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Hong Kong Observatoryand Social DevelopmentHo Pui-yin

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Foreword x

Preface xii

Acknowledgements xviii

Part I Man and Nature 1

1. Hong Kong’s Climate 2

General Introduction 4

Hong Kong’s Climate as Depicted in Old Chinese Texts 8

Hong Kong Meteorological Reports in the Mid-Nineteenth Century:

Forerunner of Microscopic Reporting 34

An Interpretation of Meteorological Data 44

A Preliminary Evaluation of Meteorological Data for the 1844 to 1883

Period 44

• Temperature 44

• Rainfall 46

• Relative Humidity 48

Main Features of Weather in the 1884 to 2002 Period 48

• Temperature 48

• Rainfall 50

• Relative Humidity 50

Conclusion 52

2. A Review of Natural Disasters of the Past 54

Typhoons 56

Origins of Nomenclature 58

Frequency of Occurrences 64

Deadliest Typhoons 68

OPCONTENTS

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Toll 74

• Human Casualties 74

• Destruction and Damage of Vessels 78

• Collapse of Houses 86

• Economic Losses 96

Heavy Rainstorms 106

Very Cold Weather 124

Very Hot Weather 128

Dry Weather and Droughts 132

Conclusion 140

Part II Ushering in a New Era 143

3. Establishment and Early Services of the Observatory 144

The Founding of the Observatory 146

Naming of the Observatory 158

Initiation of Preparatory Work 168

Guardian of Seafarers 170

Marine Meteorological Information Centre 170

Raising the Quality and Quantity of Marine Meteorological Information 174

New Time Services 180

Use of the Time Ball 180

Wireless Time Signal Service 190

Differences Between Chinese and Western Time Services 194

Aviation Centre of the Asia-Pacific Region 206

Upper Air Pilot Balloon Sounding 206

Upper Air Aircraft Sounding 208

Earthquake Monitoring 212

Establishment of the Seismological Section 212

Enhancing Exchange With the International Community 218

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Trials of War 218

Conclusion 228

4. Modernisation of the City 232

Post-war Regeneration 234

Reorganisation of Structure 240

Allocation of Resources 246

Urban Construction 250

Tidal Predictions 252

Hydrometeorology 256

New Developments With the New Airport 264

Environmental Monitoring 272

Radiation Monitoring 274

Ultraviolet Index Application 280

Prepared for a Rainy Day 286

Weather Forecasting 286

• Improvement in Weather Forecasting 288

• Improved Accuracy 294

Evolution of Warning Signals 304

• Typhoon Warning Signals 304

• Other Warnings for Severe Weather 316

Relief for the Needy 320

• Priceless Life 322

• Improved Living Conditions 332

• Disaster Relief Measures 332

Conclusion 336

Conclusion 340

Notes 348

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FOREWORDWind whispering, rain rattling, students reciting, I hear;Family issues, state matters, world affairs, myself endear.

- classical Chinese doublets

Traditional Chinese intellectuals looked at the world with wisdom and benevolence, quietlysensed the rhythm and the evolution of Nature and empathised with the turns and sufferingsof Humankind. Come rain or shine, hot or cold, our task at the Hong Kong Observatoryis to keep watch over the weather, with a commitment to protect the public from harm;perhaps silently following the footsteps of our ancient counterparts.

The Hong Kong Observatory was established in the late nineteenth century. It wasbrought about by the wish of the Western scientific community to collect data aboutnature. It was also a response to the call of the local community for better warning servicesafter a series of typhoon onslaughts. Therefore, since its inception the Observatory has tolive with the inherent tension between science and service. This has very much shaped themetamorphosis of the Observatory all through the years.

One hundred twenty years have elapsed. The Hong Kong Observatory hascontinuously introduced new services to keep pace with the development of Hong Kong.Be it marine or aviation weather services, astronomy or seismology, time service or warningsof typhoon and rainstorm, the demands of the community are always ahead of what scienceand technology could offer. Generations of Observatory staff have been, and still are,committed to ensure that all the available science and technology are used to advance thework of the Observatory.

The history of the Hong Kong Observatory is not just a chronicle of changinginstruments or evolving services, but the fruits of the aspirations and dedication of its staff.No meteorologist can escape from the curse of wrong forecasts and the associated barrage ofpublic criticism. Rather than being defeated or deterred, the men and women of theObservatory have persevered with their work, buttressed by their faith in science and theirpassion to serve. The compilation of meteorological records during the very difficult timewhen the Director and his staff were interned in Stanley camp 60 years ago is but onetestament to the unyielding professionalism of the people of the Observatory. It is also aperennial reminder to us that in times good or bad, we shall always work hard and carry outour mission.

Wisdom shines, heavenly secrets untold,Benevolence rises, human virtues behold.

This book is dedicated to the staff of the Hong Kong Observatory, past andpresent.

C. Y. LamDirector of the Hong Kong Observatory

8 October 2003

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PREFACEMuch has been written about the evolving functions and organisational changes of theHong Kong Observatory since its founding in 1883, leaving very little ground to coverwhen one endeavours to write on the history of the Observatory again. However, whenwe re-examine closely its development process, we find that the functions of the Observatoryand its subsequent expansion are inseparably tied to the overall progress of Hong Kongsociety. Since its inception in the nineteenth century, the Hong Kong Observatory hasattended to the changing needs of society and continually improved its services to complementeconomic reforms, becoming a driving force behind social restructuring. Thus, the followingresearch study is not a mere retelling of the 120-year history of the Observatory, it is also aportrayal of the development of Hong Kong society during that period.

The book is divided into four chapters. Chapter 1, ‘Hong Kong’s Climate’, is acomprehensive review based on historical documents and meteorological data between1841 and 2002, in order to gain an understanding of the climatic characteristics and themajor obstacles encountered in Hong Kong's early development. Before 1884, the bulk ofthe data originated from the meteorological reports from government departments, such asVictoria Gaol, the Police Force, the hospitals and the Harbour Master’s Office. From 1884onwards, the Observatory was the principal provider of meteorological data.

The small and hilly Hong Kong Island was neither geographically nor climaticallyendowed. Not only was it desperately short of natural resources and developable land, itwas also handicapped by an inhospitable climate. It was humid for most of the year andthe summer months were extremely hot. Such weather conditions were unbearable forthe Europeans who started to arrive in the nineteenth century for trade. Each year,between the months of May and September, residents on the island lived in constant fearof attacks by inclement weather conditions. The capricious climate triggered naturaldisasters such as floods and landslides, toppled building structures, brought droughts andhence limiting drinking water supply. Not only did the inhabitants suffer economically,their lives and properties also came under severe threat.

According to available records, Hong Kong was frequently struck by natural disastersin the past — a major hindrance to its development in the early years. An evaluation ofthe meteorological data from the mid-nineteenth to twenty-first centuries can give usefulinsights into the development of Hong Kong society. Chapter 2, ‘A Review of NaturalDisasters of the Past’, makes extensive use of historical materials and describes in depththe various types of natural disasters that the territory had endured since 1844. Thesedisasters included typhoons, rainstorms, severe sustained droughts, cold and very hotweather, which are analysed for their impact on the livelihood of the public. The narrationof the disasters of the past shows how the unpredictable climate had suppressed thedevelopment of Hong Kong in the early years, and how the government was faced withthis daunting challenge while securing the establishment and growth of the city.

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The third chapter, ‘Establishment and Early Services of the Observatory’, coversthe era that starts from the establishment of the Observatory and ends with the outbreakof the Second World War. This section investigates the reasoning behind the establishmentof the Observatory, the meaning of the term ‘observatory’, and the role it played duringthe initial years. The findings show why Hong Kong has secured its position as themaritime trade hub in the Asia Pacific region by the end of the nineteenth century, andsubsequently as the aviation centre in the Far East by the early 1930s.

