REFERENCES Barney, Richard J. 1962. Appalachian scale shelte r, Ru . Note 88. Ogden , UT: U.S. De-partment of Se rvi ee, lntennountain Fort'st and Range Ex - S tation. 7 p. Barton, Manes. 1977 . W a ve of t tle preS£'n t . Portland., OR: US . DE- partmE'nt of Agriw ltu n', Soil Con llE' rvation Servi ce. 4 p. Bevins, Collin D.; Fisc her, William C. 1983. A eemputer system for testi ng fire management prescriptions: Pa rt L c-u ser' s ma nual. Gen . Tech. Rep. INT-155. Ogden , UT: U.s . Depart me nt of Agriculture, Forest SE-rvice, Inter- mou ntai n Forest and Ran ge Experimen t Sta tion. 42 p. Bl ackburn, Thomas . 1988. [Telephone conver sation.] Au- gust . Was hingto n, DC: U.S. Depa rt men t cr Ccm meree. National weetb er Service, Coopera ti ve Program Office. Bradshaw, Larry S.; Fischer, William C. 19818. A com- pu ter syste m for sche duli ng fire use . Part I: the system. Oen . TE"C h. Rep. INT-91. Ogden, UT: U.S. Depar tment of Agricu ltu rp. Fore st Ser vice, Inte rm ou n tain Forpst and Ran ge Experiment Station. 63 p. Bradshaw. Larry S.; Fischer, William C. 1981b. A com- puter system for sch ed uli n g fire use. Part II: compu ter term inal ope rator's manual. Gen. Tech. Rep. L':T·l 00. Ogden, UT: U.S. Depart ment of Agricu lture, Forest Service, Inte rmou n tain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 34 p. Bradshaw. Larry S.; Fischer. William C. 1984. Computer programs for summarizing climatic data stored in the National Fire Weather Data Library. Tech . Rep. INT·164. Ogden. UT: U.S. £k pa rtm ent of Agricult u rt" . Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Ex- periment Station. 39 p. Bro ...... n, J .; Peck. Eugene L. 1962. Reliability of precipita tion m easu reme nt s as rel ated to ex posure. Journal of Applied 1(2): 203·207. BYTam, George 1940. The Appalachian fuel moisture scale . J ournal of For estry. 38: 493-495. Corbett , Edward S. 1967. Measure ment of precipitation on experimental ..... a tersh eds. In: Advancement of sci- ence seminar proceedings, 1965. Washington. DC: Na- tional Science Foundation: 107·129. Cou ntryma n, Cli\·e M. 1971. This HUMIDITY b usiness: what it is all about and its use in fire control. Berk eley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service Pa cific Sou thwest Forest and Range Experiment Sta- tion. 15 p. Cre mer, Owen P.; Ralph H. 1968. Wind instru - ment mountings for above- the-cab lookout exposure. Res. Note PSW·175. Berkeley. CA: U.s. Depa rtm ent of Agriculture. Fore st Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station .9p. Crosby, J ohn 5. ; Chandler. Craig C. 1966. Get the most from your .... -indspeed observations. Fire Control Notes. Washington, DC: U.S. Depa rtment of Agriculture. For- est Service. 27(4): 12·13. Davis, Kenneth P. 1959. Forest fire : control and use. New York: '-k Graw·HiII. 584 p. £kByle, Norbe rt V.; Haupt. Harold F. 1965. The Inter- moun tain precipitation stora ge gage. Res. Note INT-34. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agricult ure, Forest 175 Service, Intermoun tain Fore st an d Range Experiment Station. 4 p. Deeming, J ohn E. 1983. A pre limina ry model for ealeulat- ing the ten- hour timelag fuel moistu re- from hourly weather data. Presented at : Seventh conference on fire and fo rest meteorology; 1983 April 25.28; Fort Collins. CO. Portl and, OR: U.S. De partm ent of Agricu lt ure, Forest Service. Pacific Xc rt hwest Forest and Ran ge- Experiment Sta tion. 5 p. Deeming, J ohn E.; Bur gan, Robert E.; Co hen .Jack O. 1977. The National Pire-Denger Rat ing Syste m-1 978. Gen. Tf'C' h. Rep. I ST-39. Ogden, UT: U.S. Depar tment of Agriculture, Fore st Service. Inte nn ountai n Forest an d Range- Experi ment Station. 63 p. Fa mes . Phillip E. 1988. [Telephone ccnver sation.] J une 7. Bozeman . 10fT: U.S. Department of Agriculture . Soil Conservation Service. Snow Survey Office. Ftnkh n, Arnold I. 1979. A comparison of portable alumi- num an d sta ndard wooden therm ome ter shelters. Res. Note INT-260. Ogden , UT: U.S. Depart me nt of Agricul- ture. Forest Service, Inte nn ountain For est an d Rangf' Experiment Sta tion. 12 p. Pinklin, Arnold J. 1983. Summarizing weather a nd clio mari e data-a guide for wildland man agers . Oen . Tech. Rep. I:--;"T ·148. Ogden. UT: U.S. Depart ment of Agricul. ture, Forest Service, Intermoun tain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 43 p. Fischer. Willia m C.; Beaufait, William R.; Noru m, Rodney A. 1969. The hygrothe nnooe-rograph-eon st TUction and fire management ap plications. Res. Note Ogd,-,n, UT: U.S. Depart me- nt of Agricult ur e, Forest Servi ce. Interm oun tain Fore st and Range Experiment Station. 8 p. Fische-r. William C.; Hardy. Charles E. 1976. Fi re- .....esthe r observers' handbook. Agric. Handb. 494. Washington. DC : U.S. Departmen t of Agriculture. Forest Service. 151 p. Fosberg, Michael A. 1971. Analogs for fuel moisture deter- mination in Nat ional Fire Danger Rating. Office Report 2106-5. On file at: U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture, Forest Servi ce Rocky Mountai n Fore st an d Range Ex. periment Station. Fort Collins, CO. 5 p. plus figs. Foster, Norman B.; Foskett, Laure nce W. 1953. A photo. electric sunshine- recorder, Bulletin, American M,-, teoro- logical Society . 34(5): 2 12· 215. Fri tsc he n, Leo J .; Gay , Lloyd W. 1979. En vironmenta l inst rumentation. New York : Spr in ger-ve rlag. 216 p. Frost, J ohn S.; Haines. Donald A. 1982. Fire ·weath ,-,r station maintenance-c-how good is it? Fire '-tanagement Notes. 43(3): 14·17. Fujioka. Fran cis 1985. Objective methods for fire weat h er net ..... ork design. In: Proceedings, eighth confer- ence on fire and forest meteorology; 1985 Apri l 29 to 2; Det ro it, '-fl . Washington, DC: Society of Ameri- can Foreste rs : 216·22 1. Fujioka. Francis '-I. 1986. A met hod for designing a fire ......eather network. Journal of Atmospheri c and Oceanic Tech nology. 3(9): 564·570. Furman , R. \\·iUiam. 1975. An aid to streamli ning fire- weathe rstation networks. Cen . Tech . Rep. RM· 17. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Depar tment of Agriculture, Forest Service. Interm ountain Forest and Range Experiment Sta tion. 4 p.
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Weather Station Handbook - References, Appendix, Index
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REFERENCESBarney, Richard J . 1962. Appalachian scale shelter, Ru .
Note 88. Ogden , UT: U.S. De-partment of Agricultu~.
FO~!It Se rvi ee, lntennountain Fort'st and Range Ex ~rim(>nt Station . 7 p .
Barton , Ma nes. 1977. S~OTEL: Wa ve of t tle preS£'nt .Portland., OR: US. DE-partmE'nt of Agriw ltun', SoilCon llE' rvation Service. 4 p.
Bevins, Collin D.; Fischer, William C. 1983. A eempute rsystem for testing fire ma nageme nt prescrip tions: PartLc-user's manual. Gen . Tech. Rep. INT-155. Ogden , UT:U.s. Department of Agriculture, Forest SE-rvice, Intermountain For est a n d Range Experi ment Station . 42 p.
Blackburn, Thomas. 1988 . [Telephone conversati on .] August. Was hingto n, DC: U.S. Depart ment cr Ccm meree.Nationa l wee tber Service, Coopera ti ve Progra m Office .
Bradshaw, Larry S.; Fischer, William C. 19818. A computer syste m for sche duli ng fire use . Part I: the syste m.Oen . TE"Ch. Rep. INT-91. Ogden, UT: U.S. Departmentof Agriculturp. Forest Service, Intermou ntain Forpstand Range Experi me nt Station. 63 p.
Bradshaw. Larry S.; Fischer , William C. 1981b. A computer system for sch ed uli ng fire use. Part II : computerterminal operator's manual. Gen. Tech. Rep. L':T· l 00.Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fores tService, Intermou ntain Forest and Ra nge ExperimentSta tion. 34 p.
Bradshaw. Larry S.; Fischer. William C. 1984 . Computerprograms for summarizing climatic data stored in theNational Fire Weather Data Library.~n. Tech . Rep.INT·164. Ogden. UT: U.S. £kpartment of Agriculturt".Forest Servi ce, Intermountain Fores t and Range Experiment Station. 39 p.
