Water reuse and recycling in Canada- history, current ... reuse and...Water reuse and recycling in Canada has been alive and viable where there is a need for water conservation or

Water Cycle 1 (2020) 98–103

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Water Cycle

journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/water-cycle/

Water reuse and recycling in Canada- history, current situation andfuture perspectives

Tony Van Rossum

Corporation of the City of London, 300 Dufferin Avenue, Post Office Box 5035, London, Ontario, N6A 4L9, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O

Keywords:Water reuseRegulations and guidelinesZero liquid dischargeReuse research

E-mail address: [email protected].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watcyc.2020.07.001Received 23 April 2020; Received in revised formAvailable online 11 July 20202666-4453/© 2020 The Authors. Publishing Servicelicense (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

A B S T R A C T

Water reuse and recycling in Canada has been alive and viable where there is a need for water conservation or toreduce nutrients going to rivers and lakes. A study on response to reuse shows many people are in favour, but notfor drinking or washing/bathing. This is a position when water nearby is plentiful. Reuse of water for irrigationhas occurred in Canada since the 1980’s in arid areas of the country. Guidelines have been developed across thecountry. Provincial or Federal regulation is minimal except for British Columbia. In this paper, reuse in Canadawill be broken into three groups; residential, industrial and research. Sustainable development is a driver forresidential and institutional sties. Industrial application is driven by lack of availability of water or costs which hasled to the Zero Liquid Discharge sites in Canada, particularly in arid areas. There are companies in Canadadesigning and building equipment to meet the need in Canada and elsewhere. Research is also ongoing on reuseapplications for treatment systems for inside sustainable homes and buildings. We are blest with abundant waterin part of the country and the arid areas are leading the future for reuse in Canada.

1. Introduction

Canada is blest with water including the Great Lakes and riverssourced by glaciers, snow and rainfall. However, Canada is a vast countrywith arid parts. As cities expand, the demand for water increases and canstress groundwater or surface water sources. Climate change isdecreasing the size of glaciers and the source of a regular supply of waterin the western provinces is at risk. The Canadian response to reuse wasstudied at Western University in 2015 [1]. The study showed that amajority of the university community were in favour of use of reusewater, however they were more likely to accept reuse wastewater forapplications that do not involve drinking or close personal contact. Thereport goes on to suggest that there are concerns about the presence ofchemicals such as pharmaceuticals.

Canadian Guidelines are produced by the federal government andprovincial governments. The Federal Government published CanadianGuidelines for Domestic reuseWater for Use in Toilet and Urinal Flushingin 2010 [2]. British Columbia has the only provincial regulation on reusewater but there are reuse guidelines in some of the provinces. BritishColumbia has the Municipal Wastewater Regulation, 2018 and theReclaimed Water Guideline, 2013 [3,4]. Alberta has Guidelines forResidential Rainwater Harvesting Systems, 2010 and a fact sheet onAlternative Solutions Guide for Small SystemWater Reuse, January 2017

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[5]. Southern Saskatchewan is arid and has used wastewater effluent forirrigation since the 1980’s (WWTP effluent for crop irrigation) [6].Manitoba has used lagoon effluent to reduce nutrient discharges to sur-face water. Roblin and Wasagaming/Clear Lake in Riding MountainNational Park are two sites that have used wetlands and uptake byPopular trees or crop irrigation [7]. "Water and Energy ConservationGuidance Manual for Sewage Works" is published by the province ofOntario, of which Part 4 is on Water reclamation and reuse [8].

The Atlantic Provinces and Environment Canada published AtlanticCanada Wastewater Guidelines Manual, for Collection, Treatment, andDisposal in 2006 and part 10 provides information on planning consid-erations, re-use applications, water quality considerations, and guide-lines for wastewater irrigation and other reuse criteria [9]. A report ongolf course irrigation by the Centre for Water Resources Studies at Dal-Tech, Dalhousie University was done in 1999 for the province of PrinceEdward Island [10]. Case studies of six golf courses throughout Canadawere documented in the report. A Canadian standard, CAN/-CSA-B128.1–06/B128.2–06 (R2016) specifies Design and Installation ofNon-Potable Water Systems/Maintenance and Field Testing ofNon-Potable Water Systems [11]. It can be used for non-potable watersystems for applications such as flushing toilets, irrigating lawns andgardens, washing automobiles, showering, bathing, washing clothes, orheating and cooling. In this paper, reuse in Canada will be broken intothree groups, residential/commercial/institutional/applications,

