areas that will be impacted upon by the implementation of the solution.
Selecting Feasible Solutions through a Systems Approach
Creating the right context for the decision-making process is critical to making successful choices. This consists of:
Selecting the right people to participate in the process Choosing an approach for making the actual decision Creating a climate that promotes healthy debate and allows for diverse viewpoints Recognising obstacles
Decision making is made difficult by common, often unconscious, obstacles that frequently inhibit a decision maker's ability to determine the optimal choice. Such obstacles include:
individual biases and unproductive group dynamics.
While it is almost impossible to eliminate these obstacles, recognising them in yourself and in the members of your group will help you make more objective decisions.
Individual biasesHere are some common examples of biases that managers encounter when making decisions. Bias toward the familiar and toward past successes Bias toward assumptions rather than fact Bias toward accepting our opinion as fact Group dynamicsOne of the advantages to treating decision making as a group process is that individual biases can be counteracted by the presence of multiple voices and perspectives. But while groups offer different viewpoints, they need guidance to be productive. As a supervisor you need to manage the group decision making process. Otherwise, you may find yourself confronted with one of the following extremes.
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Groupthink: Groupthink occurs when individuals want to be accepted in a group or they lack interest in the process. This could result in individual opinions not being heard and agreeing for the sake of agreeing.
Excessive individualism: Excessive individualism is at the opposite end of the spectrum from group think. In this situation, individuals engage in aggressive behaviour, placing stakes in the ground, relentlessly arguing their positions. They disregard the opinions of other group members and fail to consider the common good.
Analyse Inputs from StakeholdersThe inputs from the stakeholders are analysed to identify feasible solutions to the issue/problem that would improve the functioning of the unit and the broader system within which it operates.Once you have identified the alternatives you'll consider, the next step is to evaluate those alternatives and make a final decision:
Considering variables - You assess the alternatives by seeing how well each one meets the objectives you established at the outset of the process. Here are some variables managers weigh when evaluating an alternative: Costs: How much will the alternative cost? Will it result in a cost savings now or
over the long-term? Are there any hidden costs? Are there likely to be additional costs down the road? Does this alternative meet budget constraints?
Benefits: What kind of profits will we realise if we implement this alternative? Will customer satisfaction increase?
Intangibles: Will our reputation improve if we implement this alternative? Time: How long will it take to implement this alternative? Could there be delays? Feasibility: Can this alternative be implemented realistically? Are there any
obstacles that must be overcome? Resources: How many people are needed to implement this alternative? Are they
available? Risks: What are the risks associated with this alternative?
Prioritise Identified SolutionsIn this step the identified solutions are prioritised in terms of their potential outcomes on the various processes/sections in the unit, the wider organisation and external stakeholders:
Determining consequences - To determine the consequences of your decision options, you should complete two steps: Think from a future perspective. Write a detailed description.
1. Thinking from a future perspective - Imagine that each option is no longer just a possibility but is your final decision and that you have implemented it. Think of the results of the decision to implement each option. Ask yourself these questions to gain more insight about the possible consequences of each option:
How did the decision affect other decisions? What changes occurred in the jobs of those affected by the change? What effect did the decision have on those who implemented it? Is the decision appropriate when you consider the environmental changes that have
occurred after implementation?
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2. Writing a detailed description - Use facts, statistics, words, graphs and charts to describe the option. Compare each description to the objectives you set for this decision. You might determine that some of the options achieve objectives you did not originally consider. If the objective is something you really want to accomplish, include it in your objectives list. If it is not important, revise your options so that they are not limited by the objective.
The possibility of discovering unstated or unintended objectives makes it important to write a description. If you just start comparing options to objectives, the influence of unstated objectives might go unnoticed.After examining the possible consequences of each option, create a consequences table that compares each option to each objective. This table permits you to put all the information about each option in one place. As a result, you can make the best use of the information you have available. In complex decisions, you can use a consequences table to explain the important factors that helped you choose from the competing options. A sample consequences table is shown in the next diagram.
