-
Water resources, sustainability and societal livelihoods in
Indonesia
Hidayat Pawitan1, Gadis S. Haryani2
1 Department of Geophysics and Meteorology, Bogor Agricultural
University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia, e-mail: [email protected]
2 Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Bogor, Indonesia
AbstractRapid national development and increasing population
pressures on land resources have caused serious social and
environmental problems in Indonesia that require concerted efforts
to overcome and proper resource management. A series of national
programs dealing with the problem of linking the water environment
and community livelihoods were created, and they are being
implemented around the country under a framework of broad
guidelines for sustainable development and integrated water
resources management. This paper presents a brief description of
Indonesian water and environmental resources, followed by an
overview of progress in and development of an ecohydrological
approach that has been introduced during the past decade. It was
recognized that the approach provides a strong scientifi c basis
and is in line with the needs and efforts being promoted through
national movements in natural resource management to guarantee
societal livelihoods and sustainable national development.
Key words: environmental resources, degradation, national
programs, ecohydrology approach.
DOI: 10.2478/v10104-011-0050-3
Vol. 11 No. 3-4, 231-2432011
Towards engineering harmony between water, ecosystem and
society
1. Introduction and some backgroundIndonesia is rich in
environmental resources as
can be recognized from the abundant biodiversity, and land and
water resources However national de-velopment programs in the past
decades that stressed physical and economic aspects have generated
a multitude of social and environmental problems. The past decades
also have been characterized by a series of natural disasters, many
of which were water and environmentally related such as water
pollution, fl oods, droughts, landslides and forest fi res. These
are believed to be due to excessive hu-man interventions, such as
forest land conversion
to agriculture and other uses, and deforestation by legal and
illegal logging that have caused serious erosion and sedimentation
problems and pollution in the downstream portions of catchments,
that have competed as new users of limited natural resources, and
which push land hungry people upstream. Pockets of poverty in
densely populated areas can be recognized around the country which
overlap with degraded land and forest resources of much reduced
carrying capacity (Nerlove 1994). Therefore, there is strong
relationship between land degradation and poverty that can be
expressed as a vicious circle of poverty which threatens the
&ECOHYDROLOGYHYDROBIOLOGY
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232 H. Pawitan, G.S. Haryani
degradation of environmental resources. Ideas of linking the
water environment with community livelihoods have become concerns
in Indonesia that need government interventions. Consequently, many
national programs have been initiated in the wider economic sectors
to improve community welfare.
This paper will limit the discussions of the en-vironment to
land and water resource related aspects and their sustainability,
especially the conversion of watershed resources and forest land to
agricultural and other uses. The linking of the water environ-ment
and community livelihoods will be discussed in the context of the
programs that relate to land and water, either in the form of
national movements adopting broad guidelines for sustainable
develop-ment or integrated water resources management, with
multi-sectoral and hierarchically coordinated implementation around
the country. A description of Indonesian water resources and the
water environ-ment problems will be given fi rst, followed by brief
description of some of the National Programs related to the
environment and community livelihoods, the perspective and
development of ecohydrological approach in Indonesia, and the
sustainability chal-lenge of the water environment and its linkages
to societal livelihoods within the water environment. Some case
studies of activities that link the envi-ronment and community
livelihoods, the necessary institutional set up, and lessons to be
learned also will be presented.
1.1. Indonesian water environment resources Indonesian forest
land resources consist of 144
Mha (approximately 74% of total land area of the country) with
109 Mha of forest cover. These forest lands consist of 18.8 Mha of
conservation forest; 30.3 Mha of protection forest; 64.4 Mha of
produc-tion forest; and 30.5 Mha of conversion forest. The total
land resources of Indonesia cover 1.91 Mkm2with 17 000 islands
(1.3% of the worlds land sur-face) that contains about 10% of
global freshwater resources, 10% of the worlds plant species, 12%
of the mammal species, 16% of the reptiles and amphib-ians, and 17%
of the bird species. The abundance of water resources is
characterized by an annual rainfall averaging about 2790 mm within
a range from 600 mm to well above 6000 mm per annum. Land use and
cover changes consequent to national development efforts appear to
have changed hydro-logic regimes that also may be altered due to
global climate change. Recent estimates of degraded forest land
total nearly 60 Mha with deforestation rates averaged at 1.09 Mha
per year (2000-2006). Land degradation has been severe and
un-controllable, especially during the reformation/autonomous era
of the last decade, as permits or restrictions were not
acknowledged and illegal logging, forest encroach-
ment and conversion to other uses were rampant (Ministry of
Forestry 2007).
The present management of environmental resources (air, water,
wetlands, wildlife, aesthetics, as well as toxic and hazardous
wastes) follows the principles of sustainable development and
integrated resources management. Knowledge resources with
appropriate scientifi c and technological support were planned and
implemented, but their effec-tiveness is still in question,
including integration of the role of local knowledge/traditional
wisdom. Therefore, much effort is still required to improve water
resources management in the country in line with the principles of:
the integrative science of ecohydrology developed by Zalewski
(2005; 2007), and integrated watershed management for sustain-able
water resources development through decision making processes based
on scientific research, good governance and capacity building
(Tanaka 2009). A new paradigm in integrated water resources
management and in watershed management is the one that adopts the
broad principles of sustainable development and integrated resource
management as well as one that also considers water quality
parameters as indicators of watershed status and carrying capacity.