The two major elements for building a modern city are population growth andrestructuring of economic activities, with the development pace largely determined bytheir interactions. For Hong Kong’s successful transformation from a mere fishing villageinto a thriving entrepôt in the Asia Pacific region, and eventually an international financialcentre, its development direction was largely set by government policies. The foundingof the Observatory saw the replacement of traditional Chinese meteorological observationmethods by new cultural concepts introduced from the West. The services that it provided— geomagnetic measurements, meteorological observations and time service — weregreat navigational aids to the trading vessels and fishermen. They enabled Hong Kong tobecome the de facto navigational compass in Asia Pacific by the end of the nineteenthcentury, and confirmed Hong Kong’s position as a premier entrepôt port. The aviationmeteorological services introduced by the Observatory in the 1930s, in support of theaviation industry, catapulted Hong Kong to become the No. 1 airfreight centre in theFar East.

Before the Second World War, the observation equipment at the disposal of theObservatory was rather primitive; observations and forecasting had to rely largely on theknowledge, skills and tenacity of the Observatory staff. Their perseverance and dedicationto scientific research ensured the smooth launch and expansion of meteorologicalobservation services. This attitude was especially reflected during the Japanese occupation,when recording of observation results were performed by a few Observatory staffimprisoned in the concentration camp. Thus, the Hong Kong Observatory was the onlygovernment department that continued to discharge its duties during the occupation.

The fourth chapter, ‘Modernisation of the City’, covers the era from the liberationof Hong Kong in 1945 until 2003. The emphasis is on the multifaceted services offeredby the Observatory and its changing functions. The aim is to observe the contributionsmade by meteorological services towards the city's modernisation and the influence theyexert on the daily lives of the people.

After the war, Hong Kong developed at a rapid pace and modern technologies hada profound influence on urban construction. During the modernisation process theObservatory rendered supporting services, such as the tidal assessment work for reclamationprojects to help determine the extent of reclamation; and the provision of data on typhoons,wind direction and strength and projections to ensure the safety of building structures.

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These services have made a substantial contribution to the prosperity of Hong Kong’sconstruction and building industry. To assist the building of the new international airport,the Observatory conducted windshear monitoring and produced aviation meteorologicalreports to assure safe operation. With the support of the Observatory, the city has beenable to expand gradually with notable success.

In response to the needs of the community, the Observatory has expanded itsservice to cover areas that have direct impact on everyday life, and the community hascome to regard its services as a compass for daily activities. The application of radar andsatellite technologies in meteorological observations has enabled the Observatory to gaina more accurate understanding of the pattern of nature’s changes, so its forecasting canminimise interruption to economic activities and daily living. The precautionary warningservices provided for typhoons, thunderstorms, rainstorms, landslips, hill fires, cold weather,very hot weather, and information on ultraviolet radiation index and radiation levelshave become an essential part of our lives.

Beginning from the last part of the nineteenth century, meteorological observationservices made use of the little available data to service the transoceanic navigational needsof the mariners. By the twenty-first century, the emphasis has shifted to the application ofnew technologies and the development and maintenance of close liaisons with localgovernment departments and meteorological agencies in other parts of the world. TheObservatory has continued to introduce new services and achieve a marked improvementsin terms of accuracy and scope in the past 120 years, and its pursuit of excellence symbolisesthe progress of Hong Kong society.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe impact Hong Kong’s weather on the development of city has been widelydiscussed. Going through the historical material, one finds that the information onHong Kong’s climate is largely made up of sad memories of natural catastrophes;there is hardly any analysis made on the relationship between the climate and HongKong society’s development. In early 2002, with financial support from the HongKong Observatory, work commenced on this worthwhile research project titledHong Kong Observatory and Hong Kong Social Development (1883–2003). Having beenreviewed by experts and scholars, the research findings are published at the end of2003 with funding provided by the Observatory. As a new source of social study,this book serves the general public of Hong Kong and all who have an interest in thesocial history of Hong Kong. I am most grateful to the contributions made by theHong Kong Observatory to this worthwhile cause.

Many scientists of the Hong Kong Observatory have rendered invaluableassistance in explaining to me the highly technical meteorological data. They include:Mr Lam Chiu-ying, Dr Lam Hung-kwan, Mr Yeung Kai-hing, Dr Wong Ming-chung, Dr Lee Boon-ying, Mr Leung Wing-mo, Mr Chan Hong-ping, Mr ChanChik-cheung, Mr Chan Yuk-kwan, Dr Tam Cheuk-ming, Mr Tse Ming-ho,Dr Lee Tze-cheung, Mr Ng Cho-hing, Mr Cheng Siu-ming, Mr Kwok Wei-hing,Mr Chu Wing-ki, Mr Cheung Yiu-kun, Mr Lo Gun, Mr Lui Yau-lok, Mr MokHing-yim, Mr Tam Kwong-hung, Mr Yeung Tak-lam, Ms Lau Sum-yee, Dr ChangWen-lan and Mr Hui Tai-wai. I have learned much through the unfailing patienceof the Observatory staff, who have explained to me the detailed workings of theObservatory and the meteorological data. The analyses of this study draw upon thehistorical records kept by the Hong Kong Observatory, as well as past Hong Kongmeteorological data. Other organisations have also provided valuable supporting sourcematerial, including: the History Department of the Chinese University of HongKong, the Chinese University libraries, the Hong Kong Institute of Asia-PacificStudies, the Hong Kong University libraries, the Public Records Office, the HongKong Museum of History, the photographic library of the Information ServicesDepartment and the Hong Kong Science Museum. This material has complementedthe records furnished by the Hong Kong Observatory and made the research morecomprehensive and objective. I wish to offer my deepest thanks to the above-mentioned experts, scholars, organisations and institutes.

My research team members: Miss Wong Man-han, Miss Lau Chung-yan,Mr Wong Ka-kin, Miss Cheng Ling-ling, Mr Ngan Ngo-chai have worked tirelesslyin collecting and collating data, as well as and typing the manuscript. Professor AdamLui Yuen-chung, Head of the History Department of Hong Kong Shue Yan College,has given valuable advice to the research project and the manuscript, while ProfessorYee Yim-kwong has provided useful suggestions on the research direction. I amgreatly indebted to them for their help and efforts, which have enabled this book tobe published within a short period of time. The precious historical photographs andpostcards generously made available by Dr Tong Cheuk-man have enriched thisbook immensely. To all the people who have contributed to the publication of thisbook, I wish to express my heartfelt thanks. This book is bound to contain numerouserrors and omissions, for which I offer my sincerest apologies.

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Aregion’s climate quite often exerts fundamental influences on its political,economic and cultural developments. Hong Kong, a small island with no

natural resources, suffers from hot and wet climate, as well as from typhoons insummer and autumn. Yet since the mid-nineteenth century it has managed toovercome all the obstacles posed by the natural environment and has emerged asthe cosmopolitan city it is today. Hong Kong’s success has been described as amiracle of modern times, and how this city overcame such unfavourableenvironmental factors is a worthy subject to explore. The following researchcommences with a meteorological study of Hong Kong and seeks to understandits relationship to the rise of Hong Kong to enhance understanding of our society.

General IntroductionFrom the point of view of modern scientific analysis, four main factors dominateHong Kong’s climate. They are: the annual amount of sunshine, topography,geographical position, and the influence of neighbouring seas. Hong Kong’s totalarea is a mere 1,101 km2. It is situated in the Northern Hemisphere at 22º10′–22º30′ North, 113º50′–114º25′ East, and is therefore within the subtropicalclimatic zone. The duration of bright sunshine each month exceeds 100 hours.The annual mean temperature is 23ºC while the monthly mean temperaturesrange from 15.8 to 28.8ºC. The climate of Hong Kong is relatively warm.