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Acronyms

AOP Advanced Oxidation ProcessBCTMP Bleached Chemi Thermal Mechanical PulpBD3 Unit 3 of the Boundary Dam coal-fired power plantBPD barrels of oil per dayCBWS Cove Bay Water SystemCCS Carbon Capture and StorageCDWQG Canadian Drinking Water Quality GuidelinesCIRS Centre for Interactive Research in SustainabilityCMHC Canada Mortgage and Housing CorporationCOD Chemical Oxygen DemandCWWA Canadian Water and Wastewater Association

EDCs Endocrine Disrupting ChemicalsEPCOR City of Edmonton sole shareholder of the Utility CompanyFDEP Florida Department of Environmental ProtectionGRTS Groundwater Recovery and Treatment SystemHRT hydraulic retention timeOLR organic loading rateRAP Remedial Action PlanPPCPs Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care ProductsRASR Remedial Action Status ReportUSAB Up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactorsVCC Vancouver Convention CentreWSAC Wet Surface Air CoolerZLD Zero liquid Discharge

T. Van Rossum Water Cycle 1 (2020) 98–103

industrial applications and research.

2. Residential/commercial/institutional applications

The "Toronto Healthy House" was a demonstration project initiatedby a design competition by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation(CMHC) in 1991. In the report by Ada Leung (2004), the house watersupply and reuse water system includes a cistern beneath the backyarddeck connected to a filtration system that collects rain and grey water forrecycling and reuse within the house [12]. Approximately 80% of thewater used in the home is through recycling.

Reuse in London Ontario includes a 3 MOffice and Fanshawe College.The 3 M office uses cistern water from the basement sump weeping tilesystem for flushing toilets. This effort reduced building potable waterconsumption by 25% annually for the 600 employees at the site (about200 m3 per month since 2017).

The 10 year old, 14,000 square meters Fanshawe College building hasa green roof to lower energy consumption, storm water reuse for toiletflushing and site irrigation of the green roof. The building has two 5,000L cisterns for storage of rainwater. Excess rainwater overflows the tanksand goes to the storm sewer. The storm water from the cistern is filteredand disinfected prior to use for flushing urinals and toilets and irrigationof the green roof. The grey water is not clear and stains the toilets andurinals. Signs above the toilets have been installed advising that thewater is from disinfected rainwater. The students in the building are inmechanical courses and on the second floor some pre-med students. Thestudents have accepted the use of grey water once they have learnedabout the reuse effort and the custodial staff have been provided infor-mation of the water source and the toilets don’t need scrubbing due to thereuse water staining. They rarely run out of water and occasionally havehad float level issues in the cisterns.

In British Columbia, examples of buildings with internal wastewaterreuse and non-potable reuse systems are the Vancouver ConventionCentre (VCC) West building (Vancouver, BC); and the University ofBritish Columbia Centre for Interactive Research in Sustainability (CIRS)building (Vancouver, BC) [13,14]. The CIRS building collects rainwaterfrom the roofs of the building and stores it in a cistern. Sprinkler irri-gation can use the backup cistern water as a secondary supply of water.The rainwater is filtered and disinfected onsite and distributed throughthe building for potable water applications. Wastewater from the build-ing is treated onsite and used for toilet flushing and irrigation within thebuilding [15]. The Vancouver Convention Centre (VCC) West buildinghas a black water treatment plant that reuses grey and black water forwashrooms toilet flushing and rooftop irrigation during warmer weather[16]. Blackwater generally refers to wastewater originating from sanitarysources (e.g. toilets, urinals, and bidets), as well as drainage from foodpreparation and utensil cleaning activities (e.g. kitchen sinks anddishwashers).

Bowen Island Municipality’s Cove Bay Water System (CBWS), a Zero

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Liquid Disposal (ZLD) system, treats surface water from Grafton Lake forpotable water. Historically, the lake water was treated with hypochloriteaddition, however this treatment is insufficient to meet the CanadianDrinking Water Quality Guidelines (CDWQG) for several parametersincluding protozoa, turbidity, manganese and colour. To comply withCDWQG, the Municipality reviewed several treatment technologies forability to meet the treatment commitment and affordability of treatment.Purifics Ceramic membrane filtration (CUF) was identified as thepreferred water treatment system. A three-month pilot study was con-ducted to prove the effectiveness and efficiency of the system for theremoval of organics and manganese in the water. Purifics has beenawarded a contract to supply a drinking water purification system forBowen Island [17].