The perspective and development of ecohydrology concepts and
principles are very much in line with the present national
development policy of Indonesia.
Indonesian water resources can be examined from the point of
view of regional variability, as given in Table I, which indicates
a total water avail-able of 2110 mm a year, equivalent to a fl ow
rate 127 775 m3 s-1, or to four million mega cubic me-ters per year
(MCM yr-1). Dividing this regional water availability by the
population of the region gives a water availability index that
ranges from 0.15 m3capita-1day-1 for developed urban areas to 1480
m3capita-1day-1 for West Papua, with a national average of
approximately 50 m3 capita-1 day-1. This water availability index
indicates relative abun-dance; however, with un-equal distribution
in time and space, in many cases, water shortages have caused
serious problems to ecosystems and society. Monsoon rains drop 80%
of the annual total dur-ing the half-year rainy season, and severe
droughts with widespread impacts occurring periodically during the
dry seasons. In the past century, land use changes have reduced
forest land cover and converted forest lands to agricultural uses,
but in the last few decades land use conversion is from
agricultural land to human settlements and industrial land uses
(Ministry of Forestry 2007). Population pressure, land hungry
people and rapid industrial development imply extensive land use
changes and increased water demands, and cause uncertainties in
water resources availability and serious ecologi-cal problems, in
addition to the likely long term consequences of global climatic
change.
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Water resources, sustainability and societal livelihoods in
Indonesia 233
The water resources and hydrologic events are characterized by
occurrences of extreme fl oods and droughts, high
sediment/pollutant contents in the water bodies, and an anticipated
water crisis. In the case of Java Island, population pressures
(with 121 million people in 2000) and extensive land conversion
activities have signifi cant impacts in the form of environmental
degradation and are now believed to have changed the natural
carbon, nutrient and water cycles; i.e., creating ecological
hazards (Pawitan et al. 2007). The hydrologic characteristics of
some major river basins in Indonesia and their stream fl ows are
given in Table II, with the aver-age minimum and maximum discharges
indicating extreme conditions. Pawitan et al. (2006), from a study
in West Java, indicated changes to watershed functions due to
intensive agricultural practices and industrial development.
Depletion of forest resources threatens Indonesian water resources
due to signifi cant decline of rainfall (Aldrian 2006).
1.2. Water environment problemsThe last census, in 2010,
recorded the popu-
lation of Indonesia as 236.7 million people, and the percentage
of urban population continued to increase from previous censuses to
about 50%.This
is a natural development that requires the neces-sary facilities
so that the carrying capacity of the natural environment can be
maintained. Currently, the high population density in Indonesia
occurs in urban development centres where population densities
reach over 10 000 people km-2. Such high densities are known to be
the root of serious environmental problems. Increasing population
has signifi cantly infl uenced the rate of change of land use and
vegetation cover with the consequent changes in hydrological regime
and quality of the environment, increased pollution and outbreak of
diseases related to water and climate. The impacts of environmental
change continue as the water environment problems multiply: water
pollution, forest and land degradation, declining availability of
water resources, natural resource management issues, and the
vicious circle of poverty pose threats to the use of natural
resources. This population pres-sure on land, with associated
intensive agriculture and rapid industrial development, has
contributed to forest land degradation, which in the long run also
results in increased water demand and environmental change,
including climate change. This high popula-tion, with a growth rate
presently at 1.3% annually, is the main driver of increased food
and energy
Table I. Water resources availability in Indonesia by major
islands (source: Pawitan et al. 1996).
Major islands
Area(103 km2)
Rainfall(mm yr-1)
Runoff Groundwater Total water available(mm yr-1) (m3 s-1) (mm
yr-1) (m3 s-1) (mm yr-1) (m3 s-1)
Sumatra 477.4 2801 1848 27 962 280 4 236 2 128 32 198Java 121.3
2555 1658 6 378 255 982 1 915 7 360Bali & NT 87.9 1695 1997 2
779 170 472 1 167 3 251Kalimantan 534.8 2956 1968 33 359 296 5 010
2 264 28 369Sulawesi 190.4 2156 1352 8 157 216 1 301 1 564 9
458Maluku 85.4 2218 1400 3 785 222 600 1 621 4 385W. Papua 413.9
3224 2175 28 524 322 4 229 2 497 32 754Indonesia 1911.1 2779 1832
110 944 278 16 831 2 110 127 775
Table II. Hydrologic characteristics of some of Indonesias major
rivers (source: Takeuchi et al. 1995; Jayawaardena et al. 1997;
Pawitan et al. 2000; Ibbit et al. 2002; Tachikawa et al. 2004).