Situated at the southernmost tip of South China’s hilly region, HongKong’s geology is similar to its neighbouring area in South China. In HongKong there are numerous hills and very limited lowland areas. Most of thecomparatively flat land is found in the northwestern part of the New Territories.Hills and mountains are not concentrated in one region but are widelydistributed. The terrain is undulating, with steep rises and falls in height. Thisleads to quite substantial daily regional variations of weather. On the other hand,as Hong Kong is made up of islands and a peninsula at the northern flank of theSouth China Sea, its weather and seasonal changes are deeply influenced bymainland China as well as the neighbouring seas. In summer, the temperaturedifference between land and sea can be quite large. When hot air in the mainlandrises, moisture-laden air from the sea blows inland. Under these conditionsHong Kong becomes very humid and rainy. In winter, cold winds from the landblow seawards, and Hong Kong has very little rain. These seasonal variationsstem from changes in large-scale atmospheric circulation from sea to land or viceversa, hence the difference in moisture content. Hong Kong’s terrain,geographical position and the influence of the neighbouring land masses and seas

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all contribute to Hong Kong’s distinctly different climate from other subtropicalregions. These differences are reflected in the wide variations of temperature andrelative humidity during the year. In winter, Hong Kong is comparatively drierand colder than other subtropical regions.

Although Hong Kong’s climate can in general be divided into four seasons,the seasonal characteristics differ significantly from those of temperate regions.In general, Hong Kong’s spring and autumn are short, each lasting about twomonths. During the spring months of March and April, Hong Kong is warmand humid, while during the autumn months of October and November, theweather is on the dry side. Summer is the longest of the four seasons and thesummer months — May to September — are hot and rainy. The wintermonths are from December to February and are cold and dry. Hong Kong’sfour seasons and their relations to the evolution of weather systems in theregion are further described below.

When the anticyclone over mainland China weakens in March and April,Hong Kong is less frequently affected by cold air from the north. The weathergets warmer with temperatures hovering around 20ºC. There are times whencold air still reaches the south China coast and at these times Hong Kongexperiences episodes of cooler weather. The cooler weather will be interruptedwhen the tropical maritime air mass from the Pacific blows inland. Low cloudsand fog are common in these months.

During Hong Kong’s summer — May to September — high temperaturesinduce a quasi-permanent area of low pressure in southwest China. This areaof low pressure draws south or southeasterly winds over Hong Kong, and theweather becomes much warmer. Very often, a trough of low pressure lingersover south China and the northern part of the South China Sea, bringingspells of rainy weather to Hong Kong. May to September are the monthswhen most of the rain falls. At about the same time, a ridge of high pressuredominates over the western North Pacific Ocean, coinciding with the typhoonseason in the region. When typhoons form in the seas east of the Philippines,they move along the southern or western flank of the ridge of high pressure.When they move in a northwesterly direction, they may hit Hong Kongdirectly. Sometimes, typhoons move along the eastern side of Taiwan andhead northeast towards Japan. When a typhoon comes near Hong Kong, thewinds along the coast strengthen and there is heavy rain. When a typhoonmoves inland, it usually leaves behind an area of low pressure near HongKong, causing continuous heavy rain. Hong Kong is most frequently affectedby typhoons from July to October.

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By mid-September, Hong Kong enters the season of autumn. Thetemperature begins to fall and this marks the end of the rainy season. As a ridgeof high pressure establishes itself over the continent in October and November,typhoons forming to the east of the Philippines seldom move north but headtowards Vietnam instead. In autumn, winds over Hong Kong are usuallynortheasterly. The monthly mean temperature ranges from 21ºC to 25ºC.

Cold air originating from Siberia occasionally advances towards the coastof China from the latter half of October onwards. In November, Hong Kongenters its winter, with further drops in temperature. An intense ridge of highpressure dominates over the northern and central parts of China, wheretemperatures are cold. When this cold air mass moves southwards, it graduallygets warmer. Thus, Hong Kong’s winter is milder than the weather furthernorth. When the continental anticyclone weakens, Hong Kong experienceswarmer days. Winds will then be mainly from the east or the southeast.

The above description of Hong Kong’s climate is mainly based on theweather information gathered after the nineteenth century. Before the mid-nineteenth century, the Chinese description of Hong Kong’s climate took asomewhat different approach.

Hong Kong’s Climate as Depicted in OldChinese TextsBecause of its remoteness and lack of natural resources, the region presently knownas Hong Kong did not play a significant role in Chinese history before the middleof the Qing Dynasty (AD 1644–1911). During the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), theHong Kong region was part of the Panyu District of Nanhai. During the HanDynasty (206 BC–AD 220), Hong Kong was known as the Boluo District. In theearly Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907), the Guangzhou Prefecture of the Nanhai regionwas changed to Baoan District. In 757, still under the Tang Dynasty, BaoanDistrict was changed to Dongguan District. This name was used until 1572 in theMing Dynasty. In 1573, Hong Kong was placed within the newly establishedXinan District. Thus, in the collection of climate information on Hong Kong,gazettes of the corresponding districts would be used according to the period inquestion. Before the 1840s, data on Hong Kong as contained in the old Chinesetexts were scanty. Information on Hong Kong’s climate was lumped togetherwith that of the neighbouring regions such as Lingnan and southern Guangdong.The following account is a description of the climate of the Lingnan region.

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Fig. 1.1 Hong Kong was part of Xinan Districtfrom Kangxi to Guangxu, Qing Dynasty.Manuscript of Qing History, GeographyGazette, Volume 19, Xianggang wenxueyanjuishe, 1960, p. 288.

From Xinxiu Guangzhou fuzhi (New Edition of Guangzhou Gazette),edited in Qianlong’s reign, it was recorded that the region is wet in summer,windy and cold in winter and very hot in summer. This is, according to thegazette, not easy to adapt to for a newcomer.1

According to the Taiping yulan (Taiping Official Records),

the summer of southern China has changeable weather. Within thespan of a single day, there are periods of sunny and overcast weather.Heavy downpours begin and end abruptly. The weather is very hotand humid. It is much hotter than the northern lands, and this makeslife uncomfortable. Such conditions last from March to September.2

The Xinan xianzhi (Xinan District Gazette), records that:

in Guangdong, there are more hot days than cold days. There is nosnow, and it seems that all four seasons are summer. But the weathercan become autumn-like after rain. Due to its geographical position,much rain falls in spring and summer. The weather is also very humid,so that clothes often become mouldy. Even during autumn and winter,winds sometimes blow from the south. Then the ground becomeswet and people sweat profusely. There is a proverb which says thatputting on and taking off clothes in a timely manner is better thantaking strong medicines. This is more or less Guangdong’s weather.3

From these descriptions one can see that long summers and humid weatherhave long been part of the climate of southern China — conditions ideal forthe spread of disease. The descriptions also sought to compare the south withthe north, and indicated the dissatisfaction of northerners with the climate ofthe south. No or little mention was made of the pleasant winters of the south,and northerners considered it odd for the south to have mild winters. Theexcessively hot and humid conditions form the dominant impression of theweather in southern China at the time.

Seasonal changes were also recorded, usually by reference to the behaviourof animals and the growth cycles of plants. The Tongzhi (General Gazette) records:

The Lingnan area … has four seasons. When the grass is green andthe plums turn yellow, it is spring time. When new rice turns yellow,it is autumn and winter. These are the growing conditions of plants.These, together with the appearance of poisonous worms and frogs,would tell the story of the four seasons.4

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Guangdong xinyu (New Interpretations on Guangdong) records that:

In the Lingnan region, there are more sunny days than overcastdays. For the spirit of the four seasons, there are more open thanclosed times, with over half of the year being warm or hot. The sunis in the south, and therefore winds from the south are warm, andthe sun is as hot as fire.5

According to Nanbeitang shuchao (Written Records of Nanbeitang):

The Lingnan weather is one of contrast: sunshine and rain, coldand hot, the ebbing and flowing of tides, the blossoming andwithering of flowers and fruits.6

The Xinan xianzhi (Xinan District Gazette),7 gives a good account of theweather of each month, together with the growth cycles of grain and fruits, inverse form. The months listed in this and the following historical texts are thelunar months of the traditional Chinese calendar.

In the first month, the peach and plum flowers are in full bloom;this is the time for plucking mulberry leaves, the planting of gingerand the cutting of radish. Grains turn yellow in the gardens and thisis the beginning of planting work.