Bro......n, ~ferle J .; Peck. Eugene L. 1962. Reliability ofprecipita tion m easurements as related to ex posure .J ournal of Applied ~fpteorology. 1(2): 203·207.
BYTam, George ~t 1940. The Appalachian fuel moist ur escale . J ournal of Forestry. 38: 493-495.
Corbett , Edward S. 1967. Measurement of precipitationon experimenta l .....a tersheds. In: Advancement of science seminar proceedings, 1965. Washington. DC: National Science Founda tion: 107· 129.
Countryman, Cli\·e M. 1971. This HUMIDITY business:wha t it is all about and its use in fire control. Berk eley,CA: U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture. Forest Se rvicePacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 15 p.
Cremer , Owen P.; ~foluau , Ralph H. 1968. Wind instrument mountings for above-the-cab lookout exposure.Res. Note PSW·175. Berkeley. CA: U.s. Departmentof Agriculture. Fore st Service, Pacific Southwest Forestand Range Experiment Station. 9 p.
Crosby, J ohn 5. ; Chandler . Craig C. 1966. Get the mostfrom your ....-indspeed observa tions. Fire Control Notes .Washington, DC: U.S. Depa rtment of Agriculture. For est Service. 27(4): 12·13.
Davis, Kenneth P. 1959. Forest fire : cont rol and use . NewYork: '-k Graw·HiII. 584 p.
£kByle, Norbert V.; Haupt. Harold F. 1965. The Inter moun tain precipitation stora ge gage. Res. Note INT-34.Ogden, UT: U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture, Fores t
175
Service, Intermoun tain Forest and Range ExperimentStation . 4 p.
Deeming, J ohn E. 1983. A preliminary model for ealeulating the ten-hour timelag fuel moisture- from hourlyweather data. Presented at: Seventh conference on fireand forest meteorology; 1983 April 25.28; Fort Collins.CO. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agricu lt ure,Forest Service. Pacific Xcrth west Fores t and RangeExperiment Sta tion. 5 p.
Deeming, J ohn E.; Burgan, Robert E.; Cohen. J ack O.1977. The National Pire-Denger Rating System-1978.Gen. Tf'C'h. Rep. IST-39. Ogden, UT: U.S. Departme ntof Agriculture, Forest Service. Intennountai n Forestan d Range- Experiment Station. 63 p.
Fames. Phillip E. 1988. [Telephone ccn ver sation .]J une 7. Bozeman. 10fT: U.S. Department of Agriculture.Soil Conservation Service. Snow Survey Office.
Ftnkh n, Arnold I. 1979. A compari son of portabl e a luminum an d sta ndard wooden therm ometer shelters. Res.Note INT-260. Ogden , UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Se rvice, Intennounta in Forest an d Rangf'Experi ment Station. 12 p.
Pinklin, Arnold J. 1983. Summarizing wea ther a nd cliomarie data-a guide for wildland managers . Oen . Tech.Rep. I:--;"T·148. Ogden. UT: U.S. Department of Agricul.ture, Forest Servi ce, Intermoun tain Fores t and RangeExperiment Station . 43 p.
Fischer. William C.; Beaufait, William R.; Noru m, RodneyA. 1969. The hygrothennooe-rograph-eonstTUction andfire ma nagement ap plications. Res. Note I ~T·87 .
Ogd,-,n, UT: U.S. Depart me-nt of Agriculture, Fores tServi ce. Intermountain Forest and Range ExperimentStation. 8 p.
Fische-r . William C.; Hardy. Charles E. 1976. Fi re-.....estherobservers' handbook. Agric. Handb. 494. Was hington.DC : U.S. Department of Agriculture. For est Service.151 p.
Fosberg, Michael A. 1971. Analogs for fuel moisture determina tion in National Fire Danger Rating. Office Report2106-5. On file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture,Forest Servi ce Rocky Mountai n Forest and Range Ex.periment St a tion. Fort Collins , CO. 5 p. plus figs.
Foster , Norman B.; Foskett, Laure nce W. 1953. A photo.electric sunshine- recorder , Bulletin, American M,-,teorological Society . 34(5): 212·215.
Fri tsche n, LeoJ .; Gay , Lloyd W. 1979. En vironmenta linstrumentation. New York : Springer -ve rlag. 216 p.
Frost, J ohn S.; Hai nes. Donald A. 1982. Fire·wea th,-,rstation maintenance-c-how good is it? Fire '-tanagementNotes. 43(3): 14·17.
Fujioka. Francis ~1. 1985. Objective methods for fireweat her net .....ork design. In: Proceedings, eighth confer ence on fire and forest meteorology; 1985 Apri l 29 to~Ia}' 2; Detroit, '-fl. Washington, DC: Society of American Foreste rs : 216·22 1.
Fujioka. Francis '-I. 1986. A met hod for designing a fire......ea ther network . J ournal of Atmospheric and OceanicTechnology. 3(9): 564·570.
Furman , R. \\·iUiam. 1975. An ai d to streamli ning fireweather station networks . Cen. Tech . Rep. RM· 17. FortCollins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture , ForestService. Intermountain Forest and Range ExperimentSta tion. 4 p.
Funnan, R. Willia m. 1979. Using fire weather data inpre-scribed 6 re planning: two computer programs . Gen.Tech. Rep. RM-63. Fort Colli ns, CO: U.S. Depa rtment ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest andRange Experim~nt Sta tion. 11 p.
Funnan, R. Willia m; Brink, Olen E. 1975. The Nati onalFire Wea th er Oata Library. Gen. Tech . Rep. R...\1·19.Fort Collins, CO: U.S Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Fort"St and Range Experi ment Station . 8 p.
Gandin, L. S. 1970. The planning of meteorological stationnetworks. Tech. Note 111. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization. 35 p.
Gantka, W. U.; Love, L. D.; Oocdell , B. C.; B.rtle, F. A.1958. Facton affecting snoWInt'lt a nd streamflow.Denver, CO: U'B. Department of tht> Interior, Bureau ofReclamation; Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountai n Forest andRan ge Experiment Station . 189 p.
Gisborn e, H. T. 1933. The wood cylinder method of me asuring forest inflammability. J ournal of Forestry.31: 673·679.
Hai nes, Donald A; Frost, J ohn S. 1978. WE'a th E' ring ~f·
fecu on fuel moisture sti cks: corrections and I"E'COItlmE'nda tions. Res. Pap. NC-154 . St. Paul, MS: U.S. Department of Agriculture , Forest Service , North Centra lFore st Experiment Station. 7 p.
Hai nes, Donald A; Frost , J ohn S. 1984. Anemometerperfcrmaoee at fire-wea ther stations. Res. Pap. NC-256.St. Paul, MN: us. Department of Agricu lture, Foft>stService, North Central Forest Experiment Station . 8 p.
Hai nes, Donald A ; Frost , J ohn S.; Klumpp, Rosalie J .1980. A portable instrument to te st field anemometers.In: Proceedings, sixth conference on fire and forestmeteorology; 1980 April 21·24 ; Seattle, \VAWas hington, DC: Society of AmE'rican Foresters:124·126.
Hardy, C. E. 1953. Half-inch fuel-moisture stich -howthey are made . Fire Control Note s. Washington, DC:US. Department of AgriculturE', Forest Service.14(4): 1·8.
Hardy, Charl~s E.; Syverson, Charles E.; Dieterich, J ohnH. 1955. Pire weather and fire danger station handbook. Misc. PubI. 3. Ogden, UT: US. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Intennou ntain For"t a ndRange Experiment Station . 84 p.
Harrington. Michael G. 1983. Climate class adjustmentsimprove accuracy of predlcte d fuel moisture stick val ues. Res. Note RM-43 1. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountai nFore st and Range Experiment Station. 4 p.
Hayes, G. L. 1942. A discussion of hygrographs. Ru. Note25. Missoula , MT: u.s.Department of Agriculture,Fore st Service, Northern Rocky Moun tain Forest andRange Experiment Station . 6 p.
Helfman , Robe rt S .; Straub, Robert J .; Deeming, J ohn E.1987. Use r's guide to AFFI RMS: time-share computer.ized processing for fire danger rating. Gen. Tech . Rep .INT-82. Ogden , UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,Fore st Service, Intennou ntain Forest and Range Experi ment. Station . Sections paged se parately.
Horton, Robert E. 1919. The measurement of rai nfal la nd snow. Monthly Weather Review. 47(5): 294-296.
176
Jon", Douglas ~1. A. 1969. Effect of housing shape onthe catch of recording gagE'S. Monthly wea ther Review.97(8): 604-606.
Kidd, W. J ., Jr. 1960. The advantages of using ethyle neglycol in seasonal storage preeipitatic n gag es and amethod for computing the initial cha rge . J ourn a l ofForestry. 58( 11 ): 882-884 .
King, Rudy ~I. ; Funnan , R. Willia m. 1976. Fire dangerrati ng network cit'nsity. Res. Pa p. R.\1-177. Fort Collins,CO: U.s. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,Rocky Mountain Forest a nd Range Experiment Station ., p.
Linsley, Ray K., Jr.; Kohle r, Max A ; Paulhus, J osephL. H. 1958. Hydrology for e ngineers. NE'w York:McGraw·Hill. 340 p.