No. Name of river StationCatchment
area (A) (km2)
Mean fl owQ
(m3 s-1)
Maximum fl owQmax(m3 s-1)
Minimum fl owQmin(m3 s-1)
Qmax/A (m3 s-1 100 km-2)
1 Asahan Siruar 3782 96.6 133.1 42.1 72 Citarum Nanjung 1 675
68.7 455 5.4 27.13 Cimanuk Rentang 3 003 134.7 305.6 19.9 14.64
Citanduy Cikawung 2 515 204 710.6 16.3 39.25 Serayu Rawalo 2 631
273.4 1 497 58.8 76.86 Bengawan
SoloBojonegoro 12 804 362.9 2 127 19 17
7 Brantas Jabon 8 650 258.7 866.1 46.6 108 Jeneberang Patalikang
384.4 43.5 352.2 0.3 182.4
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234 H. Pawitan, G.S. Haryani
consumption, which cause serious environmental degradation and
reduced ecosystem services. This human factor will continue to
present signifi cant pressures on land and water resources over a
time horizon of 20 to 30 years before any adjustment can take
place. Pawitan (2002) noted the Boeke report (Boeke 1941), entitled
From four million to forty four million people in Java and Madura,
indicating the population increase from 1800 to 1930, after the fi
rst census was conducted. It was reported that, since historic
times, the population density in Java has been very variable,
ranging from 9 persons km-2to 880 person km-2 in 1815 with average
density of 35 person km-2. This average density increased to 330
persons km-2 (1930) and then to 1000 persons km-2 (2000). This
population increase has severely affected land usage and vegetation
cover, with the consequences of land degradation, soil erosion, and
uncertainties in the ability to adjust to future changes in
hydrologic regimes and environmental quality. Pawitan (2000)
concluded that land use changes on Java Island had led to signifi
cant reductions in an-nual rainfall and associated river
discharges, which also were strongly infl uenced by El Nio-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) events.
Water pollution Pollution and the management of lakes and
rivers (inland waters) has been highlighted at the Indodanau
Bali Seminar held in 2009, that defi ned the crisis due to the
continuing degradation and threats to the sustainability of global
water re-sources. Indonesia, which has relatively abundant water
resources, was not immune from this water resources crisis, which
requires a choice of smart solutions such as those offered by the
concept of ecohydrology.
Sedimentation and eutrophication: One obvious consequence of the
above mentioned population pressures on land and water resources is
the phe-nomena of erosion, sedimentation, and eutrophica-tion in
water bodies. Land use changes and forest land conversions are
occurring at alarming rates in Indonesia. In the past three decades
the estimated rate of deforestation was one million hectares per
year, and in the last decade, during the reformation era,
deforestation rates reached three million hect-ares per year, while
the target for reforestation was only 500 000 hectares year-1.
Signifi cant losses of land cover and intensive agriculture land
uses have enriched the waters in rivers and lakes, creating
extensive eutrophication. The case of Tempe Lake in South Sulawesi
was described by Hargono et al.(2003), where a signifi cant
reduction in lake storage capacity occurred due to sedimentation at
rates of be-tween 600 000 m3 year-1 (1980) and 675 000
m3year-1(2003). Such sedimentation has led to a reduction
in fi sh production from 58 000 tons year-1 (1948) to between 10
000 and 15 000 tons year-1 (1981). Such declines continue. The lake
surface area reached 43 000 ha during the wet season at 6 m depth
and declined to 10 000 ha during the dry season at 1 to 3 m depth.
In some of the tributary waterways, the average depth during the
dry season was 1.5 m. Similar phenomena were occurring in most
inland water bodies in Indonesia.
Aquaculture: Floating fi sh ponds are becom-ing common practice
in raising fi shes, not only on river banks, but especially in
lakes and reservoirs. The development of these aquaculture
facilities has reached an alarming level as a consequence of the
feeding practices employed that have caused serious increases in
pollution levels. These conse-quences become obvious during the dry
season with increasing incidences of dead and diseased fi shes due
to the upwelling of hypolimnetic water with low dissolved oxygen
levels.
Changes of land use and land cover: degradation of forest
land
In the last hundred years since 1900, the use of land in Java
Island has undergone a change from forest area to agricultural
land. This change has continued in the past three decades, with
shifts from agricultural land to residential and industrial areas.
These changes are the basis of the anthropogenic infl uences on the
hydrological regime and carrying capacity. The area of natural
forest on Java has been steadily decreasing during the last hundred
years, as recorded by the Agency of Planology, Ministry of Forestry
(2008): 10 million ha in the 1800s; 1 million ha in 1989; and 0.4
million ha in 2005.