Select a SolutionFinally, a solution(s) is selected that is most appropriate within a systems context, taking into consideration interrelated issues that impact on the solution and areas that will be impacted upon by the implementation of the solution:In a perfect world, you would have all of the information you need and an unlimited amount of time to make a decision. Your choices would be clear and company politics would not influence your decision. Often, however, you need to make complex decisions quickly, with only partial information.Making a final choice among your possible decision options is an important and difficult step in the decision making process. Some sets of options might seem clearly superior or inferior, making it effortless to sort through them. Others might seem equally effective, making it much more difficult to choose the best of them.As you begin to make your final decision, apply these guidelines to help you determine the correct approach:
Consider the magnitude of the decision. Ask yourself how important the decision is and whether you should spend a lot of time and effort on it. Consider the repercussions you’ll face for making a poor decision.
Think about the complexity of the decision. Determine whether you need help to manage all the issues related to the decision. Ask yourself whether you can comprehend all the factors that influence the decision.
Contemplate how others will view your decision. Carefully consider how you will explain your decision to others. Saying that you feel the decision was the right choice will probably not be sufficient. You’ll need to explain your reasoning behind the decision.
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After you examine your options, it’s time to make a decision about which one to implement. At this point, it’s best to have a set of techniques to help you select the option that’s most appropriate for your situation. Some techniques are more complex than others and might require more time. You can select the simplest one, but don’t compromise reliability by oversimplifying the situation. Do not choose a technique based on ease of use. This might quicken the process, but speed is usually at the expense of reliability.
Three common techniques you can use to make your final decision are:1. Intuition - Intuition is the quickest and easiest way to choose an option to implement. An
intuitive decision can be made when you have faced the same or similar decisions multiple times. These situations need less analysis of the available options because you can apply your knowledge from experience. This technique is appropriate for situations where investing more time for analysis is not likely to improve your decision.
When you use intuition, it’s difficult to examine whether the process you used for the decision was good or bad, because there’s no clear process. For this reason, intuition is not the best method to use when you need to explain the reasons for your decision.While it might be tempting to rely solely on experience when making decisions, you might overlook important issues if you rely on this method. You may recall a situation in which a quick decision based on intuition turned out brilliantly. Nevertheless, you shouldn’t be deceived by these outcomes. Research suggests that most decisions based on intuition result in mediocre outcomes.
2. Rules - Although rules can help you save time and provide an explanation of how you reached your conclusions, you shouldn’t rely too heavily on them. Before applying the rules, you should consider whether they’re appropriate for the situation. Because rules don’t account for changes in the environment surrounding decisions, they can become outdated.Some rules you might encounter include industry- or occupation-specific guidelines, company policies and legal and regulatory needs. Other rules that provide simple methods of eliminating options are: Threshold rule. The threshold rule consists of creating a preset list of criteria that the
decision options need to meet. Then, you eliminate options that do not meet all the criteria. This method can produce a quick decision, but it’s frequently too strict and might cause you to overlook certain aspects of the option.
Ranking rule. The ranking rule consists of a list of criteria the decision should meet. In this method, the criteria are prioritised and the options are compared against each of them. Options that don’t meet a criterion are eliminated as you proceed. Eventually, you have just one option remaining. A pitfall of this method is that it tends to overemphasise the first criterion. In fact, you might eliminate high-quality options because they do not meet the first criterion, but they might meet or exceed all the remaining ones.
For example, let’s say you’re trying to decide which candidate you should choose for an open position. You compare all the candidates with the first criterion on your list, eliminating those that do not meet it. Then, you move on to the next criterion and so on until you have one applicant left. However, this method might not guarantee that you have selected the best person for the job. It is possible that one of the applicants you eliminated early in the process might have been strong in all the other job requirements.
3. Weighted-decision model - Using a weighted-decision model is helpful for complex decisions that involve the consideration of a large amount of information when making your decision. For these types of decisions, you need a technique that is more systematic than rules or intuition, either of which might oversimplify the situation. By using a systematic approach, you can explain complex decisions to others when you are seeking their approval or acceptance. The systematic approach also helps eliminate human inconsistency that might occur when you are stressed, tired, or bored.