MacCready, Pa ul B., Jr.; Schaefer, Vincent J .; Dieterich ,J oh n H.; Barrows, J . S . 1955. Project Skyfi re cloud andlightning obse rvation handbook. Misc . Publ . 5. Ogden ,UT: U.S . Depar tm ent of Agriculture, Forest Service,Intennountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.47p.
MacHattie , L. B. 1958. Accuracy of the hair hygrograph.Cir e. 3022. Ottawa: Canada Department of Trans port,Meteorological Branch . 11 p.
MacHattie, L. B. 1965. Radiation screens for ai r tem per ature measureme nts . Ecology. 46(4): 533-538 .
Mai n, Willia m A.; St raub, Robe rt J .; Paananen, Donn a M.1982. FIREFAM ILY: fire planning with historicweather da ta. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-73. St. Paul, MN:UB. Department of Agricu lture, Forest Service, NorthCen tral EXpE'riment Station . 31 p.
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ME'eks, Charles H. 1968. Report on the res ults of te stsconducted with the humidity element of the Priez hygr oth ennograph model 594 . Tech . Cire. 5. Nonnan, OK:US . De partment of Commerct' , Environmental ScienceServices Administration, Na tional Severe StonnsLaboratory. 7 p.
Middle ton , W. E. Knowles; Sp ilhaus, Athelsta n F. 1953.Meteorological instru men ts . 3d ed . Toronto: Universi tyof Toronto Press. 286 p.
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Parsons, Donald A. 1941. Calibra tion of a Weath erBureau tippi ng-burket rai ngage. Month ly Wea therReview. 69(7): 205 .
Rya n, Paul W. 1970. Portable cali br a tor de veloped foranemometers. Fire Control Notes. Washington , DC:US. Department of Agricu lture, Fores t Se rvice. 31(3):14-15.
Sceiez, G. 1975. Instruments and their exposure. In:Montieth, J . L., ed . Vegetation and t he atmosphere .Vol. 1. London: Academic Press: 229 -273.
Schaefer, Vincent J .; Day, J ohn A. 1981. A field guide tothe atmosphere . The Peterson field gu ide series. Boston,~lA Hough ton Mim in Co. 359 p.
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Taylor , Dee F. 1963. Morta rboard psychrometer. Res . Pap.SE -5. Ashe ville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture,Forest Servi ce, Southeastern Forest Experi men t Sta tion . 12 p.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 19640.Aluminum weather instru ment shelter. ED&TC Report5100-13. Washingto n, DC: U.S. Department of Agricul tu re , Forest Service. 10 p.
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177
U.S. Department of Commerce. National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration, National Wea ther Service. 1972. Substation observations . Observing Ha ndb. 2.Washington, DC: Superintendent of Documents. Oovernment Pri nting Office. 77 p.
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APPENDIX l. ABRIDGEDOBSERVATIONAL INSTRUCTIONSFOR MA.'\lJAL F IRE-WEATHERSTATIONS
Al.I Temper atu re a n d Humidity
READIXG TIIER.'IO:\IETERS
1. Avoid parallax E'ITOr when reading liqui d-in-glassthermometers. A straight line from the observer's eye tothe meniscu s OT index should fonn 8 right angle wi th thethermometer stem and scale.
2. When rounding ofT temperatures to the nearest degree , an actual thej-momete r rending with a 0.5 decimal israi sed to the next intf'gE'r; a rE'ndi ng of 67 .5, thus , beeomee68.
S tandard Liquid·i n .Glass T he r-mo m ete e-s-c-Theprocedure fOT rea ding and setting the standard maximu mand minimum the rmometers, mounted in a TownsendSupport, is given in the following steps (refer to fig. 23.2).Record all tem peratures to the nea rest degree Fahrenheit .
1. Read the minimum thermomete r first, while in itsset positi on (bul b end slightly below the horizontal).
a . Read min imum te m perature from the upper end(ri ght E'nd) of the index.
b. Read t"UTTE'nt temperature from the top of the al.cohol column.
c. Do not reset at this time.
2. Read the maximum the rmometer .
a . Unlock the spin ning shaft and slo.....ly lower th emaximum t hermometer to II vertica l po8itiOll so that thE'mercury colum n is resting on the constriction in the bore .
b. Read maximum temperature from the top of themE'TCUry column.
3. Sf't the maxi mum thermometer first .
a. Spin the thermometer in its clamp (se vera l timesif necessary, ....nth moderate force) until its reading, in thevertical position, ....i ll not go lo.....er . Always start the spinfrom this posit ion . Record the final reading as the -setmaximum"'reading.
b. Lock the maximum thermometer in its set position (bulb slightly above the horizontal).
4. Set the min imu m th ermometer last .
a. Invert the thermometer in its clam p until theindex rod slides to the en d of the alcohol colum n.
b. Return thermometer to it s nearly horizontalposition.
Again. a lu >Q.YS read the minimum thermometer first an.drn.et it leut. bKaUSE' the index rod can be easily jarreddurin g steps 2 an d 3 and slide a .....a)· from its correctposition. A lways sta rt the spin in.step 3 ,'ro m the verticalposition . to avoid a possibl e break in the mercury columnor damage to the constriction in the bore .
178
The min imum thermometer in dex rod may slide downward due to vibration during windy condi tions if thein st rum ent shelter and its door are not rigidly secured.Cht'Ck suspiciously low minimum temperatures againsta hygroth ennograph trace ifthi s is avail able.
The set max imum and current (or set minimum) thermometer readings should almost always agree within±l .O OF. Exceptions may occur during rapidly changingcondi tions or when body hE'at or reflected radia tion hasa fTt'Ctfod the instruments. Ifa discrepancy JM!nrists, thethe rmom eters should be exam ined for defects. In particula r, the minimum thermometer may have developed abubble in its alcohol column.
Rec ordin g of Maximum a n d 1'tlinimum Temperat ures-WhE'n taking observations at the basic 24·hourobserva tion time, remember that the maximum temperatun' recorded for today cannot be touer than the minimu m temperature read yesterday. Nor can it be lo.....erthan the set maximum thennometer reading of eitheryf'sterday or today. Likewise, the minimum recorded fortoday ca nnot be hig~r th an the maximum read yesterday; nor can it be higher than the set maximum of eitheryesterday or today.
PSYCII RO:' IETE R READINGSFor fire -weather observa tions. the psychrometer (dry
bulb and .....et bulb th E'nnomete r) readings are usuallyrecorded to t he nearest degree. Be sure to use the correctpsychrometric tables, as de ignate d for the stationeleva tion.
STA.x"DARD ELECTR IC FA." PSYCII R01'tIETER
Ba sic Operating Peocedures-c'Ihe basic operatingprocedure for the electric (battery-operated}fan psyehremeter, mounted in an instrument shelter, is asfollows:
1. Chedr t~ u,-et bulb " 'id-It must be clean andshould cover the bulb snu gly.
2. U'et the u,·jc...-c-Saturate with clean, distilled or othermineral -free water near air temperature just prior to anobserva tion. After .....etting, replace cap on the watercontainer.
3. \'enti late the thermometers-Tum on the fan s witch .To maintain proper ven tila tion (a t least 13 ftls, or 9 milh ),replace ba ttery at the first sign of weakness . Be sure t hatthe fan -motor wiree are properly connected to the battery,50 that the fan will rotate correctly and blow air towardthe thermometers.
4 . Read the u -et bulb-Rt'ad the wet bulb first, after await of l or 2 minutes, whe n its falli ng temperatureshould begin to s tabilize. Continue to watch the mercurycolum n and record the wet-bulb reading .....hen the mercury colu mn reaches its 10wt'st level (a nd the ....ick is stillmoist). During conditions cf varieble wind or sunshine ,however, an average or fairly steady wet-bulb reading,rather than the lowest reading, rna}' be more representsrive of the observation time.
5. Read the dry bulb-Read the dry bul b immedia telyafter each wet-bulb reading. The recorded dry -bulb tem perature will be the one concurrent with the recorded{lowest or most representative} wet -bulb temperature.
ObllE'rvations in FrPe zing We ather- Du ring free zingweather , the water on the wet bulb wick should be completely frozen with a thin coating or tee before an observe.tion il begun. To allow this in coating to fonn, when thewick is initially dry, wt't the wick about 15 minutes priorto the observation time ,
Ventila w the thennometen until the wet bulb reachesa s teady temperat ure below 32 OF; read first t he wet bulba nd th en the dry bulb.
HYGROTlIER.' IOGRAPIISExpos4" the h)·grothennograph in an i nstrument sh elter,
on the floor (or sup porting blocks ) on the le ft side, 10 tha tthfo aen sing elements are near the center of the shelte r .Alway s be sure that the hygrotht'nnograph is far enoughforward to allow cleara nce for the maximum thermometerwhen it is set by spinning.
Cha ngi ng the Cha r t-Before installing a new chert,write the station name (and number ) and the "on" date inthe spaces provided a t the teft or right end of the chart.