The hydrological regime is characterized by the geomorphology of
watersheds and the behaviour of rainfall-runoff as a function of
river basin hydrology. The watershed, as an area / restricted area
bounded by topography that receives rainfall, stores and drains
water through a river network, resulting in a surface runoff
through major rivers that drain into a lake or the sea. The
rainfall-runoff relationship indicates the watershed condition. It
is expected that an undisturbed watershed has functions that ensure
the sustainability of a balanced rainfall-runoff relationship. If
the watershed function is disturbed, for example due to
biogeophysical changes in land watershed, watershed degradation is
said to have occurred. The occurrence of land conversion that
increases the area of bare land is indicative of sus-ceptibility to
degradation that is characterized by increasing runoff coeffi
cients, increased erosion and sedimentation, increased fl ood
discharges and fl ood prone areas, reduced low fl ows in the dry
season, and increased ratios of maximum : minimum fl ows. Land
areas with vegetation cover of less than 25%
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Water resources, sustainability and societal livelihoods in
Indonesia 235
of the area are a source of erosion, in the forms of both sheet
and gully erosion. Watershed conditions affected by forest and land
degradation have been widely found in Indonesia, as shown in Table
III. The increasing number of critical watersheds in Indonesia has
been recognized since the 1980s, with 22 critical watersheds and 13
million ha of degraded land in 1984. This has increased to 62
critical water-sheds with a total area of 59.62 million ha by 2005,
with an on-going deforestation rate of 1.09 million ha year-1
(during the period 2000-2006).
Decreased water resources availabilityThe availability of water
resources in Indonesia
has experienced a signifi cant reduction in line with the
widespread occurrence of forest loss and land degradation. This is
as shown in Figure 1 which presents the trends of discharge of the
major rivers in Java that follow declining basin rainfalls.
Large
changes in rainfall and river discharge have oc-curred
throughout the twentieth century, as shown in Table IV, with
decreases of between 1.6 to 8.5 mm year-1 for annual rainfall and
0.5 to 3.1 mm year-1 for river discharge. The Brantas River is an
exception to this general trend, with increases both in rainfall
and annual river discharge. Table V shows the changes in river fl
ow patterns in Java, from upstream to downstream, with variable
discharges in the upstream and middle reaches of the river, and an
almost consistent decrease in the downstream reaches, except for
the Cimanuk which has normal rates of discharge.
The issue of natural resource management Demands to increase
local revenues to each
local government and the enactment of the policy of regional
autonomy after the reformation era in last decade have brought
about serious impacts on
Table III. List of critical watersheds in Indonesia in 1999
(source: Bappenas-RI 2005).
No Name of the watershed Province No Name of the watershed
Province1 Krueng Aceh NAD 32 Girindulu Jawa Timur 2 Krueng Pesangan
NAD 33 Saroka Jawa Timur 3 Asahan Sumatera Utara 34 Tukad Unda Bali
4 Lau Renun Sumatera Utara 35 Dodokan Nusatenggara Barat 5 Ular
Sumatera Utara 36 Benain Nusatenggara Timur6 Nias (Kepulauan)
Sumatera Utara 37 Noelmina Nusatenggara Timur7 Kampar Riau 38
Aisissa Nusatenggara Timur8 Indragiri Riau 39 Kambaheru
Nusatenggara Timur9 Rokan Riau 40 Lois Nusatenggara Timur
10 Kuantan Sumatera Barat 41 Sambas Kalimantan Barat11 Kampar
Kanan Sumatera Barat 42 Tunan-Manggar Kalimantan Timur12 Batanghari
Sumbar-Jambi 43 Kota Waringin Kalimantan Tengah13 Manna-Padang Guci
Bengkulu 44 Barito Kalteng-Kalsel 14 Musi Bengkulu-Sumsel 45
Jeneberang-Klara Sulawesi Selatan15 Way Seputih Lampung 46 Walanae
Sulawesi Selatan16 Way Sekampung Lampung 47 Billa Sulawesi
Selatan17 Citarum Jawa Barat 48 Saddang Sulawesi Selatan18 Cimanuk
Jawa Barat 49 Bau bau-Wanca Sulawesi Tenggara19 Ciliwung Jawa Barat
50 Lasolo Sulawesi Tenggara20 Citanduy Jawa Barat 51 Poso Sulawesi
Tengah21 Cipunegara Jawa Barat 52 Lamboru Sulawesi Tengah22 Ciujung
Jawa Barat 53 Palu Sulawesi Tengah23 Kali Garang Jawa Tengah 54
Limboto Sulawesi Utara24 Kali Bodri Jawa Tengah 55 Tondano Sulawesi
Utara25 Kali Serayu Jawa Tengah 56 Dumoga Sulawesi Utara26 Bribin
DIY 57 Batu Merah Maluku 27 Pasiraman Jawa Timur 58 Hatu Tengah
Maluku 28 Rejoso Jawa Timur 59 Baliem Papua 29 Brantas Jawa Timur
60 Merauke-Bulaka Papua 30 Sampean Jawa Timur 61 Memberamo Papua 31
Bengawan Solo Jateng-Jatim 62 Sentani Papua
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236 H. Pawitan, G.S. Haryani
Fig. 1. Trends in major rivers discharge in Java during the
twentieth century.
Table IV. Trends in annual rainfall (P) and river discharge (Q)
in a number of major rivers in Java during the twentieth century.
Linear regression results of P and Q from the period 1916-2004.