To create a weighted-decision model, you should complete these five steps:
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1. Identify the factors that affect the method. Consider these factors carefully so that all aspects of the decision are represented in your list of factors. For example, if you need to decide which employee should be promoted to the new position, determine all the factors that are important in this decision.
2. Quantify each of the factors. Determine a scale by which they can be measured. Some factors might be quantitative, which makes them convenient to rate. However, for qualitative factors, you need to create a scale that helps you to express the information numerically. Create as many scales as you need to ensure that each factor is expressed in a meaningful manner. For example, to quantify the quality of individuals’ past performances you might create a scale that includes four levels, such as, did not meet expectations, met expectations, exceeded expectations and far exceeded expectations. You could assign these levels the numerical values of one through four, respectively.
3. Rate how each of your options fares on each factor. Assign each option the appropriate rating for the scales you created.
4. Apply weights to each of the factors. Compare the factors and determine which are more important. Assign a specific weight to each factor. A convenient way to accomplish this task is to allocate a specific percentage to each factor. All the percentages when combined should equal 100. You should consider carefully how to weight the factors, because emphasising the wrong factors will lead you to choose an option that does not meet your needs.
5. Calculate the weighted score of each option. Multiply the factor ratings by the weight you assigned to each factor. The result will give you weighted scores that will reflect how each option performed based on each factor. You can add the weighted scores to obtain the final weighted score for the option. The option with the highest score is the best choice.
Formative Assessment 3 SO3
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4. FORMULATE AND COMMUNICATE THE DECISION
Specific Outcome Formulate and communicate the decision.
Assessment Criteria The decision on addressing the issue/problem is formulated with reference to the impact
of the decision on the unit and the broader system within which it operates. Actions required to implement the decision in the unit are described with reference to
activities, role players, resources and time lines. Change processes that are required to support the implementation of the decision are
described with reference to their impact on the success of the implementation of the decision.
The decision is communicated to relevant team members in the unit and other stakeholders who will be involved in its implementation in a user-friendly format.
Formulating and Communicating the DecisionYour responsibility doesn't end with the decision. You need to turn the decision into action. The way you communicate the decision and plan for implementation will determine your success. Many managers overlook one of the most important aspects of the decision making process: communicating the decision to everyone involved in and affected by it. The people you notify will include everyone who is responsible for implementing the decision as well as anyone who is affected by it. Your list might also include the key stakeholders: members of your unit who were not part of the decision-making group, senior management, department supervisors, external constituents and even customers if they will see a change in the way you do business with them.
Formulate the Decision on Addressing the ProblemFormulate your decision on how to address the issue/problem with reference to the impact of the decision on the unit and the broader system within which it operates. Your decision document should include the following components:
Statement of the issue that needed to be addressed Description of the objectives or decision making criteria The names and roles of the people involved in making the decision and why they were
included The alternatives considered (and possibly a summary of the analysis in a table form) An explanation of the final decision and what it means for the key stakeholders The implementation plan and timeframe A request for feedback
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Describe the Actions Required to Implement the DecisionDescribe the actions required to implement the decision in the unit with reference to activities, role players, resources and time lines: Now that you have made a choice and communicated your decision to the appropriate people, it is time to identify the tasks that will be required to put the decision into action, assign resources and establish deadlines. Ideally, your team members will leave your final meeting knowing exactly what they're expected to do. If not, reconvene the group to identify who will be responsible for each task. Consider the following when implementing your decision:
Assign reasonable tasks with sufficient resources Clarify expectations Provide feedback on the implementation and recognise people's contributions
You should take five steps to ensure that the solution is implemented correctly:1 Create the action plan.2 Consult the affected personnel.3 Adjust the plan.4 Outline the final plan to appropriate personnel.5 Track the implementation.