To remove the old cha rt:
1. Lift pens off the chart, usi ng shifting lever.2. Unlatch a nd raise the instrument cover to a stablt'
open position.3. Lift drum from spindle, being careful not to h it the
pens.4 . Pu ll re taining clip and re move chart from the drum.
Avoid smearing undried ink remaining on recen t portionof trace.
5 . Record · off" time and date on chart near end of thetemperatur e trace.
6. Wind the dock (where this is required ). If the cha rtdrive is battery operated, check to make su re that thechart dri ve {clock or motor) is ru n ning. Listen for anaudible sound. Replace batteries if chart motion hasstopped since the previous visi t or if a replace ment is due .If, however, the chart motion has stopped bu t the chartdrive is r unn ing, check to see ifthe gears are binding ormesh ing too tigh tly.
To install a new ('hart:
1. Place chart snugly agai ns t the flange at bot tom edgeof dru m, a nd wrap it tightly arou nd the drum wit h rightedge of chart overlapping the le ft edge. If chart is oftapered -edge type, first fold the tab on righ t edge . Alignthe right edge wi th the notch on u pper edge of drum andthe slot in bottom flange .
2. Insert the retaining clir through the slot in flange ofdrum, coverin g both ends of the cha rt if chart is squareend type. Insert d ip underneath the right edge, alongcre ase of foldover tab, if chart is tapered-eclge type. Pushhe a d of clip securely into the notch on drum. Adjust thechart if n«essary to obtain snu g fit..
3 . Reset the drum on spindle. Position drum so thatchart time is slightly faster than the correct rime,
4. Add in k to pe ns, if necessary (see instructionsbelow).
5 . Bring the pens into contact with the chert, usingshifting lever. CheC'K ink flow by rotating drum sligh tlyback and forth.
179
6. Tum the drum to position the pe ns a t the correctchart tim e by rotating drum counterdoctucise (ag ai nst i tsnonnal direction ofmov em ent). Th is will take up a nyslack in the gears.
7. Lower a nd latch the instrument cover .
Inking' t he Pen_
1. Use purple glyce rine-hue ink ma de specially forhygrothennographs a nd other outdoor reecrd inginst ru ments.
2. Fill pen (of barrel type) by touchi ng applicator to theopen end of barrel
Do not overfi ll so that ink bulges beyon d sides ofbarrel. With pens of tbe V.point type , fill the ink re se rvoir to slightly below the top .
3. In damp weather the ink, being h ygroscopic, mayincrease in volume a nd overflow from the pen s; les s inksho uld be used. The ink may al so become so dil u ted as toproduce a weak trace. In such a case, remove the inkfrom the pens, with lint-free paper , a nd replace with freshink.
4. To start the flow ofink a nd rem ove loose re si due,draw a piece of chart paper through the pe n n ibs . Toa void ca tching fibers in the n ibs, do not use paper '<Ioi t ha tom edge.
Checki ng the Calibra t io n-If daily r ea dings aretaken, check the calibration a t the basic observation tim e.If the station is not visited daily, check a t least when thechart is changed. Because ofthe timelag of the hygrothermogra ph sensors, calibration checks of CUITE' n t values willbe the most reliable when the temperatu re and humid ityare steady. Generally, this will occur around dawn a ndmidaft.ernoon, particularly d:Jring cloudy, breezy weather .For temperature, a comparison of the average maximumand minimum values may provide the best calibrationcheck. Make necessary adjustments (r efer to sections23 .5 and 30.5).
"lake 8 time-check mark on the traces , lightly deflect ingeac h pen downward; 8 'I.. inch vertical line is generallysufficient. Do not deflec t the h umidity pen arm up wa rd,a s th is may a pply damaging force on the hair-s. Writ e theactual time ne ar the pe n mark or on the observation form.Make any necessary adjustment of pen position .
Al.2 Wind
AVERAGE WL'\"OSPEEUWinds peed at an observation time ordinarily re fen to
the average speed over a period of a few minutes orlonger, which tends to smooth out gusts and lulls. A standard period of l0 minutes is used for Iire -wea ther obser vations. Record the average to the nearest whole nu mber(miles per hour ); a 0 .5 decimal is raised to the ne xt integer . where...·er possible, C01TE'Ct the observed wi ndspeed sas specified in th e instruction manual fu rn ished by theanemometer's manufacturer .
Procedure s for obtaining average wi nd speed wi th several types of a nemometer s and their counte r de vicesfollow:
OSE.sIXTIETII ·M!LE CO:--T ACTINGM"EMO~IETER
Reado u t by Reset Counter EquipIWd Wit h Timer-
1. ~t the counter to zero. if not done pre viously.2. Se t the timer for exac tly 10 mi nutes (in tht' cast' of
fire-weathe r- observations).3. Wht'n the timer stops., r ea d dial.4. Obtai n the 10-mi n ute average v.inds~d in milh by
placing a decimal point in front of the final digit read ontbe eounter .
5 . Rl'St't the coun te r to zero .6. If the average windspeed for a period other than
10 minutes is desi r ed, simply set ti me r for the desirednumber of mi nutes and divide tht' final count by thatn um ber .
Readout by Reset Countf>r Without Timer-
1. Reset the counter to zero, ifnot done previously.2. Start both th e counte r , using the "on -off " switch.
and a stopwatch . Alternatively. a regula r analog or digi.tal watch may be used; start the counter when the digitalwatch noads 00 seconds or when rhe a nalog watch's sec.ond hand passes 12.
3. ~r exactly 10 min utes (in thE'case offire......eatherobservations), stop the counter.
4 , Obtain the 10·minute average wi ndspeed in milh byplacing a decimal point in front oftht' final digit read 011
the counter.5. Rf.&et tht' counter to zt'ro .6. If the average wi nds peed for. period other than
10 minutes is desired, le t the counter run for the desirednumber of minutes and divide final count by that number .
HA.''D·HELD A.'''E~IO:'ltETERS
Observa tions with hand-held instruments, most typically ullf!d in the field , often req ui re onl)' a few minutes'windspeed a verage, togetht'r with nota tion of gusts. Holdthe anemometer in an open, represen tativ e location.Wh" n using in struments that show instantaneous wi ndspeed, obtain an average speed by me ntal es timate orby recor din g the speeds a t fixed in tervals during theobse rvation .
D",')'er Hand·Held Wind :'Ile tf'r_
1. Fan' the wind and hold the meter a t ann's lengthabout head high, wi th the sca le side in vie ..... . Hold theinstru me nt about midway from either end, taki ng cart'not to block tht' two holes at the bottom or the pinhole onthe top stem.
2. Observe motion of the white ball in re la tion to t heIt'n (low) ecale. If bal l remains within tht' ra nge be tween2 and 9 milh , read from the- It' n scale . If ball is rising tone-ar 10 milh, eover the opening a t top of stem with indexfinger and read wind speed from the right (high) seale.
3. To obtain a reading; coserve th.. ht' ight attained b)'the ball in relation to the- appropriate scale. Often theheigh t (winds peed) will vary noticeably d uri ng tht' observation period. Avt'rage speeds, usua lly taken over a fewminutes' period, may be estima ted mentally or by r eadingand recording a t fixed intervals. Th e highe-st gust spee-dsmay also be noted.
180
AL3 Precipitation
XOSRECORDIXG GAUGES
Timely Me a sureme n t o f Pr@Cipitation-To prt'ven tpossiblt' loss b)' eva poration, measure and record rainfallas lIOOn as possible ener its ending whe n using nonstandard smal l-orifice gauges. A supplem ental early -morningmeasurem en t shou ld be ade-quate for standard 8·inchgauges at s tations wit h an afternoon basic observationtime, provi ded the- top M'rtion (the funnt'J) is on t he gauge.
At the basic observation timt' , record tht' total 24-hourprecipitation obtaine-d from all measurements.
STA.' TIARD 8-ISCH GAUG ETh e following operati ng instructions a pply to both th..
large-ca pa city and smaller-capacity (Forest Service) standard 8·inch-diam"ter rai n ga uges.
Messuring Rainfall With in Measuring Tube
1. Remove the funnel from top of r ai n gauge.2, Slowly in sert a clean, dry meas uring st ick vertical ly
into the measuring tube. with the zero en d res ti ng on thebottom.
3. Re-move the stick afU>r 2 or 3 seconds.4. Read the- depth of precipitation, to the nearest 0 .01
ineh, as indicated by the .....aterline. Remember, each sca lemark on the stick represents an incre ment of 0.01 in ch.Preeipitetion amounting to less than 0 .01 inch is record.f'das a trace (T). A trace is also recorded wben the gauge IS
dry but raindrops or snowflake-s ha"'e been visually 0bserved since the previous obse-rvation time.
5. RtomO'o't' and em pty tht' measuri ng tube, allowing itto drain for at least several seconds; the-n replace it insidethe cverflo w can.
6. Repla ce the funnel, making sure it is seated squarelyon top oftht' overflow can a nd ever the measuring tube.
M:easurin g Ra infall Wh e n :'IIe s 8u r i ng T ube Ha sOverflowed_
1. Record 0 .50 inch preci pitation , in itially, for a com.pletely filled measuring tube in tht' Fore st Service gauge :2.00 inches for a completely filled tube in the la rge cap acit y gauge .