River name Trends of change (mm year-1)
P QCitarum -4.772 -2.253Cimanuk -7.087 -2.725Bengawan Solo
-1.616 -0.476Brantas +0.214 +0.062Progo -8.517 -3.052Serayu -2.459
-1.109Citanduy -6.362 -3.063
Table V. Trends in discharges of rivers in Java according to
reach position in the upper, middle and lower sections of the river
(source: Pawitan et al. 2007).
No. Names of RiverTrends in river discharge
Upstream Middle Downstream1 Ciujung Highly decreasing Decreasing
Decreasing 2 Cisadane Moderately decreasing Highly increasing - 3
Citanduy Moderately increasing Increasing Decreasing 4 Citarum
Normal - Moderately decreasing 5 Cimanuk Highly decreasing
Moderately decreasing Normal 6 Serayu Decreasing Moderately
decreasing Decreasing 7 Bengawan Solo Highly increasing Moderately
decreasing Moderately decreasing
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Water resources, sustainability and societal livelihoods in
Indonesia 237
the management of natural resources. The issuance of District
Regulations have tended to encourage exploitation of existing
natural resources without much consideration of the environmental
capacity and practices of good governance/best management
practices. This is shown in Table VI which presents the
consequences of issuing District Regulations related to natural
resource management in Java, with 39% being related to water
resources and 27% related to forest resources. The District
Regulations have provided a strong motivation for the exploitation
of natural resources with 71 (60%) out of the total of 119 District
Regulations supporting resource use. Only 10% of the District
Regulations give the people the right to access and utilize natural
resources.
2. National programs related to the environment and community
livelihoods
The impacts of high population densities on Java Island have
been known since the fi rst census in 1930, which recognized the
need for increased food production. These impacts triggered the
de-velopment of large scale technical irrigation in east Java, and
continued with the construction of many water resources development
projects, including canal structures and reservoirs, in other
places in Indonesia until the 1970s. At present, there are some
on-going national programs that take the form of national movements
adopting the broad guidelines of sustainable development and
integrated water resources management. These programs are
multi-sectoral with hierarchically coordinated implemen-tation
mechanisms and occur around the country. Examples of such programs
include: (i) GN-KPA a national movement on partnerships for the
safeguard-ing of water resources; (ii) GN-RHL a national movement
for land and forest rehabilitation; and, (iii) the National Program
on Integrated Agricultural Management Field Schools. More sectoral
programs
include (i) ESP Environmental Support Program, a watershed
development project administered by the Department of Forestry
supported by the US Agency for International Development (USAID);
(ii) SCBFWM Strengthening Community-Based Forest and Watershed
Management In Indonesia, a pilot project under Department of
Forestry supported by UN Development Programme being implemented
around the country; and, (iii) P4MI Poor Farmers Income Improvement
through Innovation Program, a pilot project under Department of
Agriculture that was supported by Asian Development Bank.
At national level, several institutions were formed, such as:
(i) Coordination Board of Spatial Planning chaired by the
Coordination Minister of Economic Affairs with members from across
several departments; (ii) National Water Resources Board, also
chaired by the Coordination Minister of Economic Affairs with
members from across departments and daily activities chaired by the
Minister of Public Works; (iii) National Energy Coordination Board
with daily activities chaired by the Minister of Energy and Mineral
Resources; (iv) National Watershed Management Forum chaired by the
Minister of Forestry; (v) Regional Offi ces of Water Resources and
Watershed Management at the provincial level; and, (vi) Water
Resources Authori-ties at the national river basin level. However,
at the practical operational and implementation level, most of the
good concepts and plans are not working so that obviously there is
still an urgent need for an organizational set up that can
effectively deliver services linking the environment and community
livelihoods. Such an organizational framework may be created by
adopting the basic principles of the human-environment system (HES)
approach, rec-ognizing the regulatory and feedback mechanisms
(Scholz, Binder 2004).
Lessons to be learned from project implementa-tion include: (i)
improvements in information shar-ing to build trust in technical
cooperation projects;
Table VI. District Regulations related to natural resource
management (source: Menko Ekuin 2007).
Regulatednatural resources
District Regulations (PERDA) objectives:Levy a business license
(tax) or granting permission for the exploitation of natural
resources
Collaborationaction of the
exploitation of natural resources
Right for the community to access, utilization an control over
the natural
resources
Total(%)
Water 28 16 2 46 (39%) Land 11 1 0 12 (10%) Forest 15 10 7 32
(27%) Mine 17 0 0 17 (14%) Environmentalquality standard 0 9 3 12
(10%)
Total (%) 71 (60%) 36 (30%) 12 (10%) 119 (100%)
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238 H. Pawitan, G.S. Haryani
(ii) the power of community level participation to improve
livelihoods in participating communities; (iii) planning and
implementation of community based actions and sharing of
experiences between sectors as well as between communities across
governmental boundaries; (iv) local knowledge and self-motivation
to make up for limited fi nancial resources by working through
existing farmers groups and programs that they are familiar with;
and, (v) the multi stakeholders/participatory approach is slow,
expensive and time consuming but neces-sary to mobilize
partnerships with ministries, and decentralized local governments,
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society.