In the second month, there is much thundering culminating in theappearance of rainbows; the culturing of fry and shellfish; and thegrowing of cotton trees in foggy weather. This is the month whenplanting work is completed.

In the third month, warm winds come; plums and the betel palmsbecome ripe. This is the time to make furrows and hear field insectsmaking the noise of beating drums.

The fourth month is the time when the pomegranates become red asfire; when the banyan trees give shade; when the violet water-chestnutsare mirrored in the water; when trees have leaves that bar the way,decorated with water dews. White-coloured rain comes in time.

In the fifth month, lychees [lizhi] become ripe; coconuts are full ofcreamy flesh; cicadas make a loud din that sounds like the cuttingof grain with hooks. This is the time when the early rice ripens.

In the sixth month, heavy rainfall may accompany typhoons, whichmay cause big tides. There is also good news: the early ripening oflychees; the harvesting of the early crop; and the planting of thelate crop.

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In the seventh month, the green fields encourage butterflies to makecocoons. This is a very hot month when yellowish liquid oozes outof stones.

In the eighth month, flowers, pears and maize ripen; when yam isgood for eating; and when fish come in with the tide.

In the ninth month, sweet-scented osmanthus give off miasma,potatoes ripen, olives fall from trees, many fish swim out of gorges,rice grains ripen and the yellow chrysanthemums bloom.

In the tenth month, winter is still warm and sunny. If there is windand rain, then the harvest of jute will be affected. If the first day isfoggy, it will be rainy and very windy in the first month of thefollowing year; if the second day is foggy, it will be rainy from thesecond month to the tenth month in the following year; if thesecond day has no fog, then in the following year, there will be norain for this month.

In the eleventh month, if the winter solstice day is sunny, there willbe a good harvest.

In the twelfth month, if the day of moderate cold is sunny, the firstcrop will be good; if the twenty-eighth day is sunny, the secondcrop will be good. If the days are dim and rainy, the harvests will bebad.

The monthly verses all recorded the alternate blossoming and witheringof flowers and fruits, and the growth of animals. The verses not only recordedthe march of the seasons, but also provided guidelines for the peasants, forexample, telling them when to sow their seeds and plant their young plants,when grain should ripen and when harvesting should be done. The verses alsotried to predict the weather conditions of the following year. Nature, accordingto Chinese tradition, has a direct relation to changes in the weather. Therefore,the growth cycles of animals and plants during the year can help to predictlong-range and medium-range changes in weather.

In ancient Chinese society, there was a dire lack of continuous recordsof meteorological observations,8 thus there are few records of Hong Kong’sdaily weather. In the local gazettes, weather information was limited todescriptions of special phenomena and important natural disasters such as floods,droughts, typhoons, and very hot or cold weather.

The following tables (Table 1.1 to Table 1.5) describe natural disasters andspecial weather phenomena in Hong Kong, as contained in the local gazettes.

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Fig. 1.2 Popular discontent towards summer rain,cf Emperor-Commissioned Pictorial Books,Volume 45, in Liu Tuo and Meng Bai, Qingdianbanhua huikan (Collection on Imperial EngravedPictures of the Qing Dynasty), Volume 16,Xueyuan chubanshe, 1998, p. 701.

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Table 1.1 Records of Rainstorms and Floods of the Hong Kong Region From the Songto Qing Dynasties

Date Comments

Song Yuanyou (1087) In the fourth month, the overflowing of the Dongjiangembankments occurred. Fields in the neighbouring areas weredestroyed.

Yuan Zhiyuan (1282) In the sixth month, sea tides came over land, and crops wereadversely affected.

Yuan Zhizheng (1342) It was approaching the harvest time in autumn, but theembankments could not hold out the excessive rain andoverflowing rivers. The bursting of the embankments occurred in23 places with half of the places flooded. Eight or nine out of tenof the unemployed people had to seek shelter in other places.

Ming Tianshun (1461) In autumn there were big floods and food was not available evenuntil spring the following year. To relieve famine, corn had to beborrowed from elsewhere.

Ming Chenghua (1474) In the seventh month (autumn), there were rainstorms.Ming Hongzhi (1492) Rainstorms occurred.Ming Hongzhi (1503) In the ninth month (autumn), seas overflowed and damaged grain

fields.Ming Zhengde (1513) In the fourth month (summer), floodwaters from mountains swelled

right up to the south city gate and beyond. Water was five to sixfeet deep on flat land. Civilian houses at the city gate were alldestroyed.

Ming Jiajing (1523) In the eighth month (autumn) there were rainstorms.Ming Jiajing (1525) In the seventh month (autumn) there were rainstorms. Seas

overflowed onto land.Ming Jiajing (1548) The Dongjiang swelled over its banks and houses nearby were all

destroyed.Ming Jiaqing (1551) In the sixth month (summer) there was excessive rain.Qing Shunzhi (1660) On the eighth day of the eleventh month, thunder and lightning

occurred; rain fell continuously for seven days and nights beforestopping.

Qing Kangxi (1662) The Liao river overflowed its banks, forcing the evacuation ofvillages. Sea tides overflowed and villages had to be evacuated.

Qing Kangxi (1667) In the seventh month (autumn) there were strong winds and heavyrain.

Qing Kangxi (1669) In the first month, big tides in the Liao river overflowed ontoland, just like in 1662.

Qing Kangxi (1686) In the fourth month (summer), serious floods occurred, due tocontinuous heavy rain lasting for days. Water from the mountainspoured into the district, and ditches were of no avail to channelthe great amount of floodwater. The two gates in the southwesthad to be opened to release water, but the situation did notimprove. Water in the southwest reached more than ten feet deep.Civilian houses were all destroyed. People scattered and ran fortheir lives in the heavy rain. Water from above and below forcedpeople to make two big holes in the city wall to let water flowaway. The situation was then under control, and people began toregain their confidence. Over 100 houses in the western villagesof the district were swept into the sea. In the various villages inthe northwest, many houses were nearly covered with water.People had to stay up on rooftops. They tied bamboo and woodto make rafts for travelling during the floods. Many were drowned,as were many domestic animals. A village in the north wassurrounded by floodwater in excess of ten feet deep, and peoplealso needed to move around with rafts.

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¥ 1.3 7�í8Ã4à (1513Ã) ÛïàOecøBäëíjÃë7ñòóÃ (757–1572Ã)CDöÜÛïàBýä2Ûïàÿ4,m31,ÍÛá 3,Nx 16Ã (1927) rB

Fig. 1.3 Dongguan District rainstorm disasterrecords in fourth month of 1513. Hong Kong waspart of Dongguan xian from Zhide of TangDynasty to Longqing of Ming Dynasty (757–1572). Cf ‘Brief Chronology 3’, Local Gazetteof Dongguan District, Volume 31, 1927.

Sources:Dongguan xianzhi, Volume 2, ‘Politics in History’, Ming Chongzhen 1639; Volume 7, ‘Policy on Literature’,

Ming Chongzhen 1640; Volume 5, ‘Waterworks’, Volume 7, ‘Policy on Literature’, Volume 10, ‘Auspiciousand Strange Things’, Qing Yongzheng 1730; Volume 41, ‘Auspicious and Strange Things’, Qing Jiaqing1798; Volume 30, ‘Draft History II’, Volume 31, ‘Draft History III’, Volume 32, ‘Draft History IV’, 1927.

Guangdong tongzhi chugao, Volume 11, ‘Famous Provincial Officials’, Volume 37, ‘Auspicious and Strange Things’,Ming Jiajing 1535.

Guangzhou fuzhi, Volume 78, ‘Draft History IV’, Volume 80, ‘Draft History VI’, Volume 81, ‘Draft HistoryVII’, Qing Guangxu 1879.