2. Carefully remove- the mt'a suri ng tube and dump thewater' allow the- tube to drain for at least seve-ral seconds.
3. Carefully pour water from th e overfl ow can into themeasuring tube; stop if water reaches th e brim (th is ismort' likely to occur wi th the smaller capaci ty ForestService ga uge).
4. If me asuring tube is filled to the brim in step 3, a dda noth er 0.50 inch or 2.00 inches to the initially r ecor dedamoun t. Otherwi se , insert stick a nd read the water-lineas described in the preceding instructions (ste ps 2through 4).
5. Repeat if nKE'sSRT)' until all t he wa ter in the- eve rnow can has been measured .
6. Record the total ofall the increme-nts.
M~asuring Wa ter Conhmt of Snowfall-The- gauge-'sfunne-l and me-asuring tube should be re-move-d in advanceof possible- snowfall and frE'E'zing temperatures. Only the- uter (overflow) can is exposed. Whe-n snow (or rain) the-n
:urs. me-asure- the- precipitation as soon as possible- after_has e-nded; refer to section
25.1 for details.
RE CORDtS G GAUGES: IJ:Ir,'lVERSAL WEIGHV'GGAUG E
Da ily Precipitatio n :\Ieasurem~nt Precipitationamounts between successive cbeerveticns are obtaine-ddirectly from the recording chart, subtracting the- previousrea ding of the- pen trace- from the curre-nt reading. First,tap the- floor of the- gauge- to fTN' the- pen ann and its linkage- from possible- frictional constraint.
Cha ngi ng Cha rts-Charts having a weekly time- scaleare usually ehanged at that interval . on a Monday, unlessaccumulated precipitation is e-xce-ptionally he-avyandapproaches or UCE'E'ds chart capacity. Charts having a24·hour time- scale- may be ll.'n on for periods of 1 or 2weeks, if pre-cipitation is absent or well below chart capacity . In this case. advance the- pen slightly upward to anew line- e-ach day. noting date and time.
To change- a chart, for ordinary warm-season (fireseason) operation:
1. Opeon any locks used on gauge. Slide the inspection(ace" s) door up ward and, using the- pen ann ehifter , liftpe-n from the- chart.
2. Lin the chart drum cle-arof spindle- and the-n til t to"move through eeeess door. Remove- chart. noting theItt> and "time off." Pre-pare a ne-w chart, noting station
name, date. and "time-on."3. Re-move- the- collector and bucket. If the-re is water in
the bucket, check to ve-rify that precip itation has beenrecorde-d on the chart just re-moved. Empty the- bucketand replace both bucke-t and collector.
4. Install the- ne-w chart. Make- sure- that it fits snuglyand rests squarely agai nst the- lowe-r flange- of the- dru m.(Me-hygro the-nnograph instructions, section ALl .)
5. Wind the clock (where this is required ), but do notove-rwind. (See hygrothermograph instructions, sectionAl.1.)
6. Replace the chart dru m and turn it counterclockwise(backward in time) until the- pen is lined up with the correct time position on the ne-w chart.
7. Add ink to the pen , if necessary, filling the V-pointr(>fW' TVoir to slighty below the top . Remove and replaceink ifit has diluted and cverflcwed during damp weatherconditions.
8. Bring pe-n into contect ....ith chart, using pe-n armshifter. and make final time adjustment if necessary.
9. Check the pe-n setting. The pe-n should rest on thebottom horizontal line of the chart when the empty becketis in place . Use th e fine adjustment thumbscrew ifnecessary.10. Be sure that ink is flowing from pen to chart. Press
i ng lightly upon the pen should be sufficient to sta rt thislW. If necessary. remove pen from chart and dra ..... aece of lint -free paper through the nibs before re turni ng
and pressing agai n.
181
11. Close the access door of gauge, sliding it downwardin to groove, and secure locke.
Operat io n During Freezing Weather - For ope-rationduring the snow SoI.'a90n (and freering weathe-r ). remove(by rotation) the funnel attached at the bottom of thecollector; store in a convenient place . Place an antifreezesolution in the bucket (see section 25.2).
~IEASURE~lE~" OF S;o.;OWFAU,. A.' TI S;o.;OWDEP'Il1
Snowfall-SnowfaU. the de-pthof newly fallen snow orice pellets (sleet). should be measured concurrently ....iththe snowfall wate r content-s-measure as soon as possibleafte r the snow has ended, to avoid errors from possibleme-lting, settling, or wind action . Sno....fall can be measured on a previously bare or clea red grass surface, on analready existing snow surface (with identifiable cru st ), oron a snow board or other suitable surface tha t retai ns th esnow.
Use the rain gauge measuring stick. or a s turdie r ruler ifnecessary; record to the nearest tenth of an inch, readingthe act ual linear distance on the stick, taking an ave-ragefrom several measurement spots. \\'hen a grass surface- isused, be sure that the- stick is pushed only to the- bottom ofthe snow layer-s-net lower into the grass blades. Refer tosection 25.4 for further details.
S now Depth-Tota l depth of snow lying on the groundcan be measured with the rain gauge measuring stick or alonge-r , sturdier stick; several spots are sampled. Snowstakes may be required in areas with heavy snow rover.Reeoed to the nearest inch.
AlA FuelllloistureCSE OF FL"EL MOISIURE SCALES
The fuel moisture scale measurements, described below,may have to be corrected for aging changes in the fuelsticks (section 10.1).
FORESTER (APPALACHIAN) SCALETo measure moisture content of th e- 1/1·inch ponde rosa
pine fuel moisture stick:
1. Ch«/r the scale-Be sure- that the sliding weight onthe balance ann is set and locked at 100 grams. Thewe-ight is locke-d by tighte ning the setscrew on top of thewe-ight. Check calibration by hanging the 100-gramweight on the- hook and tapping the pivot block lightly;the pointer shoul d indicate zero. If adjustment is necessary. loosen the ....ing nuts and carefully move the scaleuntil the pointer indicates zero.
2. Remove the stick from rack-Use a clean glove, pieceof doth, or pape r and remove the stick from its wire- exposure rack. If stick is dry. lightly brush offany dust, us inga eleen, soft-bristle- pain tbrush; if wet, shake off any freemoisture.
3. Weig h the atid-Using its hook. han g the- stick onthe ecale arm. Steady the stick and let the pointer cometo rest; then ta p the pivot block to overcome any bindingdue to friction. Close the shelter door. if necessary, topreven t wind interference. Read the moisture percentage
shown on the sca le by thE'poi nter, and R'C'Ord to the near.est whole number (lK>e fig. 26 .3).
4. Replace the stick-Remove the stick from the scaleand return it to the wire rack. BE' sure that the correctside faces up (side with brads should face down) and thatthe end with the screw hook points north.
FORESTER (ClIISnOL~f) PORTABLE SCALEThis scale can be hand-held but is much easier to use if
it is hung on a pos t, eree. etc. To operate:
1. Check the scale-Make sure that the scale is plumband that the pointer moves freely . Check calibration wjththE' l OO-gram test weight.
2. Remow the stick {rom rack-Rt-move the stick fromwire rack and remove dust 0'1' free moisture. as describedin the Fore ste r (Appalachian) scale instructions.
3. Weigh tM stick-Carefully hang the stick on thescalE' hook. Gently tap the pointer and read the moisturepercentage that it shows on the scale. Record to the nearest whole number (se-e fig. 26 .5).
4. Replace the st id-ReplaCE' as described in the Forester (Appalachian) scale instructions.
182
Wll..LlA.'1S POCKET SCALE
1. Remove locki ng screw and scale cover.2 . In8('rt the locking screw as a handle for the scale.3. Cheek the scale-Calibrate the scale by hangi ng i'
rover (100 grams) on hook; any deviation from 100 gremust be included as an adjustment in the final moisturecalcu la tion (step 6).
4. Remow the dick from rack--<See Forester scaleinstru ctions.I
5. Weigh the stick-After r emoving scale cover (used instep 3). hang stick on the scale hook . Tum th e circularweight until beam balances; a t this point be sure that thescale body is horizontal and the handle vertical.
6. Cakulate the moisture valu~Rt-ad the graduationson both the rotating weigh t and the scale body. Add thetwo r ea dings, adjusting for any deviation found in step 3.Recheck to make certain that the numbe rs are rea d in theproper direction on the rotating scale. From the result,subtract 100 grams (the standard fuel stick weight> toobtain the recorded moisture percentage ( SE'e fig. 26 .7).
7. Replace the lltick --(See Forester scale instructions.)
APPENDIX 2. PSYCHROMETRIC TABLESTA N Q 454 ·0 -1E
10-63
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCEWEATHER BUREAU
(i)....,..
RELATIVE HUMIDITYand
DEW POINT TABLEPre ssure 30 Inch e s of Mer cu r y
For u se 0 1 e levot io n s betwee n 0 and 500 feet c b c ve s e a lev el
(I n A la ska use o f e le va ti o n s be twee n 0 a nd 300 feet abov e se o le ve l )
Va lues i n the bo dy of th e tabl e a re relative
h umi d it ies ( i n per ce n t) and d e ..... p o in ts ( in de a . Fo h r . )' wi th
respec t 10 water , for i ndi c at e d vnlu e s o f we t a nd dr y b ulb
te mperature s i n degree s Fahre nhe it .