Farmer-groups are hungry for new skills and technologies that
are friendly to the watershed en-vironment. They all have stories
and experiences on how the use of chemicals has polluted their
water systems, affected their health and tied them to high interest
rates with banks or loan sharks. They have also seen how converting
lands with critical slopes or improper cultivation of lands can
lead to fl ash fl oods, loss of topsoil and leaner harvests due to
loss of soil fertility and diminished carrying capacities.
Moreover, they offer some confi rmation of the infl uences of
climate change on their lands and activities (Pawitan, Rachman
2009).
3. Perspectives on and development of an ecohydrological
approach
Water management in Indonesia has a long history, not only
obvious from the present practices of Subak in Bali, but also from
a relic imprinted on the walls of Borobudur, a more than a
millen-nium old Buddhist temple located in central Java. However,
modern technical irrigation techniques were first introduced by the
Dutch East Indies Government in the early 1900s, when large scale
irrigation schemes were constructed from North Sumatra to South
Sumatra, West Java, East Java, and South Sulawesi. Included in this
development was the construction of hydroelectric power plants and
a fl ood control system for Jakarta city. In 1934, the fi rst
regulation on water allocation was issued to ensure the operation
of estates producing coffee, sugar cane and quinine.
With National Independence in 1945, the Na-tional Constitution
stated that water as natural re-sources is to be used for the
welfare of the people. After being neglected following
independence, a major water resources development effort in
In-donesia emerged as an important part of national development in
Indonesia during the early 1970s. In 1974, Water Law No.11 was
issued, covering the management of surface irrigation waters
ad-
ministered by the Ministry of Public Works and groundwater
administered by the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources.
In the 1970s, development of large scale irriga-tion schemes and
water management facilities was taking place, including
construction of hydrometric stations nationwide. Adoption of the
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach took place in
the 1990s, and, by the end of 1990s, a combined approach of IWRM
and sanitation was adopted (Hehanussa, Haryani 2011).
Progress of ecohydrology in Indonesia can be identifi ed during
the period from 1995 through 2011, as recorded in part by Hehanussa
and Hary-ani (2011). The inclusion of Theme 2.3 of IHP-V Programme
in 1995 and the agreement between UNESCO and the Government of
Indonesia led to the establishment and operation of the Asia-Pacifi
c Centre for Ecohydrology (APCE) in Indonesia as a Category II
Centre under the auspices of UNESCO. The objectives of the Centre
are: (i) to promote re-search in order to better understand the
relationship between biota and hydrology in the region; (ii) to
identify a hierarchy of environmental problems in selected study
areas associated with ecohydrological processes; and, (iii) to
introduce, enrich, and dis-seminate ecohydrological concepts at the
regional, national and international levels (Asian-Pacifi c
region). The outputs of the Centre for Ecohydrol-ogy are expected
to include new management tools to address water and ecosystem
degradation in the Asia-Pacifi c region.
A series of regional training workshops have been conducted so
far on ecohydrology, adopting the framework of the International
Hydrology Program of UNESCO (UNESCO-IHP), that should play a ma-jor
role in encouraging networking among scientists, research workers,
and fi eld engineers in the region and at national level. A network
among the different national institutions, working or dealing with
water related issues, such as water corporations, district offi ces
responsible for water resources management, research agencies and
universities, has already been initiated. The Centre would further
facilitate coopera-tion between water related scientists and
engineers to actively conduct in-house research, training and
knowledge exchanges, and dissemination of water related
information.
Field research on the application of ecohy-drological
approaches, conducted by the Research Centre for Limnology
Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), from 1990 until now
include: Treatment of laboratory waste water using surface
and subsurface fl ows in a tropical constructed wetland (Fig.
2);
Storm water treatment using a constructed wetland at Lake
Cibuntu;
-
Water resources, sustainability and societal livelihoods in
Indonesia 239
Microphytobenthic approaches to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus
concentrations in lotic ecosystems (Fig. 3);
Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment at Islamic
boarding schools (Pondok Pesantren), Arrafah, Cililin, Bandung,
West Java;
Constructed wetlands for treatment of public sanitary wastes in
North Petojo, Jakarta;
Passive treatment using constructed wetlands in a small fi eld
scale mine waste treatment system for Kolong (mine pit), Bangka
Island;
Application of ecohydrological concepts in several lakes:
Maninjau lake in West Sumatra, Semayang-Melintang lakes in East
Kalimantan, and Limboto lake in Gorontalo province (Fig. 4);
Conduct of an ecohydrological engineering study for the
restoration of the aquatic ecosystem in Lake Limboto.
Ecohydrological engineering will potentially be applied to 562 ha
in the eastern and northern parts of the lake (Lukman 2010) to
improve water retention of up to 10 million m3 (15%), reduce fl ood
risks in the downstream areas, and increase fi shery productivity
by up to 300 tons year-1.