Guangzhou tongzhi gao, ‘Records of Big Events’, 1935.Xinan xianzhi, Volume 8, ‘Disasters and Strange Happenings’, Volume 11, ‘Disasters and Strange Happenings’,

Qing Kangxi 1688; Volume 13, ‘Disasters and Strange Happenings’, Qing Jiaqing 1819.Xinxiu Guangzhou fuzhi, Volume 59, ‘Auspicious Things’, Qing Qianlong 1759.Guangzhou zhi, Volume 4, ‘Historical Record Section II’, Ming Jiajing 1527.

Qing Qianlong (1768) From the seventh to the 13th of the fifth month, heavy rain fellcontinuously.

Qing Qianlong (1770) In the fifth month (a leap month), there were rainstorms.Qing Jiaqing (1804) In the first and second month, there was continuous rain. Salt

became very expensive; for 100 catties, it cost 12 silver dollars.Qing Jiaqing (1805) In the eighth month, rainstorms broke out and the Liao river

overflowed its banks.Qing Jiaqing (1814) Rainstorms occurred in the tenth month.Qing Jiaqing (1818) On the ninth of the ninth month, rainstorms broke out and the

Liao river overflowed its banks around Zhensha Qiao (Zhenshabridge). Fields around Shahe Dong and other places were floodedand collapsed.

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¥ 1.5 åºæ8¥,2l0u5¥b4,m`ó,5Öno4pgÁ2�qrstu4(`,),¶vºr±, 1998Ã,¬ 360B

Fig. 1.5 Displacement due to flooding, cfEmperor-Commissioned Pictorial Books,Volume 16, in Liu Tuo and Meng Bai, Qingdianbanhua huikan (Collection on Imperial EngravedPictures of the Qing Dynasty), Volume 15,Xueyuan chubanshe, 1998, p. 360.

¥ 1.4 �¦§ 25Ã 4à (1686Ã) �êàOecø,2"çèÿ4,m80,ÍÛáó ,�¨© 5ÃrB

Fig. 1.4 Xinan District rainstorm disaster recordsin the fourth month of 1686, cf ‘Brief Chronology6’, Local Gazette of Guangzhou, Volume 80,1879.

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Table 1.2 Records of Droughts in the Hong Kong Region From the Song to QingDynasties

Date Comments

Song Shaoxi (1191) Droughts occurred throughout the year.Ming Tianshun (1461) Hunger due to drought was prevalent. The district magistrate asked

for relief donations and 50 people donated more than 7,000 qianeach.

Ming Jiajing (1558) Droughts occurred throughout the year.Ming Wanli (1583) Droughts occurred in summer and autumn.Ming Wanli (1596) A serious drought broke out. One dou of rice cost one qian and

eight fen. Many people starved to death.Ming Chongzhen (1636) Serious drought occurred. Rice was priced at one qian six fen per

dou. The district magistrate supplied hungry people with corn.Qing Kangxi (1664) Droughts occurred in spring and summer. Rain came only on

16th day of the fifth month.Qing Kangxi (1667) A drought occurred in spring.Qing Kangxi (1686) A drought occurred in autumn and there was no rice harvest.Qing Qianlong (1777-78) Droughts lasted for two to three years, high rice prices resulted;

many people starved to death.Qing Qianlong (1786) Droughts occurred in autumn and winter and there was a severe

famine.Qing Qianlong (1787) As a result of drought, high rice price occurred: one silver dollar

per dou. Many people starved to death.

Sources:Dongguan xianzhi, Volume 21, ‘Famous Senior Officials’, Qing Jiaqing 1798; Volume 10 Part 2, ‘Famine and

Relief’, Qing Yongzheng 1730; Volume 31, ‘Draft History’, 1927.Guangzhou fuzhi, Volume 79, ‘Draft History V’, Volume 80, ‘Draft History VI’, Volume 81, ‘Draft History VII’,

Qing Guangxu 1879.Xinan xianzhi, Volume 11, ‘Disasters and Strange Happenings’, Qing Kangxi 1688; Volume 13, ‘Disasters and

Strange Happenings’, Qing Jiaqing 1819.Xinxiu Guangzhou fuzhi, Volume 59, ‘Auspicious Things’, Qing Qianlong 1759.

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Table 1.3 Records of Typhoons in the Hong Kong Region From the Song to theQing Dynasties

Date Comments

Song Chunyou (1245) In the fifth month (summer), a typhoon came, and night tides didnot recede even the following day; seawater pounded onto landand the coastal area was flooded with seawater up to four to fivefeet deep. Over 2,000 houses were destroyed.

Ming Yongle (1415) In the autumn a typhoon came accompanied by flood.Ming Chenghua (1475) A typhoon occurred in the autumn; seawater flooded the rice

fields and half of the rice harvest was destroyed.Ming Jiajing (1523) A typhoon came and the east, west and south city walls collapsed.

It also caused over 100 cracks to both sides of the building thathoused cannons.

Ming Chonghen (1643) On the 24th day of the fourth month, a typhoon came with heavyrain. The typhoon uprooted trees and destroyed houses for twoconsecutive days and nights before it calmed down. Big wavesmade ships capsize, and many people were drowned.

Qing Kangxi (1669) Typhoons came in the sixth, seventh and eighth months. On the26th day of the eighth month, a typhoon struck. Newly builthouses of the village were all destroyed.

Qing Kangxi (1671) On the 21st day of the eighth month, a typhoon struck at night.The city walls, schools, yamen offices and civilian houses were alldestroyed. Trees were uprooted. In a village near the sea, manyhead of cattle were blown to the sea and drowned.

Qing Kangxi (1673) On the 21st day of the fifth month, a typhoon struck. Overflowingtides flooded and destroyed houses and rice fields.

Qing Kangxi (1676) During a typhoon, the district office’s front door, drum tower,and government offices were pulled down.

Qing Kangxi (1677) On the night of the 21st day of the eighth month, a typhoonstruck. The city walls, government offices, temples and residentialhouses collapsed in great numbers. Many people and much livestockwere killed.

Qing Kangxi (1681) A school collapsed due to a typhoon.Qing Kangxi (1686) The district office and other offices and yamen collapsed as a result

of a typhoon.Qing Qianlong (1760) On the ninth day of the eighth month a typhoon blew.Qing Jiaqing (1797) In the sixth month (a leap month) four typhoons struck. Many

trees were uprooted and houses collapsed.

Sources:Dongguan xianzhi, Volume 41, ‘Auspicious and Strange Things’, Qing Jiaqing 1798; Volume 16, ‘City Gate’,

Volume 31, ‘Draft History III’, 1927.Guangzhou fuzhi, Volume 79, ‘Draft History V’, Volume 80, ‘Draft History VI’, Qing Guangxu 1879.Xinan xianzhi, Volume 5, ‘Records of Palaces’, Volume 10, ‘Disasters and Strange Happenings’, Volume 11,

‘Disasters and Strange Happenings’, Qing Kangxi 1688; Volume 13, ‘Disasters and Strange Happenings’,Qing Jiaqing 1819.

Xinxiu Guangzhou fuzhi, Volume 59, ‘Auspicious Things’, Qing Qianlong 1759.

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¥ 1.8 Ì�fZ¥,2l0u5¥b4,m265Öno4pgÁ2�qrstu4(`ó),¶vºr±, 1998Ã,¬ 496B

Fig. 1.8 Lightning and thunderstorms, cfEmperor-Commissioned Pictorial Books,Volume 26, in Liu Tuo and Meng Bai, Qingdianbanhua huikan (Collection on Imperial EngravedPictures of the Qing Dynasty), Volume 16,Xueyuan chubanshe, 1998, p. 496.

Fig. 1.7 Typhoon records in the second monthof 1671, cf ‘Brief Chronology 6’, Local Gazetteof Guangzhou, Volume 80, 1879.

¥ 1.7 �¦§10Ã2à (1671Ã) ÷Zcø,2"çèÿ4,m 80,ÍÛáó, �¨© 5ÃrB

Fig. 1.6 Typhoon records in the fourth month of1643, cf ‘Brief Chronology 5’, Local Gazette ofGuangzhou, Volume 79, 1879.