1 Creating the action planYou should develop and document the action plan before implementing the solution. Attempting to implement the solution “on the fly” can permit mistakes, specifically communication errors. Documenting the action plan can help prevent communication errors.
2 Consulting the affected personnelAfter you document the entire action plan, you should present the plan to the individuals who will implement it and will be affected by the solution. This presentation should be a collaborative effort to gain support for the plan. You should be prepared to discuss the entire problem-solving process with the affected personnel and ask for their feedback. Be ready to answer their questions about how you arrived at your solution.
3 Adjusting the planBased on the input and suggestions of the affected personnel, you might need to adjust your action plan to accommodate any worthwhile suggestions that you receive. You should consider everything that was suggested. If you decide not to accept the suggestions, be prepared to discuss and explain your rationale.
4 Outlining the final plan to appropriate personnelYou should present the final plan to the employees affected by the decision. Address each of the concerns that were raised during consultation and any additional concerns that might be raised at this time. It is essential that the individuals responsible for implementing the solution understand and accept it. After outlining the plan and gaining the acceptance of the responsible individuals, you are ready to implement the solution. It is possible that some individuals will resist change. If this happens, you cannot permit their resistance to stall or cancel your plan. If these resisting individuals report to you, they will need to accept the plan based on your authority. If they report to someone else, you’ll need to enlist the cooperation of that manager to ensure the completion of their responsibilities.
5 Track implementation
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Depending on the complexity and time span of your solution, there are several ways to track its progress. The more the time and effort needed to implement a solution, the more detailed your tracking plan needs to be. You can track your solution by using these tools: Meetings - Meetings are the standard for tracking many business functions. They help
you collect information from your problem-solving team or from the people affected by the solution. This information is critical because the perception of the involved parties will determine the success of the solution.
Milestones - Milestones are small goals that lead to the implementation of the solution. They are established points in time or in the process that permit you to measure the success of the implemented solution. Milestones are tasks that are specific, quantifiable and measurable. If a task is complicated and contains many steps, it should contain milestones that reflect the sub-steps needed to complete it.
Describe the Change Processes Required to Support the Implementation
Describe the change processes that are required to support the implementation of the decision with reference to their impact on the success of the implementation:
Change management entails thoughtful planning and sensitive implementation, and above all, consultation with, and involvement of, the people affected by the changes. If you force change on people, problems normally arise.
Check that people affected by the change agree with, or at least understand, the need for change, and have a chance to decide how the change will be managed, and to be involved in the planning and implementation of the change.
If you’ve done your planning properly, your envisaged change processes will be realistic, achievable and measurable.
American John P Kotter is a Harvard Business School professor and leading thinker and author on organisational change management. Kotter's highly regarded books 'Leading Change' (1995) and the follow-up 'The Heart Of Change' (2002) describe a helpful model for understanding and managing change. Each stage acknowledges a key principle identified by Kotter relating to people's response and approach to change, in which people see, feel and then change.
Kotter's eight step change model11 can be summarised as:1. Increase urgency - inspire people to move, make objectives real and relevant. 2. Build the guiding team - get the right people in place with the right emotional
commitment, and the right mix of skills and levels.3. Get the vision right - get the team to establish a simple vision and strategy, focus on
emotional and creative aspects necessary to drive service and efficiency.4. Communicate for buy-in - Involve as many people as possible, communicate the
essentials, simply, and to appeal and respond to people's needs. De-clutter communications - make technology work for you rather than against.
5. Empower action - Remove obstacles, enable constructive feedback and lots of support from leaders - reward and recognise progress and achievements.
6. Create short-term wins - Set aims that are easy to achieve - in bite-size chunks. Manageable numbers of initiatives. Finish current stages before starting new ones.
7. Don't let up - Foster and encourage determination and persistence - ongoing change - encourage ongoing progress reporting - highlight achieved and future milestones.
8. Make change stick - Reinforce the value of successful change via recruitment, promotion, new change leaders. Weave change into culture.