H OW TO US E TH E TA BLE
Locate at the top of the co l umn the reading cor re spond i ng tothe wet bu lb t e mperature. Locate a t t he l eft s ide of the t a bl ethe reading corresponding t o t he dry bulb temperature . Fol l owdcvn the col umn unde r the wet bulb t emperature, and across t romt he dry bul b t emper a t u re ; at t he int e r s e c tion of these tvccolumns wi l l be found the relative humidity (~) in b l ack a nd t hedew point (O F . ) in red .
USCOIolIol-WBOC
'83
T A N o 454 0 -10
10·63
u. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCEWEATH ER BUREAU
RELATIVE H UM IDI T Yand
DEW POINT TABLEPr es su re 29 In ch es o f M ercu r y
For use at e levations between 501
(In A la ska u se at elevat ions betwee n
and 1900 f e e t ab ove sea leve l
301 and 1700 f e el a b o ve s e a le vel)
Va lue s i n the body of the table are re lat ive
hum id i t ies ( in percen t) a nd dew pa int s ( in d e c . Fahr .). w ith
respect to water , lor i nd ic a t e d volue s o f we t c nd dr y bu lb
temperat ures i n degrees Fahrenhe i t .
HOW TO US E TH E TABL E
Locate at the t op o f the co l umn the reading cor r e s ponding tothe wet bulb temperature . Locate at the left side of the tablethe reading co r r e s ponding to the dry bul b temperature. Followdown the column under t he wet bul b temperature, and acro ss t r amthe dry bul b tempera ture; at the i ntersection o f these twocolumns will be found the r e l a tive humidity (t ) i n bl ack and thedew point (OF .) i n rec .
USCO MM-WB-OC
187
TA No A5 A-O-1C
u. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCEWEATHER BUREAU
RELATIVE HUMIDITYand
DEW POINT TABLEPre ss ure 27 Inches 0 1 Me r c u r y
Fo r u se 0 1 e le va t ion s b etween 1,900 ond 3 ,900 feet cb c ve sea level
(In A laska u se al ele vc t i c n s b etw e en 1,700 and 3 ,600 feet above sea le ve l )
Va lues i n 'he b cd v of th e table ore relat ive
hu mi d i t ie s ( in p e r c e nt ] and dew po ints ( i n deg . Fahr .) , with
resp ect to water , fo r indic ated values af wet and dr y bulb
te mp era tures i n degr e es Fahr en h e i t.
HOW TO USE TH E TA BL E
Locat e a t the top of the column the reading co rresponding tothe we t bulb temperature . Locate at the left side of the tablethe read i ng cor r e spond i ng t o the dry bulb t empe r a t ure . Followdown t he column unde r t he we t bulb temperature, and across tramt he dry bulb temperature; a t the inte rsection of these twocolumns wi l l be found the rel at i ve humidity (~) in black and t hedew point ( OF . ) in r e d .
'9'
TA No 454 0 ·16
1063
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCEWEATHER BUREAU
~.__ . <~
{ . 'I:
~.~ ;........~
RELATIVE H UMIDITYand
DEW POINT TABLEPre ssur e 25 In ch e s o f Merc u r y
Fo r u se at el e va tions bet w e e n 390 1 and 6100 lee I above se a leve l
( In A la s ka u se at ele vcn e e s b e t w e e n 3601 a nd 5700 f e e t a bo ve se a lev e l )
Va lue s i n th e bo dy of The Tab le a r e r el a ti ve
h u mid it ie s ( i n pe r c e n t) a nd dew p o in t s ( i n d eg Fa h r . ) . w i t h
r es pe ct to wa te r . lo r i ndi c a te d va l ues 01 we t a nd dry bu lb
t e m pe ratu r es i n degr e e s Fa h r e nhe i t.
HOW TO US E TH E TAB LE
Loc a t e a t the t op of t he co lumn the r eadi ng cor re s pondi ng t othe ~e t bu lb t empe r a t u re . Locate a t t he le f t s ide of t he t a blet he r e ad i ng correspondi ng t o t he dry bu lb t emperature . Fol l owdo~n t he column under t he wet bu l b t emperature , and acros s t romt he dry bulb t emperatur e; a t the i nte rsect i on o f t he se t~o
columns will be f ound the rela tive humid i t y ( ~ ) in black and t hedew po int (O F. ) in r e d .
USCO MM-W8-OC
195
TA N o 454 0 -1A
10·63
u. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCEWEATHER BUREAU
RELATIVE HUMIDITYand
DEW POINT TABLEPre ssure 23 Inc h es o f M e r c u r y
f o r us e 01 e le .... e ncn s b et ..... e e n 6101 and 8500 fee t abo .... e s e a le v el
( In A la ska us e at e le vat i o n s b e tw e en 5701 and 7900 l e e t a b o ve se a le .... e l)
Va lu es in th e bo dy 01 th e tc bl e a re re ln ri v e
h um id i t ie s ( i n p e rcen t ) a nd d e w p o i nt s ( i n d e a . Fa h r. ). w i t h
resp ect to w a ter , l or i n di c a te d .... a lue s o f we i a nd dry bulb
te m p e ratures in degree s fahr en he i t.
H OW TO U S E THE TAB LE
Loca te at t he top of the column the read i ng co r r e s ponding tothe vet bulb tempe rature . locate a t t he l ef t side of the t a bl ethe read i ng cor respond i ng t o t he dr y bu lb t emperature . Followdovn t he column u nder t he vet bu l b temperature, and across t r amthe dry bu lb t emperature; a t t he i nte rsect i on of these t ....oco l umns wil l be fo und t he re l at i ve humidity (t) i n bl ack and t hede.... poin t (OF .) i n r e e.
199
APPENDIX 3. CLOUDCLASSIFICATION ANDIDENTIFICATION
A3.I Cloud Observations
Allhaugh detailed clou d observ ations are not a requiredpart of routine fire -weather reporting, B sound knowledgeof cloud types and fonns can help fire management personnel in many ways, particularly during ti mes of wildfireor prescribed burning. With this Knowledge, a person willhave a better chance of foreseeing such events as ligh tning, rainstorms, sudde n gusts of wind, or possible su stained high winds (Hardy and others 1955).
CLOUD CLASSIFICAT IOSClouds art' classified into four famil ies distinguished by
their height above ground: High douds (cirrus or etrrofonn douds), middle douds (given an "al to" prefix), lowclouds, and clouds with vertical develeprnerrt (cumulus orcumulofonn clouds). High clouds, usually composed entirely of ice crystals, generally OC'Cur a t a ltitudes rangingfrom 20,000 to 40,000 ft . ~liddl (> clouds may have basesbetween about 8,000 ft and 20,000 ft.
Cumulus douds, forming near the top of rising .....ann a ircolumns (convection colu mn s). can have base he igh tsranging from a few thousand fee t to 15,000 ft or higher.In the Western United States, their formation is parrieularly favored over mountain terrain. The douds mayrange from small, pu ffy but rela tively nat, fair-weathercumulus to massive cumulonimbu s a ssociated w-ith th understorms. These storm douds (-th underhea ds} eommonly extend to alti tudes of 30,000 ft and rna}' re ach50,000 ft OJ" higher .
203
CLOL"D CHARACTEHISTICS A."'"D I:'\"DICATIONSThe basic cloud eharacterteties are summarized in figure
A3.1. Illustrations of the various stages of cumulus clouddevelo pment a ppear in figures A3.2 through A3.5. Inaddition to the potential storm indication by toweringcumulus, a middle type ofcloud termed a ltocumulus castel lenus (fig. A3.6) shoul d also be noted. Forenoon OC'C'ur·renee of these d ouds, with thei r characteristic tUrrt'tform, often precedes t hu nderstorm activity in the afterneon.
Another type of clou d potenti a lly significant in fire-weather is the le ns-sha ped a ltocumulus, termed a le nticular cloud (fig. A3.7). These douds (Sch roeder a nd Buck1970; Schaefer and Day 1981 ), appearing over and to the1~ of mountain ranges, indicate strong ....rinds aloft andpossible turbulence near ridges. The clouds result fromwaves in the air now that a r e generated when the strongwinds blow across the mountains.
A form of altocumulus often associated with a large.scale wea ther syste m is shew n in figure A3,8; douds produc ing rain may or ma y not follow. Termed al tocumulusundulatus, the clouds a re a rranged in parallel bands atrig ht angles to the wind. Th e dis tinct roll pattern usu allyindica tes relatively strong ....i nd s at doud level.
Cirrus-type douds, composed ofice cry stals a nd typicallyfea the ry in appeara nce (fig. A3.9), a re sometimes thefore-run ner ofan a pproaching weat her system. Bes idesindicating h igh-alti tude mois tu re and ....ind direction, theyrna}' also indica te a n upper-air "jetstream," particula rlywhen the cloud elem en ts are in the form orlong plumes(fig. A3.9, part B). A dense type of cirrus (fig. A3.10) maybto prod uced from the a nvil tops of t hu nderstorms .