¥ 1.6 7ÜÝ16Ã4à (1634Ã) ÷Zcø,2"çèÿ4,m 79,ÍÛá,, �¨© 5ÃrB

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Table 1.4 Records of Hailstorms in the Hong Kong Region From the Song to QingDynasties

Date Comments

Song Xiangxing (1278) The ‘yellow dragon’ [the sucking of seawater up to the sky]appeared.

Ming Hongwu (1373) In the sixth month (summer) hailstorms struck.Ming Jiajing (1559) Hail as big as duck eggs fell.Qing Shunzhi (1655) On the 24th day of the tenth month (winter) between nine in the

morning and three in the afternoon, a heavy hailstorm struck.Houses were destroyed. People in the streets who could not findshelter were hit and injured.

Qing Kangxi (1668) In the fifth month, hailstones as big as pots fell, houses and ricefields were destroyed.

Qing Kangxi (1669) On the first day of the seventh month between seven and nine inthe morning, in a village, three dragons appeared: two white andone black. They came out from the sea in the west, and flew off tothe south of the city. Inside the city, many residential houses hadtheir roofs blown off.

Qing Kangxi (1686) On the 15th day of the eighth month a hailstorm struck, with hailas big as marbles.

Qing Qianlong (1788) In the second month hail fell.Qing Jiaqing (1805) In the second month a black current rose from the sea south-west

of the city and moved off to the city’s east. The storm suckedpeople on the street up to over ten feet in the sky and droppedthem, leaving them unconscious.

Qing Jiaqing (1807) In the second month (spring) Xiangshan and Xinan had hailstorms.On the 10th and the 11th day of the second month, hail fell in theKowloon Ho Chung area. A great many livestock were killed.

Qing Jiaqing (1814) In the eighth month hailstorms broke out.Qing Jiaqing (1818) In the second month (spring) Xiangshan and Xinan had hailstorms.

Sources:Dongguan xianzhi, Volume 10, ‘Auspicious and Strange Things’, Qing Yongzheng 1730; Volume 41,‘Auspicious

and Strange Things’, Qing Jiaqing 1798; Volume 31, ‘Draft History III’, 1927.Guangzhou fuzhi, Volume 80, ‘Draft History VI’, Volume 81, ‘Draft History VII’, Qing Guangxu 1879.Qingshi gao (Manuscript of Qing History), ‘Disasters and Strange Happenings’, Xianggang wenxue yanjiushe,

1960.Xinan xianzhi, Volume 11, ‘Disasters and Strange Happenings’, Qing Kangxi 1688; Volume 13, ‘Disasters and

Strange Happenings’, Qing Jiaqing 1819.

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¥ 1.10 �¦§ 25Ã 8à (1686Ã) �êàOjcø,2"çèÿ4,m80,ÍÛáó,�¨© 5ÃrB

Fig. 1.10 Xinan xian hailstorm records in theeighth month of 1686, cf ‘Brief Chronology 6’,Local Gazette of Guangzhou, Volume 80, 1879.

¥ 1.9 �¦§7Ã5à (1668Ã) �êàOjcø,2�"«4,e6ÿ!,CD8¶��±, 1960Ã,¬ 196B

Fig. 1.9 Xinan District hailstorm records in thefifth month of 1668, cf Manuscript of QingHistory, Disasters 1, Xianggang wenshe yanjiushe,1960, p. 196.

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Fig. 1.11 Popular discontent towards very coldweather, cf Emperor-Commissioned PictorialBooks, Volume 45, in Liu Tuo and Meng Bai,Qingdian banhua huikan (Collection on ImperialEngraved Pictures of the Qing Dynasty), Volume16, Xueyuan chubanshe, 1998, p. 702.

In traditional Chinese sources on Hong Kong’s meteorologicalinformation from the Song to Qing Dynasties ,9 there were short writtenrecords on natural disasters, such as exceptionally heavy rain, typhoons,droughts, hailstorms and very cold weather. Altogether there were 64 suchreported cases of which 23 cases were related to rainstorms and floods, 12 totyphoons and 12 to hailstorms. There were three recorded cases of very coldweather. For over 1,000 years, there was on average only one report of severeweather every 15 years. These figures appeared to seriously understate themagnitude of the actual problem, and the commentaries on the major disasterswere extremely brief. The records were never comprehensive and wereconfined to stating the nature of the disasters; for example, heavy rain, flooding,no rice harvest as a result of drought, rice harvest destroyed by typhoons,extremely hot or cold weather, wilting of vegetation, etc. Comparatively moredetailed recordings were made of human and animal casualties, but even thelongest record was merely around ten sentences in length. Changes in climaticconditions or the time of an event were not included. The records weremainly found in local gazettes under the sections on calamitous and propitiousphenomena. A small portion of such information was found in chronologiesand historical records. Natural disasters were regarded as abnormal phenomena,and were rarely considered as important parameters in monitoring weatherchanges. These records, regardless of their contents or the quoted sources,paled in comparison to the amount of details contained in records of politicalevents or personalities.

From the examples above, it is clear that ancient Chinese texts on HongKong’s climate placed emphasis on the impact adverse weather had on society.There was little analysis on climatic phenomena. Reporting was mostly madeat the macro level, sketching out the general characteristics of meteorological

Table 1.5 Records of Very Cold Weather in the Hong Kong Region From the Songto Qing Dynasties

Date Comments

Song Chunyou (1245) In the 12th month (winter), over one foot of snow fell within aperiod of three days.

Ming Yongle (1415) There was snow in winter.Qing Qianlong (1757) On 15th of the first month, snow of over one foot thick fell during

the night.

Sources:Dongguan xianzhi, Volume 10, ‘Auspicious and Strange Things’, Qing Yongzheng 1730; Volume 41,

‘Auspicious and Strange Things’, Qing Jiaqing 1798; Volume 31, ‘Draft History III’, 1927.Guangzhou fuzhi, Volume 80, ‘Draft History VI’, Qing Guangxu 1879.Xinan xianzhi, Volume 13, ‘Disasters and Strange Happenings’, Qing Jiaqing 1819.

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conditions, while weather changes were treated as closely linked with thegrowth of all life forms in nature, particularly those related to the needs of theagricultural economy. Natural disasters and climate changes were, to theChinese people in those days, unpredictable phenomena. These brief weatherrecords demonstrate the reverence the Chinese people showed towards nature,and their belief that nature could not be controlled. From the helplessness andneglect shown by the authorities towards weather observation one can imaginehow difficult it must have been for the ordinary people to make use of theofficial information to gain a deeper understanding of changes in weather.

Hong Kong Meteorological Reports After theMid-Nineteenth Century: Forerunner ofMicroscopic ReportingIn 1842 when the colonial government started to rule Hong Kong, it introducedinto the colony Western weather observation and recording methods: this turneda new leaf for meteorological observation and investigation in Hong Kong.

In 1844, for the first time, the Hong Kong government published VictoriaGaol’s meteorological reports in The Hong Kong Government Gazette, demonstratingWesterners’ skills in meteorological observation and investigation. From the scopeand methods of reporting, it can be seen that Westerners’ grasp of changes inweather patterns was vastly different to that of the traditional Chinese. Ratherthan providing a general description of the weather events, Westerners regardedthe recording of up-to-date atmospheric pressure, temperature and wind directionas critical elements in meteorological observations.10 Apart from conforming toestablished observation procedures and methods, the colonial government alsoplaced emphasis on the need for regular and comprehensive records. Measurementswere performed regularly in the morning and in the afternoon at stipulated times.Readings taken included the highest, the lowest and the average values. Air pressuremeasurements were made to two decimal places. In 1874, the Harbour Master’sOffice (now the Marine Department) began to monitor typhoons in Hong Kongwaters and issued typhoon warnings.11 Assessments of the destruction caused byevery typhoon were made by the Surveyor General’s Office and the Police Force.12 This method of using scientific equipment to carry out microscopic observationof atmospheric changes and making records contrasted sharply with the macroscopicdescription of the weather events by the Chinese earlier. From 1844, the detailedmeteorological records served the sole purpose of facilitating the operations of

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government departments, and were not widely used by the general public.Nevertheless, they were the only detailed meteorological data for Hong Kongprior to the setting up of the Observatory in 1883.