The City of Guelph did a study entitled Residential Greywater FieldTest that was published in 2012 [18]. Greywater generally refers towastewater from household baths and showers, hand basins and kitchensinks. The City gathered information on the costs, benefits, barriers,opportunities and requirements of residential greywater reuse systems.The research team installed greywater reuse systems in 30 homes tocollect greywater from showers and baths for reuse in toilet flushing. AGreywater Rebate Program was initiated that offers residential homeowners $1,000 if they install and use an approved greywater system [19].The Rebate program identifies some applicable codes, regulations,by-laws and building permits, requirements of installation of approvedgreywater reuse system technologies that must be completed by a qual-ified plumber and contractor. The contractor must also provide an op-erations manual, train homeowners on the operation of the system andrequired maintenance procedures.

3. Industrial applications

The City of Edmonton, Alberta, through a subsidiary, EPCOR joinedwith Suncor on a treated wastewater reuse project and pipeline to sup-port a $2 billion expansion and upgrade to the Suncor refinery [20]. GoldBar Wastewater Treatment Plant treats wastewater from about 700,000people and has the capacity to treat 310 million litres of wastewater perday. The membrane facility is being operated by EPCOR. Suncor built a460 mm, 5.5 km water pipeline between the refinery and EPCOR’s GoldBar Wastewater Treatment Plant. The partnership between Suncor andEPCOR ensured consistent, high quality water for the refinery and asource of 15 million litres of water each day. An EPCOR/Suncor video onthe Reuse Project is posted on the website (Environmentally-friendlysolutions: EPCOR’s water reuse project with Suncor Edmonton Refinery2014) [21]. The video goes into detail about: the zee weed membraneplant at Gold Bar wastewater treatment plant and quality of permeate;the reuse at the refinery in the cooling tower and hydrogen plant; and forthe boiler water which goes through an ultrafiltration and reverseosmosis system.

There are zero liquid disposal (ZLD) facilities in Saskatchewan

T. Van Rossum Water Cycle 1 (2020) 98–103

including a refinery, a steel plant, a power plant and a paper mill.Another ZLD facility using a Canadian systems supplier is below. ZLDgenerally refers to no liquid leaving the plant boundary.

The Co-op Refinery Complex (CRC) in Regina, expanded its opera-tions to produce 30,000 more barrels of oil per day (BPD) taking it from100,000 BPD to a 130,000-BPD facility, which increased its water usage.The refinery’s water source was a blend of well water and city water.Faced with restricted use of city water, the refinery had to find a newsource of water. The plant is the first North American refinery recyclingall of its wastewater. The wastewater first goes into oil water separatoropen tanks where the oil is skimmed and sludge is removed from thebottom of the tanks. The second stage is a dissolved nitrogen gas flotationunit where the oil is recovered for reprocessing. The third stage hasbiological treatment to degrade volatile organic compounds andammonia and then Zee weed membranes. The solids are treated in acentrifuge and the centrate is recycled. The treated water then goes to ademineralization plant to remove dissolved solids and organics. The firststep is filtering through a multi-bed filter to remove solids. Then goes toion exchange to remove cations and anions. The water goes to a forced airde-carbonator to remove carbon dioxide. The next step for the water is togo through conventional spiral wound reverse osmosis with two units inseries. The final step is to go through a mixed bed ion exchanger forpolishing. Sixty-five per cent of the recycled water goes into steam pro-duction for heating, hydrogen production and powering equipment withthe remaining recycled water being used in other processes such ascooling and hydrogen production [22]. The zero wastewater design withequipment is described in a video [23]. The refinery uses every drop ofwater that falls on its 800-acre property which allows less usage fromwells. The waste brine is disposed into a deep well. The Zee Weedmembrane bioreactor (MBR) and a high efficiency reverse osmosis sys-tem used GE technology with a capacity of up to 7.6 million litres ofwastewater a day [24].

The EVRAZ Regina facility is a zero liquid effluent electric-arc furnacesteelmaking facility. It discharges no wastewater, with the exception of asmall amount of spent softener brine (which is hauled to the Reginasanitary sewer system). The Regina steel facility has very low water use,at less than 1,000 L per tonne (L/t) of steel produced. A study byWorldSteel shows the world average for electric-arc furnace steelmakingis 28,000 L/t [25]. Domestic wastewater from the site is treated anddisinfected and used for cooling tower makeup. Monitoring of waterusage is critical to minimize water requirements. Water softening is usedto decrease dissolved solids form cooling tower blow down and recycledcooling sprays.