4. Sustainability challenge of the water environment
Adoption of ecohydrological concepts and principles certainly
would provide a strong scientifi c basis for integrated water
resources management that would ensure the sustainability of the
water environment. However, at present, there are still big gaps
between theory and reality, with little implementation of the
principles in water resources projects. The challenge is obvious:
to simplify the adoption of ecohydrology approaches in practice
based on knowledge already gained from laboratory and fi eld
research and from various case studies. The general guidance
suggested for watershed management in Indonesia was to consider
cause-effect relationships: to guarantee water resources
Fig. 3. Microphytobenthic approach to reducing N and P in lothic
ecosystems: lab experiments (source: Nofdianto, RC for Limnology,
LIPI).
Fig. 2. Pilot scale constructed wetland (SSFCW and SFCW) for
laboratory waste water treatment at the Research Centre for
Limnology Cibinong, Bogor (Photo: Gadis Sri Haryani, RC for
Limnology-LIPI).
-
240 H. Pawitan, G.S. Haryani
conservation, to guarantee soils conservation, and to plant
trees and maintain vegetation cover. There-fore, as a necessary
condition to guarantee water resources conservation, the planting
of trees to stabilize soils and encourage groundwater recharge is a
major step. Certainly, planting trees needs to follow good
silvicultural practices and be based upon phytotechnology
approach.
Ecohydrology is a relatively new approach that integrates the
concepts of ecology with hydrology as a holistic problem-solving
approach to the manage-ment of water and environmental resources,
such as in an inland water environment, estuary, etc. The concept
of ecohydrology that has been developed by Zalewski in Poland since
the 1980s covers both the aquatic and terrestrial aspects of a
watershed (Zalewski 2007). It is obviously different from the
approach of Rodrigues-Iturbe (2000) developed in the United States
that stressed the soil moisture-plant dynamic relationship from a
terrestrial perspective. The study of ecohydrology models the
interaction between ecosystems and the hydrological system, as a
basic environmental management approach, to conserve water
resources, manage fl oods and enhance environmental productivity at
the level of the biota. Obviously, in Indonesia, there is still a
need to conduct some ecohydrological research and synthesis,
considering the complexity of the water environmental problems, and
especially as applied research can provide practical guidance.
Ecohydrological research is necessarily related to the need for
capacity building of human resources with competencies to solve
ecohydrological prob-lems in Indonesia. Such capacity building can
be achieved with the inclusion of ecohydrological education in
university study programs. Research
in ecohydrology also needs to be associated with other scientifi
c disciplines such as environmental economics, sociology, and
culture, gender, health, food, energy, and climate sciences,
because water is a basic building block of life that covers all
aspects of life (Hiwasaki, Ariko 2007; Strang, Undated). The needs
for ecohydrological research in Indone-sia are very real in order
to support the sustainable development of the water environment.
Research on the following topics, among others, is required:
trophic levels, in terms of the balance between
producers and consumers in a lake or reservoir, and their
relationship to water levels,
ecotones, between biotic and water fl uctuations, zonation of
aquatic ecosystems and lakes, for
development and management purposes, wetland ecohydrology,
related to the development
of riparian and wetland areas, water retention capacity of the
environment, phyto-technology to solve water environment
problems, urban ecohydrology and rural agro-ecohydrology, river
delta ecohydrology, fl oods and droughts, and their
environmental
impacts.All this research needs to be aligned with the
IWRM concept, to optimize the benefi cial outcomes. If the
research can be used as part of ecohydrology education in
Indonesian universities, at the masters or doctoral levels, it can
be expected that the en-vironmental management of water resources
in a sustainable manner can be achieved more quickly. Education and
research into natural resources and the environment in Indonesia
was facilitated by the Ministry of Environment in the mid-1980s
through the establishment of research centres of
Fig. 4. Proposed utilisation zones in Lakes Semayang-Melintang
(East Kalimantan) based on hydrologyhabitatsocial interactions
(source: Research Centre for Limnology, LIPI).
-
Water resources, sustainability and societal livelihoods in
Indonesia 241
the environment in a number of public universities in Indonesia.
Currently, ecohydrology concepts can be incorporated easily into
the environmental and natural resources study programs offered at
many universities in Indonesia.
5. Community livelihoods linkages within the water environment:
case of Singkarak lake basin, West Sumatra
Several study areas were available for imple-menting different
development programs, each with its own characteristics in terms of
environmental resources as well as its socio-economic conditions,
ranging from North Sumatra to Indonesias eastern regions. For
illustration purposes, the case of the Singkarak Lake basin of West
Sumatra was selected (Fig. 5) (Pawitan, Rachman 2009).
Fig. 5. Location map of the Singkarak Lake basin in West
Sumatra.
Singkarak is the largest lake in the West Sumatra province, with
a water surface area of 112 km2 at 363 m.a.s.l., a maximum depth of
268 m, a catch-ment area of 1076 km2 and a water storage capacity
of 16.1 billion m3. Geologically the lake is consid-ered to be a
volcanic lake with inlets from several tributaries, and a single
outlet at Batang Ombilin with a hydropower station generating 175
MW. The lake basin is divided into two districts: Solok and Tanah
Datar, and is famous for supporting recreation, irrigation of 215
000 hectares of agriculture land, and domestic water supplies. In
the past decades, the watershed has been characterized by the
pres-ence of an extensive area of critical lands, totalling 35 000
hectares in the catchment area, that have had signifi cant impacts
on the lake waters.