In 1845, the government began to publish recent weather records in TheHong Kong Government Gazette for the benefit of mariners. The governmentalso standardised the terminology used in weather reports. Specific terms wereused to describe the weather, terms such as overcast, sunny, rainy, foggy,showers, thunderstorms, lightning, humid, snow, hail, dew, visibility, etc. Asto wind strength, there was another set of terms, including words like calm,light wind, moderate wind and breezes (divided into five grades), strong winds(divided into four grades), storm force winds and hurricane force winds.13

In the early 1850s, newspapers in Hong Kong regularly published meteorologicaldata issued by the government,14 mainly monthly summary reports of the overallweather conditions. The contents of such reports included barometer (then knownin Chinese newspapers as the wind-and-rain pointer), thermometer, hydrometerand rain gauge readings. From 1867, records of wind directions were kept. Theinstrument that measured air pressure was a vacuum glass tube, using the pressureexerted on mercury as an indicator of the weather conditions. The unit ofmeasurement was inches. The general rule was that the lower the air pressure, theworse the weather would be.15 For air temperature measurement, a mercurythermometer was used and the unit was degrees Fahrenheit. Temperature readingsincluded monthly temperature range, and the temperature of the hottest and coldestdays. Relative humidity readings indicated how dry or wet the atmosphere was, andincluded the two days with the largest diurnal variation in relative humidity, as wellas the two days with the smallest range of diurnal variation. The main reason whythe government was concerned about the relative humidity was that Hong Kong’sweather was hotter and more humid than that of Europe. For the Europeans whowere used to less humid and cooler weather, such weather was not consideredsuitable and many colonial officials fell ill. Their habit of taking annual home leave inthe summer was directly related to the hot and humid conditions of Hong Kong atthis time of the year.16

In the 1850s, in addition to the monthly weather reports published in thenewspapers, the annual calendars also listed the special characteristics of each ofthe 12 months. Generally speaking, forecasts of the monthly highest and lowestatmospheric pressure and temperature based on previous records were madeavailable to the public for reference purposes. This way of reporting was similarto the traditional Chinese calendar, which also made use of the meteorological

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!"#$%&'¥ 1.12 1844Ã7à15wë1845Ã7à15w(W}ª,2�N#2èuÚ4 CO133/1,¬89–90BFig. 1.12 Meteorological Table from 15th July 1844 to 13th April 1845, CO 133/1, pp. 89–90.

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Fig. 1.14 Calendar for 1854, cf The Friendof China and Hong Kong Gazette, 31December 1853.

¥ 1.13 2(Wcø4W}(W»�Býä2CD2èÔ}4, 1845Ã 11à 28wB

Fig. 1.13 Meteorological expressions and terms usedby the Meteorological Register. Cf The Friend ofChina and Hong Kong Gazette, 28 November1845.

records in the past to compile a summary of the weather characteristics for eachof the 12 months. From the way meteorological data were compiled in theannual calendars, it can be seen that, with the exception of mariners, ordinarypeople in the mid-nineteenth century did not have a demand for meteorologicaldata. They seldom paid attention to daily changes in temperature and air pressure.

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From the 1850s, Hong Kong’s population grew rapidly as a result of theoutbreak of the Taiping rebellion in mainland China. Weather conditions —whether good or bad — especially in the typhoon season, directly posed a threatto the safety of humans and properties. The hot and humid summer was also thepeak season for the spreading of epidemic diseases in the densely populated Cityof Victoria. For this reason, the responsibility for issuing weather reports wasgiven to the Medical Department. The Colonial Surgeon had to submit a reportat the end of each year to the governor, listing the weather conditions fromJanuary to December, month by month. The report included information onthe monthly highest and lowest temperatures, air pressure, the amount of rainfall,and the overall weather conditions. Hospitals were the main places where suchrecordings were made. They included Sailors’ Hospital, Government CivilHospital, Lockhart Hospital and Government Temporary Hospital. Some othergovernment offices also made weather observations that were required for theirwork. One example was the Waterworks Office (now the Water SuppliesDepartment), which has been keeping records of rainfall since 1877.17

From the 1860s to the early 1880s, the procedures for meteorologicalobservations were standardised, and recorded data became more consistent andstable. From the meteorological data of this period, it can be seen that atmosphericpressure continued to be the basic indicator of the weather situation. Airtemperature and relative humidity were also key elements of measurement. Asto the amount of rainfall and the number of sunny and cloudy days, the waythese were measured in this period followed the practice of the 1850s, andcoincidentally resembled that of the modern day weather observations. Withoutknowing the precision of the measuring instruments used, it is difficult to judgethe accuracy of the meteorological data, but from the consistency and the amountof detail in the records, it is clear that the relevant authorities had fairly strictrequirements regarding the standard of these records.

Since its establishment in 1883, the Observatory has assumed theresponsibility for meteorological observation and reporting. Initially, the placeswhere observations were carried out, apart from its headquarters in Tsim ShaTsui, were the four out-stations situated at the top of Victoria Peak, Caped’Aguilar , Green Island and Stonecutters Island.18 From the twentieth centuryonwards, weather observation stations were established at Victoria Peak, WaglanIslands, Kai Tak airport, Ping Shan, King’s Park, Shek Kong, Stanley, CheungChau, Ta Kwu Ling, Sai Kung, Tai Po, Deep Water Bay, Sha Tin and otherplaces. The collection of meteorological data not only became increasinglyprecise, but a series of summary reports were also issued regularly.

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2 13.8–17.9 8 27.3–30.1

3 15.9–20.0 9 26.6–29.5

4 20.4–24.7 10 23.6–27.1

5 24.6–27.9 11 19.4–23.1

6 26.8–29.7 12 16.0–19.8

An Interpretation of Meteorological Data

A Preliminary Evaluation of MeteorologicalData for the 1844 to 1883 PeriodAlthough the Hong Kong government began to make weather observationsas early as 1844, no unified approach was adopted with regard to the observationlocations, times or the methods used before 1883. Taking the observationlocation as an example, in 1844 the Harbour Master’s Office and VictoriaGaol were used as observation bases. Between 1861 and 1875, the base waschanged to Government Civil Hospital. From 1876 to 1883, meteorologicalrecords came from Lockhart Hospital. Although there were records statingthe locations and their heights above sea-level where data were collected,19

the frequent changes in such locations reduced the data to a mere reflection ofthe conditions at certain specified areas at certain time periods. The data werequite different from that gathered by the Hong Kong Observatory since 1884and detailed comparisons and analyses were not possible.

Of the period 1844 to 1883, the pre-1861 years provided only piecemealdata. Apart from the different places of observation, the times for observationwere completely different. These data were the only extant records before theObservatory was established in 1883. They were invaluable in seeking toobtain a better understanding of Hong Kong’s weather conditions during thatperiod. A preliminary interpretation of such data during the periods of 1853to 1856, 1858 to 1859, 1861 to 1873 and 1875 to 1883, totalling 28 years, istabulated below.

Temperature

Table 1.6 shows the temperature records between 1853 and 1883, where themonthly mean minimum and maximum temperatures are listed.20 Theinformation in the years 1857, 1860 and 1874 is missing, and is not included inthe table. For the 1853 to 1883 period, the distribution of monthly meanmaximum and minimum temperatures is shown.

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Between 1853 to 1883, the mean temperature for the 28 years was 23ºC.The coldest months were January and February. The monthly mean minimumtemperature was about 14ºC. The hottest month was July, with a monthlymean maximum temperature average of about 30ºC. During that period, thehighest recorded monthly average was 33.9ºC in September 1854. The monthwith the lowest monthly mean minimum temperature was 5ºC in March1856. According to the 1961 to 1990 records, the lowest monthly meanminimum temperature was 13.6ºC. This is much higher than the 5ºC recordof March 1856. A probable explanation is that the measurement proceduresor the data management process at that time could have given rise to errors.