Saskatchewan is a world-leader in Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)[26]. Saskatchewan and its provincial utility, SaskPower, pioneered the

Fig. 1. Boundary dam carbon cap

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way for full-scale carbon capture facilities around the world with theirfully-integrated carbon capture and storage demonstration project onUnit 3 of the Boundary Dam (Fig. 1) coal-fired power plant (BD3). Theintegration of CCS to a coal-fired power plant not only results in the in-crease in water consumption and cooling duty, but also additional waterdischarge especially from cooling the flue gas to the much lower tem-perature required for the CO2 capture process. Using the dry cooler forrejecting the higher grade heat, and the Wet Surface Air Cooler (WSAC)for the lower grade heat improves cooling water temperature, while alsomaintaining ZLD status [27].

In 1992, Millar Western opened the world’s first zero-effluent, high-yield market pulp mill, in Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan. The first in theworld not to discharge any effluent or waste water into any nearby creek,river, stream or lake. The logs are fed into two, ring debarkers and two,disc chippers. The chips are fed into storage bins for use in the pulp mill.There are two production lines and move through stages of steaming,storage, chemical treatment and mechanical de-structuring. Refiningchanges the chips into pulp. The pulp is bleached and washed to removeimpurities. Hydrogen peroxide is a main bleaching chemical. The lastphase is drying, weighting, baling and packaging. All the effluent goes toa feed chest or settling pond. The water goes through clarifier and theexcess fibre is pressed and compressed and incinerated. The liquid passesthrough evaporators and concentrated up to 30% solids. The liquid isfurther concentrated via steam to about 68% and used as fuel in the re-covery boiler. The molten salt mixture from the recovery boiler is dis-solved to produce green liquor. The green liquor is filtered, oxidized andreused as caustic in the pulping process. The company was sold to PaperExcellence in 2006 and has the capacity to produce 400,000 tonnes ofBleached Chemi Thermal Mechanical Pulp (BCTMP) annually. BCTMPwhich uses heat, mechanical action and mild chemicals to separate cel-lulose fibers is used in the production of printing and writing papers,tissue and toweling, paperboard and specialty papers [28]. The millserves primarily Asian export markets.

4. Reuse equipment

More information on two of the companies mentioned above are asfollows:

� Waterloo Biofilter Systems has experience in onsite treatment andreuse of wastewaters including: The Toronto Healthy House™ –whichwas the first residential wastewater reuse system in Canada – tonumerous; golf courses, truck stops, and vehicle washing stations[29]. Waterloo Biofilter Systems have over 14 years of experience in

ture and storage facility [26].

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delivering advanced onsite wastewater reuse installations for resi-dential and commercial applications.

� Purifics Water Inc. is a Canadian company that has done installationsin Canada and the United States for water, wastewater and reuseapplications [30]. Their Ceramic Membrane Process system has asmall footprint with complexity reduction over other ceramic,hybrid-ceramic or polymeric membrane filtration processes. The lowTrans Membrane Pressure (TMP, namely the hydraulic pressure dif-ferential (net driving force) across the membrane), flux and dutycontribute to lower operating and structure capital costs. Photo-Cat isan AOP that is chemical free and destroys organic contaminants usinga TiO2 slurry-based photocatalytic process. Photo-Cat degradeschemical contaminants (such as 1,4-dioxane), biologicals, viruses,oocysts, EDCs, PPCPs, removes sub-micron particulate, metals andcan change bromate back to bromide. The De-Watering RecoverySystem (DeWRS) is a residuals management system to concentratesolids to enable a ZLD system. Purifics has Canadian sites but thesesites don’t have documented data available that comes from a superfund site.

In the United States, legislation requires public disclosure and so thereports from one of these super fund sites is below with significant thirdparty data and analysis. This is a groundwater treatment system whichdischarges to a wastewater treatment plant and a portion of the watergoes to an RO system and injected into the aquifer to maintain waterlevels in the wetlands. The American Beryllium Company site in Tall-evast, Florida was purchased by Lockheed Martin. Due to contaminationon the site Lockheed Martin submitted a Remedial Action Plan (RAP) tothe Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP). The FDEPapproved the RAP Addendum in November 2010 and construction of the

Fig. 2. Treatment system genera

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Groundwater Recovery and Treatment System (GRTS) was completed insummer of 2013. The Lockheed Martin ground water treatment systemincludes Purifics Ceramic Ultra Filtration and the Photo-Cat, anAdvanced Oxidation Process (AOP) equipment that are used in the GRTS(Fig. 2). Photo-Cat is a system that destroys organic contaminants using atitanium dioxide (TiO2) slurry-based photocatalytic process to purify ordetoxify water. The annual reports submitted to the FDEP can be foundon the Lockheed Martin website [31,32].