11 Retrieved from: http://www.businessballs.com/changemanagement.htm
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Communicate the DecisionCommunicate the decision in a user-friendly format:Face-to-face communication is always preferable, as it allows for feedback and discussion, but if you want to use a written format, ensure that you tailor the communication to the audience:A basic principle in developing any written communication is when content is developed in a user friendly format and adjusted to meet the needs of the consumer, readability increases and message effectiveness is enhanced.In writing for today's electronic medium, key factors in developing and formatting content can be basically boiled down to three fundamental principles or rules for electronic content. If these rules are followed and applied to material developed for electronic distribution, content will become user friendly and messages will be more effective.
The Three Fundamental Rules12:Rule 1 - Reduce Written Content by 50 PercentUsers read content slower from a computer screen when compared to a paper based document so material prepared for electronic distribution should be reduced by as much as 50 percent when compared to a typical paper based document and the overall content should be as brief as possible.
Rule 2 - Do Not Use Large Chunks of Text In any electronic document or Web page, users do not like to scroll through documents or see large chunks of text so the average paragraph should not exceed 50 words.
Rule 3 - Use Hypertext, Headings, Highlights, Bulleted Lists
Users tend to scan written material and do not read electronic content word for word so material should be developed in chunks of information with easy to find headings, highlights, bulleted list and hyperlinks.
Remember:Whichever, format you decide to use, providing incomplete communication about your decision can lead to confusion, disappointment and unwillingness to support its implementation.
Formative Assessment 4 SO4
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENTS WORKBOOKFormative Assessment 1 SO1 EEK1, 2 & 3Apply Critical and Analytical Skills to Analyse a ProblemIn small groups or individually as per your facilitator’s instructions, complete the following:
1.1 In small groups discuss:a) The concept of a problem
12 Retrieved from: http://auxpa.org/weblog/blogs/blog7.php/2009/02/24/how-to-communicate-more-effectively
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b) The concept of a challengec) The difference between problem-solving and decision-making
Write your answers here:
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Work together in small groups on the following scenario:
ABC company has implemented a new customer database software program. There have been many complaints about the new program and it does not seem to be working as was expected.
a) Describe the matter that requires a decision and provide at least two alternative decisions that can be made in this situation
b) Describe the problem in this situationc) Describe the challenge in this situationd) Describe how your attitude could help or hinder this situation
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Formative Assessment 2 SO2Engage with Stakeholders in Analysing the Problem and Developing SolutionsIn small groups or individually as per your facilitator’s instructions, complete the following
2.1 List all the stakeholders that are directly or indirectly affected by the problem you have identified and say how they are affected:
Stakeholder How affected
2.2 Describe what you will say to your stakeholders:
Explain that the purpose of the meeting is to conduct a problem-solving session to…
Explain how your unit will use the outcome of the meeting – that the results are
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important because the information will serve as a foundation for the unit’s workforce and strategic planning to...
Before beginning the problem-solving part of the meeting, establish ground rules (an agreed upon set of norms on how the meeting and in particular the problem-solving sessions will be conducted)
Acknowledge existing actions and solutions by the stakeholders, and inform them that these will be used as a base from which to consider extended or improved stakeholder engagement opportunities.
2.3 You need to explain the critical and analytical processes for analysing the issue/problem and generating ideas on addressing the issue/problem to the stakeholders. Come up with 3 activities that you can use to explain the processes to them practically:
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2.4 Explain how you will ensure that you obtain the participation of the stakeholders is in analysing the unit's internal and external environment to identify factors relevant to the issue/problem:
2.5 Explain why the participation of your team members is necessary in developing solutions to the issue/problem you have identified. Be specific about their contributions:
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2.6 List 5 of your most involved team members and/or stakeholders and describe the special contributions they make to the unit in terms of:
Stakeholder/ team member
Ideas Values Perspectives
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Formative Assessment 3 SO3Select Feasible Solutions through a Systems ApproachIn small groups or individually as per your facilitator’s instructions, complete the following:
3.1 The inputs from stakeholders are analysed to identify feasible solutions to the issue/problem that would improve the functioning of the unit and the broader system within which it operates:
Describe the 3 alternative solutions to the problem identified in Activity 1 according to the following criteria:
Criterion Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative 3
Costs: How much will the alternative cost? Will it result in a cost savings now or over the long-term? Are there any hidden costs? Are there likely to be additional costs down the road? Does this alternative meet budget constraints?