Fu rther details about cloud type s may be obtained fromSch roed er and Buck (l9 jO), Schaefer a nd Day (19 81), andcloud identification charts available at Na tional Wea therService offices .
Family
HIGH CLOUDS C_ C, 'Ilollp)'. b ......b k.. doudo.. FDmM'd ofdoPbea"" r.-.."~ ........16.&00 to ~ CIr f"tbIK·!JU fib-.4~.OOO fft t
CirTocwnuluo C< nun.~. cramy . ..... ripplod~ ox ot-t. or la)"f'n. Show ....,.Ib&h\ -ai'...il~..t in tlw' t......of lurma ..... .aau- -........
C...,..ln tur. C. ~t. hp·bb ox-'" ..,..itodl_l ,~ aDor~ ot tlwoky. I"tocIuocft tlaIo ~"Oll.
WIDDLE CLOUDS AltoMIm...... A< Ea:&I'nCiR ot-t of~~ -tI,,,,, and rr-y.~I ........s..d6.&00 to
_...13.000' '''1 AII....u"..oI... A<_ All.ocumulul . i\h 'U"\1.ic:aI~....I In Uw f...... o f omall to'aftS ...
caor~Is...... tI.>mou.. E"-_IIl1; n.w-. rommOll hoNonlal '- and 8J'P"U to boo....... ......Alt....""' ..I... Ac 1<011 A polich of u toeum..l... in W ~ o f .1rno or almond, 0''''"
Figure A3.1G-Oense cirrus , derived from anvil lop ot cumulonimbus .
211
APPENDIX 4. EQUIP MENT INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE CHECKL ISTSFOR MANUAL F IRE-WEATHER STATIONS
'llU:-~EAT>+£A suno.. COOID ITIOtI U'OU
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Figure A5.4-Hygromermoaerograph(section 8,1): A. mechanical details; B. electrical circuit
219
HYGROTHERMOAEROGRAPH+ 6 V ,
,'" Solenoi(l
ELECTRICA L CIRCUIT
PlIl"Tl L ist
I - Solenotd2: _ R• • ;sfor$
I - Copoe itorI - Batter}
4 - T..-ittors
B
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- D. C. R.loy~ 200 oll m w/ si lWi r cOl'ttoctl .(SIGMA, · 200 or ~vi'tO lenU
- R,OndRzs 6 8 k, :!: IO"4 ; 1/ 2 watl .
- C l · 4 1..u t. IO volt O.C.~ ~IO ·4 .
- 6 vol! . lontl rn tYPI.
- OJ. and 0, ; NPN f AIRCHILD 5 7581 or I qui.,o\ent
Q2' oncl 0.; PN P G.E. 2NI303 or ~ui¥oltnf.
220
APPENDIX 6. USER INSTRUCTIONSFOR RETRIEVING RAWS DATA
A6.! Retrie val of Data from AFFIRMSCom p u ter
The (ollowing instructions enable a user to retrieveRAWS data via the Data General (Forest Service) rom puter system or other computer tenninal and printer thatcan access the AFF IRMS computer (via telephone dial-upand modem if necessary). After proper identification ( In)has been entered, a series of command prompts are reoceived and answered by the user, as shown here in uppercast' letters.
COMMAND: RAWS
The RAWS comm and activates the RAWS processingmodule.
R-COMMANn
To obtain RAWS data, the user responds to this promp twith anyone or all of three basic commands, DSPW,DSPR , and DSPC, explained below. To exit from RAWS,the user enters RET. Any other response will cause themessage -GARBLED J1'"TUT, RETRY"to a ppea r, followedby a repeat of the R-COMMAND prompt.
TIlE DSPW COl'tIMAl'.'DR-COMMAND: DSPW xxxxxxxx. where the X'e de
note a specified station 's eight-digit transmission identifi cation number (10).
When the nspwcommand is entered, the RAWS mod ule will display the hourly data for the preceding 24 hoursfor the specified station. The data are formatted in columns with abbreviated headings. For example, the command nspw3248E 192 will display the 24 hours of datafor the station with the transmission In of3248E192.Repeat the command, with appropriate m, for data fromadditional, selected station s. It is important to include theassigned trans mis sion ID ; otherwise, if DSPW alone isentered , the data for all RAWS sites will be displayed inseque nce.
The nspw command can also be used with a two-digithour command to obtai n data only for a single hourlyobservation time; the time is rounded to the neare st wholehour. An example would be DSPW 3248E192 15. (N ote :there must be a blank space before the two-digit hour.)
Error Messages-There are two error messages associ-ared with the nspw two-digit hour comma nd:
(I ) If the time requested is after the la test update time(transmission time), the following message will be displayed on the computer te rminal (with the actual hoursgiven instead of the X symbols ): TIME XX NOT AVAILABLE FOR TODAY; LAST UPDATE WAS XXXX
In such a case , request the time rounded to the nearestprevious whole hour.
(2) Another error message is: NO DATA FORCURRENT DAY
This occurs when there are no data in the file from 0000hours to the requested time. In such a case, check the file
22'
by using the DSPW command for a 24-hou r display ofstation data. If no data are found, notify your RAWScoordinator or call the BIFC RAWS Sensing SystemBranch at (FTS) 554-1576 to see if th e data intercept linkis broken.
TIlE DSPR COMMANDR-COMMAND: DSPR XXXXXXXX (specify the station
transmission In)
The DSPR command displays the late st three days ofdata in the 1300 l.s .t , observational format (data for 1300,plus 24-hour maximum and minimum temperature andrelative humidity val ues and 24·hour precipitation). Theformatted colum ns have no headings but follow the AFFIRMS sequence . As with the DSPW command, be sure toinclude the eight-digit station tranemieeion ID.
TIlE nsrc COMMAl'.'DR-COMMAND: DSPC XXXXXXXX (specify the station
transmission 10)
The DSPC command displays, in a format with colu mnheadings A through J , the hourly values of additionalweather parameters (not included in the DSPW display).For example, columns A and B are commonly used forwind gust inform ation. Column B shows the maximumLsecond windspeed value during the preceding t -hcurpe-riod; column A, the wind direction at that time.
TIlE RET CO~L'tA"''D
R-cO~lMANO: RET
The RET command is used after all of th e desired RAWSdata have been obtained. This comma nd will terminatecommu nica tion with th e RAWS module and acti va te afurther prompt command. A reply of BYE will terminateconnecti on with the AFFIRMS computer. Example,COMMAND: BYE
A6.2 Access of RAWS Data fromNESDIS
The following instructions apply to retrieval of RAWSdata directly from the National Environmental SatelliteData Information Service (NESDl3) compu ter a t SilverSpring, MD. This option is avai lable should AFFIR~1S orthe BLMIBIFC sa tellite downlink be outof service .
ACCESSING CO~IPtrrER
To access the computer, with 300 baud rate; half duplex,30 characte rs pe-r second , even parity:
Dial (202) 899·2521
To access the computer, with 1200 baud rate:
Dial (202) 899-6595 or (202) 899-6596
when the computer prints DCS - ENTER ID, typeDAFS06 (carriage return).
The computer will print several lines of information andthen print ENTER: MSG, RLT, DIS or STO P
At this point, enter RLTI followed by the first six digitsof the station number , the Julian date on which the dataare to begin , an d the transmission time (hou rs, minutes.and seconds G~fn of the starting data group. An exampl. follows:
ENTER: ~fSG, RLT, DIS. or STOP RLTI324534,231234700
Here , the Julian date numbe r is 231 (Augus t 19) and thetransmission time is 23 hou rs. 47 minutes, and 00 secondsC .m.t. The G.m.L times are 5 hours fas ter than easternstandard time; 8 hours faster than Pacific standard time.
EXITI:'\C CO~IPUfER
After all of the desired data output has been recei ved,hit the -BREAK- key.
The computer will print ENTER: MSG, RLT, DIS orSTOP
Type in STOP, on the same line; th en hit carriage re turnkey.
EVALUATION OF DATA OUTPUTIn the above exam ple, the following data output is re
The first line contains the station 10, followed by thedate (231) and transmission time of the data group (thetime is 23 hours, 47 minutes, and 33 seconds G.m.t.).
For instructions in evalua ting the data, the above columns will be numbered (example given for last line):
123 4567800.01 00 .47 19 . 40 225 168 192 134 001
(1) Accumulated precipitation; subtract the currentvalue from that on previous line to obtain the hourlyamount. Amount is zero.
(2) Windspeed; move decimal one place to right andround off. Speed is 5 miles per hour.
(3) Wind direction, in degnes azimuth; move decimalone place to the right. Dil"t'Ction is 194 degrees , or south.
(4) Bat tery voltage; requires conversion table. Value is13.24.
(5) Air tem perature; requires conversion table. Value is61 of.
(7) Rela tive humidity; requires conversio n ta ble. Valueis 53 percen t .
(8) Barometric pressure; requires conversion table. Disregar-d, no sensor installed.