The report also includes removal levels for the three trains ofAdvanced Oxidation Process (AOP) Equipment and Activated carbonunits separately in Table 7 of the 2016 RASR [32]. Chemicals analysedfor the process equipment operation monitoring include 1,1-dicchloro-ethane (1,1-DCA), 1,1-dichloroethene (1,1-DCE), cis-1,2-dichloroethene(cis-1,2-DCE), tetrachloroethene (PCE), Trichloroethene (TCE), Vinylchloride (VC), 1,4-dioxane. The data on the monitored process equip-ment shows that effluent from the AOP and Carbon filters were belowcriteria and for 1,4-dioxane, which did not have a criterion, the reductionwas 93%. The RASR states “The GRTS was operational for 98% of thereporting period. The GRTS was able to process groundwater for 8,610.3h, with 145.1 h of planned downtime and 28.6 h of unplanneddowntime”.

5. Research

Staff from the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,University of Alberta, Edmonton did a number of presentations at theCanadian Water and Wastewater Association (CWWA) Annual Confer-ence in Banff, Alberta in 2019 related to the future of reuse for decen-tralized systems. Decentralized systems need to be robust with littleowner maintenance for future acceptance.

l arrangement plan [31,32].

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“Performance of anaerobic treatment of blackwater collected fromdifferent toilet flushing systems, low flow and vacuum, could achieveboth energy recovery and water conservation?” [33] The presentationlooks at future community water services for decentralized wastewatertreatment and resource recovery for onsite treatment. The onsite treat-ment eliminates transport or pipelines and would fit in rural or remotecommunities. An anaerobic digester could deal with high concentrationsof organic material. Hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis can be promotedin digesters with, hydrogen or iron or granular activated carbon or highfree ammonia in lab scale testing. Vacuum toilets use less water andgenerate higher organics and ammonia concentrations. Promotinghydrogenotrophic methanogenesis in anaerobic digesters improvesmethane generation for energy and less solids.

Anaerobic treatment of source-diverted blackwater: energy recoveryfrom human excreta [34]. There are digesters operating in decentralizedsites in countries such as Germany, China, Netherland, Belgium andSweden. High ammonia can inhibit methane production, so options arebeing investigated to enhance methane generation for energy recoveryusing Up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors (USAB) operating at 35C. One promising option for black water digestion is the co-digestion byusing black water and food wastes. In this study, there was a 2 fold in-crease in the organic loading rate (OLR) kg COD/m3/day. A step-wiseorganic loading rate allowed microorganisms to adapt to highammonia concentrations. A threefold increase in methane productionwas achieved in the study and a significant lower production of sludge.

High-loading food waste and blackwater anaerobic co-digestion:Maximizing bioenergy recovery [35]. This study had food wastesadded to blackwater in a thermophilic reactor to improve production ofmethane at various mixing ratios of blackwater to food wastes. The studyreports that “The information provided by the present work should helpto assess the environmental and economic feasibility of blackwater andfood waste co-digestion strategy and potentially guide future decentral-ized waste/wastewater treatment system designs.” The best performanceof COD reduction and methane production was obtained under the OLRof 10 kg COD/m3/day.

Co-digestion of blackwater with kitchen organic waste: Effects ofmixing ratios and insights into microbial community [36]. This studylooked at thermophilic (at 35 C) and mesophilic (55 C) reactors in labscale operation for blackwater and kitchen organic wastes. The studylooked at different hydraulic retention times (HRT) for both the ther-mophilic and mesophilic reactors. The loading stages ranged from 1.7 KgCOD/m3/d in stage 1–4.8 Kg COD/m3/d in stage 4 and HRT ranged from20 days in stage 1–7 days in stage 4. The Thermophilic reactor was shutdown after 10 days HRT in stage 3 due to decreasing methane produc-tion. The stage 3 and stage 4 methane generation was over 80% based onthe COD balance. The study states “The mixing of kitchen waste withblackwater improves anaerobic treatment capacity and mesophilictreatment showed significantly higher efficiency as compared to treat-ment under thermophilic conditions.” The results indicate that a meso-philic reactor could be smaller for decentralized systems and generatemore methane for energy and could have less accumulation. The effluentwould still need to be dealt with potentially as a fertilizer due to highammonia concentrations.

6. Conclusion

Water reuse is an important alternative water resources to alleviatethe ever-increasing demands for water resources and water qualitydeterioration issues. This study introduces water reuse applications aswell as relevant guidelines and government initiatives in Canada fol-lowed by the case studies for illustrating the advanced technologies as anenabler of water reuse development. The study also identifies techno-logical and research innovations towards sustainable water reusedevelopment. Lessons from water reuse in Canada can be beneficial toother countries and regions particularly those in arid areas that sufferfrom severe water environment problems or remote sites.

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