Rainfall

Rainfall data between 1861 and 1883 were obtained from Government CivilHospital. The average annual rainfall for the 1861–1883 period was 2,141.2 mm.In that period, the rainfall for 1883 was the heaviest, with 2,976.9 mm. Thiswas 835.7 mm more than the averages for the 23 years. The driest year was1870 when only 1,424.2 mm of rainfall was recorded. This was 718.9 mm lessthan the average of the 23 years. For single months, the highest average was inJuly 1862 with 785 mm. There were few dry years. Those years with annualrainfall over 2,000 mm made up 65% of the period, and 78% of those yearswere with annual rainfall in excess of 1,900 mm. The rainy months spannedfrom May to September. The month with the heaviest average rainfall wasJune, with over 373.4 mm. The average rainfall for the other months was:August, with 366.3 mm; July, 355.6 mm; May, 317.5 mm, and September,304.8 mm. The dry season ran from October to April of the following year,with an average monthly rainfall of less than 127 mm. Of these months, theperiod from November to February had the least rainfall, with only around25.4 mm of rainfall.

Table 1.6 Mean Monthly Highest and Lowest Temperatures (1853–1883)

Month Temperature Range (ºC) Month Temperature Rang(ºC)

Jan 13.9–17.6 Jul 27.5–30.3Feb 13.8–17.9 Aug 27.3–30.1Mar 15.9–20.0 Sep 26.6–29.5Apr 20.4–24.7 Oct 23.6–27.1May 24.6–27.9 Nov 19.4–23.1Jun 26.8–29.7 Dec 16.0–19.8

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Fig. 1.15 The first meteorological report publishedby the Hong Kong Observatory on 31 January1884, cf China Mail, 31 January 1884.

Relative Humidity

Between 1861 and 1883, the government had carried out temperaturemeasurements at 9 AM and 3 PM each day, using wet bulb and dry bulbthermometers. Using the present day relative humidity calculationmethodology, the temperature readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometersare supposed to yield the relative humidity figures of that period. Calculationsmade have cast doubt on the validity of the data. For example, there were nolarge variations of relative humidity between months. Months that are relativelydry nowadays were found to be quite humid. It is thus not possible to performan overview of the pre-1883 relative humidity records.

Main Features of Weather in the 1884 to2002 PeriodSince 1884, the Observatory has carried out comprehensive measurementsand observations of local weather and made systematic recordings. TheObservatory has publicised data on temperature, rainfall and relative humidity,using principally its headquarters for the place of measurements. Themeteorological data for this period are given below.21

Temperature

Since the establishment of the Observatory, measurements of temperaturehave been made at more frequent intervals and higher standards. At present,temperature data are available at one-minute intervals. The following figuresare based on the monthly averages for the 112-year period of 1884 to 2002,with a break of seven years from 1940 to 1946 as a result of the war.

Table 1.7 Records of Mean Temperatures for the Period 1884–2002

Month Range of Monthly Month Range of MonthlyMean Temperature (ºC) Mean Temperature (ºC)

Jan 12.2–18.3 Jul 26.7–29.7Feb 11.7–19.2 Aug 26.4–29.5Mar 13.9–21.3 Sep 25.8–29.0Apr 18.5–24.8 Oct 23.5–26.4May 23.8–28.2 Nov 19.1–23.2Jun 25.5–28.8 Dec 14.5–21.3

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1 12.2–18.3 7 26.7–29.7

2 11.7–19.2 8 26.4–29.5

3 13.9–21.3 9 25.8–29.0

4 18.5–24.8 10 23.5–26.4

5 23.8–28.2 11 19.1–23.2

6 25.5–28.8 12 14.5–21.3

February was generally the coldest month of the year. The lowest monthlymean minimum temperature ever recorded was 11.7ºC in 1886. The hottestmonth was July. The highest monthly mean temperature ever recorded was29.7ºC in July 1967. For the entire 112-year period, the mean annual temperaturewas 22.6ºC. When the 1853 to 1883 period is compared to the two periods of1884 to 1939 and 1947 to 2002, it shows a similar distribution in the meantemperature. The coldest and the hottest months were also February and Julyrespectively, with the annual mean temperatures ranging from 21.4 to 24.0ºC.

Rainfall

According to the 112 years of records of the Observatory, from the period of1884 to 1939 to the period of 1947 to 2002, the average yearly rainfall was2,221 mm.22 The distribution of the annual rainfall was not uniform. Therainy season was from May to September, and June had the largest amount ofrainfall (404.1 mm). August was the second wettest month, with 388.7 mm,followed by July’s 367.4 mm and May’s 294.4 mm. The rainiest month wasMay 1889 when 1,241 mm of rain fell. This was higher than the annual rainfall of1895 (1,164 mm) and 1963 (90l mm). The dry season lasted from November toFebruary. The average monthly rainfall for these four months was less than50 mm. The 112-year records show that the highest recorded annual rainfall was3,343 mm in 1997. The lowest recorded annual rainfall was the 901 mm in 1963.In 52 years of the period, rainfall was less than the annual average of 2,221 mm.That means 54% of the years had above average annual rainfall. Eighty-two yearshad annual rainfall in excess of 1,900 mm (73%), and 75 of those years hadyearly rainfall of more than 2,000 mm (67%).

When there is too much rain during the rainy season, it is a commonphenomenon for rice fields to be flooded or damaged. As much of the HongKong’s rock structure is made up of granite, rainwater drains easily away. Inaddition, Hong Kong has no important rivers or lakes, so when rainfall is low,crops will require artificial irrigation. Apart from hindering agriculturaldevelopment, the uneven distributions of rainfall also has a direct impact onthe daily lives of the ordinary people.

Relative Humidity

Records of relative humidity were quite detailed for the years of 1884 to 2002,except for the war period of 1940 to 1946, when there was a break in suchrecords. The average monthly relative humidity in the pre-war period of 1884 to

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1939 and the post-war period of 1947 to 2002 was studied. For the first period,the driest month was January 1918 when the monthly mean relative humiditywas 51%. The most humid month was March 1884, with a monthly mean relativehumidity of 92%.

For the period of 1947 to 2002, the average monthly relative humidity rangedfrom 69% to 84%. The average relative humidity was lowest in December at 69%,while the months of April and May had the highest relative humidity of 84%. For theperiod of 1947 to 2002, the average yearly relative humidity was between 75% to83%. During these 56 years, the most humid month was April 1954 with a reading of91%, while January 1963 was driest with a mean monthly relative humidity of 45%.

ConclusionFrom the available meteorological data, it can be seen that Hong Kong’s

climate is largely humid and rainy. Although it is not entirely pleasant all yearround, it is nevertheless bearable for the people in southern China. For HongKong’s long-term development, the major impediments were posed bytyphoons and the numerous rainstorms in summer. In a society where fisheryand agriculture underpinned the economy, severe losses were inflicted whenthe typhoon and rainy season began. Harvests were badly affected and fishermanhad to stop fishing, not to mention the loss of human lives.

At a time when economic conditions and natural science were not fullydeveloped, society was very much dependent on the blessings of nature. Due tothe inability to foretell natural disasters and the damage that such disasters couldinflict on society, natural disasters have all along been regarded as punishmentsfrom Heaven. In Chinese history, records and discussions of natural disasters weremade in an indirect manner, and were often treated as a taboo. Reporting ofnatural disasters placed emphasis on their horrible nature and destructiveness; littleattention was paid to their impact on social development. With the advance ofscience, the ability to take preventive measures against natural disasters has increased,which has helped to mitigate damages caused by such calamities. Memories ofpast suffering are being forgotten gradually. The way people overcome thechallenges of nature to maintain sustainable development in society is a reflectionof social evolution. Natural disasters are not simply a manifestation of misfortune,they also lead to opportunities for future success. A summary of the major naturaldisasters that occurred in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, presented in thenext chapter, should not be taken at their face value, but should be considered inthe context of the meanings and revelations they can offer.

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