APPENDIX 7. EQUIPMENT SOURCES; MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS
Table A7.1- Sou rces of equipment do501bed in this l\ancl:look: name of company; dassiflcation of company (F. manufachJrer; O. chb'Ibu1or);general category of equipment (M, manual, indudlng manually read eIeeUonic inslrUments or their OU!;lU1 devices; A. aulOmaleddata a~sitiotl systems); and types 01 instn.ments Of 5efl5Clr5 made or 50IcI (T. air lemprtralUr8; H, relative hJmory or dewpoint.WS. Wlndspeed ; WO, wind (irectlOo ; P, precipltatlon; B. barornetnc pressure; RIM. tvellemperatlXe and IueI moisture,' R, solarractation; V. evaporabOl'l ; SliM. soil temperalJ"Q and s.oil moislUre; L. water level) . DesignatIOnS are based on .terallJre fromcompanies . letter a Oeootes 5eflscn can be used in automated systems; d. aUof sensors toraub'naled systems are lrom olhermanufaclUrers; e. pnmaliy manualy read electronic eqJipmenl Wllh built .... data prooItssing and storage: i. inleftace lor comptI1ef1printer available: s. sensors only
Equipment Instruments Of tensorsCom~ny CIon ..,...,.. AT H WS WD P B FTIu R V ST'" L
Bellon Instrument Co. F M.A X X X X X X X X X
Ben Meadows Co. 0 M X X X X X X X X X X
Campbel Scientific. Inc. F Ad X X X X X X X X
Climalronics Corp . F A X X X X X X X X
Climel lnslI'uments F A X X X X X X X X
Controle~. Inc , F Me,A X X X
Davis roseumeots F M X
The Eppley laboratory, Inc . F Me X
Forestry Suppliers. Inc. 0 M X X X X X X X X X X X X
Ha_ F A X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Hf'lds International. Inc . F Me,i X X X X
KaN SCientific Insb'. Co. F M.A X X X X X X X X X X
John W , KennedyConSlJltants 0 A X X X X X X X X
Leupolcl & SleVens. Inc . F M.A X X
u-cec Inc . F A X X X X
Maximum, Inc , F M X X X X
Meleophysics Corp. F Ad X X X X X X X X
MelOne. Inc . F A X X X X X X X X
NRG Systems F Me,A X X
Omnidala International, Inc, F Ad X X X X X X X X X
Palmer jnstruments. Inc . F M X X
Oual imeuics, Inc.,Science Associates 0 M,A X X X X X X X X X X
Oualimetrics, Inc ,weee ecrcoc s Division F M,A X X X X X X X X X X X
Alternating currentAdminis tra tive Forest Fire Information Retrieval and Management SystemAutomatic weather station(s)Boise In teragency Fire CenterBureau orland Ma nagementDirect current; VDC, volts direct currentDa ta collection pla tformDa ta Gene ra lDirect rea dout ground stationFore st ServiceGeostationary operational e nvironmental satellitt>Liquid crystal displayLight -emitting diodeNational Computer Center a t For t Collins, CONationa l Climatic Da ta CenterNa tional Environmental Satellite Data Inform ation ServiceNational Fire Da nger Rating Syste mNational Fire-Weather Data LibraryNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdminstrationNational Park ServiceNational Weather ServiceRemote automatic wea ther station(s); P-RAWS. portable RAWSSoil Conserva tion ServiceU.S. Depa rt ment of AgricultureU.S. Depa rt men t of the In teri or
checklists, 212-2 14Instrument (sensor) exposure (see exposure)
installa tion (see installation)lnsrruments (sensors) (see individual 1istings for
exposure, installa tion , maintenance, and operatinginstructions)
desirable charaeteristies, 6
lnstrumen r sh el te rs, 12-15aluminum, 14-15anchor pin, 63. 215cotton region, 13. 63 -65, 106orchar d type, 14-15portable, 14-15solar radia tion shields, 13-14 , lSI, 172-173
Mainte na nce,basic program. manual station, 105-106checklists, ma nual fire -weather sta tion, 212-214instru ment (see individual instrument lis ti ngs)tools a nd equipment (see tool cache )RAWS (see remote a utoma tic wea ther stations ,
mainte nance)responsibility, 7, lOS, 160, 162
~Janagemf'nt,
data. 8-10stations and eetwcrke, 8
'-Ja nual stations (see stations )'-la rkings, thermometer. restoring, 106Ma son hygrom eter. 22, 85Meximum temperature. 12, 82-83'-laximum-minimum thermometers,
dial type, 17-18,82digital , 18, 82Six's type, 16-17,65,82,109-110standard (see standard maxi mu m a nd minimum
thermometers)Meusurement units, conversion, 226-230~1easurf'mf'nts (see observations or operating ins tru ctions
for individual instruments or wea ther elements)Measuring stick. min gaug e, 36 , 95~I f'chanica l wind counter (see wind counters)~J f' rcu ry thermomete rs, 11, 15-17Minimum temperature, 12, 82-83Mcnitcring, RAWS,
data, 164performance, 163-164
Mcr tarbcerd psychrometer, 22-23, 85, 115Mounts (see support)
Xationa l Environmental Satfolli te Data Informa tionService (S ESDISJ, 153, 162-163,221
Xatic nal Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) indexes,1,3-4. 9, I SO, 153
Natiennl Fire Wea ther Data Library (NFWD L). 8-9. 153S etworks, station, I , 3-4Neurron probe, 59, 80Neutron scattering, 58-59
234
Nipher shield, 45-4 6Nonreco r ding min ga uges, 36-39
oObse rv a tions (mf'asuremen ts) (see listings for individual
in s truments)abridged instructions, 178-182
Observation time. 5, 82. 92Observer respc n sibilt iee, 7One-mile contacts, 30One-sixti eth-mile contacts, 28Operati ng ins tructions (opera tion) (see observations)Orientation of wind va ne. 72. 73. 157
Solar panel. 149, 153, 157Solar radia tion, 52Solar radia tion shields (see radia tion shields )Standard fire -weather station (see fire-weathe r station
automatic (AWS), 5, 149-150, 165-174climatological, 5, 11-12eva pora tion, S, 11, 54-57, 61-62, 102-103fire -weather , manual, 4-5, I I, 61, 212-214loca tion, 5-6, 61-62manual, 4portable, 14, 34, 154·1 55remote automatic (see RAWS)
Stick, fuel moisture (see fuel moisture sticks)Stilling well, 55, 146Storage pre cipitation gauges, 44-46
measurements, 96Support,
instru ment shelter, 13rain gauge, 37Townse nd, II, 16, 65, 108
Sunshine recorders, 52Cam pbell-Stokes re corder, 52-53 , 71, 146
T
Te mperature , 12a verage, 12de w'point , 12dry bulb and wet bulb, 12fuel, 152instruments (see hygrotherm ogra phs, psychrometers,
a nd thermometers)maximum and minimum, 82
adjustment to calendar day , 82·83pen arm, hygrothermograph, 23, 116soil, 57, 103
Thermometers, 11-12, 15-18alcohol, 15. 16, 106-107bimetal, 17, 23Bourdon tube, 17-18, 23defects, 106-107deformation, 17, 23dial, 17-18, 57-58, 82digital, 18, 82dry and wet bulb, II, 18, 20, 22, 83, 110electrical (electro nic), 18, 78, lS I , 158, 172frac tu red constriction, 106-107liquid-in-glass, 15-17installation, 65, 78-79, 158maintenance, 106-110markings, 106mercury, 11,15-17mercury-in-steel, 17-18soil thermometer , 57-58, 78
psychrometer (see dry and wet bulb)reading, 81-82retrea te r, 107se parated colum ns , 107shelter (see instrumen t shelters )shield (see radiation shi elds)
236
Six's maximum -minimum, 16.17,65,82,109-110mounted in evaporation pan , 56-57, 103, 146
soil, 57-58 , 78-79, 103, 147, 152, 158spiri t, 16standard maximum and minimum, II , 15-16, 65, 81-82,
107-108,178support, Town sen d, 11, 16, 65, 108wet bu lb (see dry and wet bulb)
Therm omete r shelters (see instrument shelters)Time,
wWater content, snowfall, 47, 92-93 , 181Wedge-sha ped (fencepost) rai n gauge, 39 , 93Weighing rai n gauge (see Universal weighing gauge)Western Regional Climate Center (\\'RCC), 8Wet bulb,
Wind din-ction. 11.26, 32, 35Wind direction system, II, 32, 71.72, 137-138
indi ca tor la mps, 72, 138Wind meter, hand -held ( BH Dwyer wind meter )Wind movement, 103
237
windspeed, 11, 26. 87adjustment to 20-foot standard height, 89-90Beau fort 5('8.1e, 90-9 1gusts, 91Instruments (eee an emometers)
'Wind sh ields, 45-46, 74Wind vane. II , 35, 151.170-171
install ation, 71-73, 157maintenance, 137·138
zZero adjustm..nt, 120
Finklin, Arnold I.; Fischer, William C. 1990. Weather station handbook- an interagencyguide for wildland managers. NFES No.1140. Boise, 10: National Wildf ire Coordinat ingGroup. 237 p.
A comprehensive guide lor the operation of weather stations provid ing data for wildlandresource management. Both manually ope rated and automatic-type weather stations areincluded. Especially intended for use by USDI Bureau of Land Management and NationalPark Service, USDA Forest Service, and similar agencito's. Describes instrumental equipment, siting, installation, data collection, and meimenance.