Benefits: What kind of profits will we realise if we implement this alternative? Will customer satisfaction increase?
Intangibles: Will our reputation improve if we implement this alternative?
Time: How long will it take to implement this alternative? Could there be delays?
Feasibility: Can this alternative be implemented realistically? Are there any obstacles that must be overcome?
Resources: How many people are
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needed to implement this alternative? Are they available?
Risks: What are the risks associated with this alternative?
Costs: How much will the alternative cost? Will it result in a cost savings now or over the long-term? Are there any hidden costs? Are there likely to be additional costs down the road? Does this alternative meet budget constraints?
Benefits: What kind of profits will we realise if we implement this alternative? Will customer satisfaction increase?
Intangibles: Will our reputation improve if we implement this alternative?
3.2 Describe and prioritise the 3 solutions in terms of their potential outcomes on the various processes/sections in the unit, the wider entity and external stakeholders:
Alternative Impact on processes/unit
Impact on organisation
Impact on external stakeholders
A
B
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C
3.3 A solution(s) is selected that is most appropriate within a systems context taking into consideration interrelated issues that impact on the solution and areas that will be impacted upon by the implementation of the solution:
Use the weighted decision method to select your solution:
Alternative Cost Easy to implement
Feasible Will Help Other Processes
Total
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Formative Assessment 4 SO44.1 Write a statement in which you formulate the decision on addressing the
issue/problem clearly and completely. Refer to the impact of the decision on the unit and the broader system within which it operates:
4.2 Describe 5 actions required to implement the decision in the unit with reference to 88
activities, role players, resources and time lines
Activities Responsible person
Resources required
Deadlines/duration
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4.3 Describe the change processes that are required to support the implementation of the decision with reference to their impact on the success of the implementation:a) What is going to change in terms of people, procedures and priorities?b) Explain how each change is going to impact the success of the implementation
Change process What is going to change? Impact on implementation
People
Procedures
Priorities
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4.4 Communicate the decision to relevant team members in the unit and other stakeholders who will be involved in its implementation in a user-friendly format:
Write the notice you will send out to the stakeholders, remembering to pay attention to the three rules in your Learner Guide:
Rule 1 - Reduce Written Content by 50 Percent
Rule 2 - Do Not Use Large Chunks of Text
Rule 3 - Use Hypertext, Headings, Highlights, Bulleted Lists
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Place any extra evidence after this page, clearly marked for easy reference.
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References and Further Reading De Beer, A & Rossouw, P. Operational Management. 2005. Juta: Cape Town. De Bono, E. Serious Creativity. 1992. HarperCollins: New York. De Bono, E. Six Thinking Hats. 1986. Little & Brown: New York. De Bono, E. Serious Creativity. 1992. HarperCollins: New York. De Bono, E. Six Action Shoes. 1991. HarperCollins Business Books: London. Browne, M & Keeley, S 2001, Asking the right questions: a guide to critical thinking, 6th
edn, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J. Windschuttle, K & Elliot, E 1999, Writing, researching, communicating: communication
skills for the information age, 3rd edn, McGraw-Hill, Sydney http: // www.edwarddenon.com/ http: // www.margategroup.com/ http: // www.mycoted.com/ http: // www.thefreedictionary.com/ http: // www.mindtools.com/ http://www.csulb.edu/~tstevens/index.html http://www.decision-making-confidence.com/kepner-tregoe-decision-making.html http://www.itsmsolutions.com/newsletters/DITYvol5iss39.htm http://www.businessballs.com/changemanagement.htm http://auxpa.org/weblog/blogs/blog7.php/2009/02/24/how-to-communicate-more-
effectively
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