Reductions in fi sh stocks in the lake are not only due to over
fi shing, but also to domestic waste inputs and sedimentation.
Since 1999, during the dry season, lake water levels drop 1.50 m,
reducing hydropower generating capacity by 50%, and, dur-ing wet
season, damaging fi sh ponds, paddy fi elds and agricultural crops
around the lake. Erosion and sedimentation are related to degraded
land conditions in the lake catchment area. These critical
conditions are believed to be due to forest logging over many years
that increased soil erosion and caused severe land degradation.
This has led to negative impacts, including depletion of the
indigenous endemic fi sh known as bilih fi sh (Mystacoleucus
padangensis), measuring 6-12 cm in length and only found in
Singkarak Lake. During the past 20 years, the fi sh population as a
whole has been declining due to over fi shing, deterioration of
lake ecosystems, and lack of local knowledge on nature
conservation.
During the past fi ve years, a series of activi-ties has been
implemented at the community levelwithin the Singkarak Lake basin
with the goals of eradicating poverty and improving environmental
conditions. These include: (i) GN-RHL activities through government
agencies at the district level with funding from the Department of
Forestry, and which, in the past fi ve years, have succeeded in
reforesting 8000 ha out of 35 000 ha critical land; (ii) regreening
activities undertaken by the Singkarak Hydropower Plant; (iii)
Japan International Forest Promotion and Cooperation Centre (JIFRO)
Revegetation Project, which, since 2005, has succeeded in
reforesting 255 ha at a cost of 5.5 million Rp ha-1; (iv) Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) Project of the Dutch Government, which,
in 2009, reforested 28 ha at a cost of 10 million Rp ha-1; (v)
support of activi-ties from Ministry of the Environment; (vi)
support of activities from the Environmental Management Offi ce for
the Sumatra Region in Pekanbaru; and, (vii) Kemiri tree planting
activities on sloping lands and dalu-dalu tree planting activities
on the lake shores by the local community.
This last activity was achieved through the prac-tice of
traditional values such as gotong royong where people in the
community, including school children and NGOs, work voluntarily
with support by the Singkarak Hydropower Plant. This initiative was
offi cially recognized by the Government in 2009.
The activities under the GN-KPA Program range from the national
scale to the local scale, with implementation down to the village
level and with planning support at the district government level
involving all the district technical agencies. The activities are
undertaken in three general categories: (i) improvement of
vegetation cover through tree planting; (ii) improvement of soil
infi ltration capacity
-
242 H. Pawitan, G.S. Haryani
using civil technique activities; and, (iii) community
development activities.
Fortunately, recent political change has returned autonomous
local government to West Sumatra based on local wisdom known as
nagari governance. A nagari is a local government unit and the West
Sumatra Province consists of twelve nagaris. This autonomous local
government system is founded on local communities practicing
traditional rules that relate to the potential uses of Singkarak
Lake. These rules regulate biodiversity and management of the lake,
restrict the use of jaring lingkar fi sh nets, and require the
catch to be shared amongst those who own the fi sh net as well as
those who do not. In 2003, there were 1202 active fi shermen with a
low educational level. Another regulatory initiative prohibits the
disposal of garbage in the lake, and is supported by the
construction of garbage shelters and by the Agency for
Environmental Management at the nagari level.
Concluding remarks Richness in water environment resources
does
not lead to freedom from water crises, and social and
environmental problems. Pockets of poverty in densely populated
areas can be recognized around the country, which overlap with
degraded land and forest resources and much reduced carrying
capaci-ties, trapping people in a vicious circle of poverty.
The challenge of simplifying the adoption of ecohydrological
approaches to promote implemen-tation of practices in Indonesia
remains. There is a need to incorporate these practices into
societal livelihoods as the people very much rely on the
availability of water environment resources.
Restoration and sustainable management of the water
environmental resources through differ-ent national programs can be
achieved only if soil conservation is successfully implemented
through land and forest rehabilitation. This can be achieved only
through effective and science based reforesta-tion, revegetation
and regreening programs which are a long term, multi-generational
efforts requir-ing all necessary support from every stakeholder
within the framework of an effective institutional set up.
Ecohydrological approaches should play an important role in this
effort.
AcknowledgementsThis contribution was prepared during a
visit
by the authors to ERCE UNESCO PAS at Lodz, Poland during
September and October 2011 made possible by the kind invitation of
Professor Maciej Zalewski and the fi nancial support of DGHE RI
through the Program for Academic Recharging (PAR B) 2011.
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Water resources, sustainability and societal livelihoods in
IndonesiaIntroduction and some backgroundIndonesian water
environment resourcesWater environment problemsWater
pollutionChanges of land use and land cover: degradation of forest
landDecreased water resources availabilityThe issue of natural
resource management
National programs related to the environment and community
livelihoodsPerspectives on and development of an ecohydrological
approachSustainability challenge of the water environmentCommunity
livelihoods linkages within the water environment: case of
Singkarak lake basin, West SumatraConcluding
remarksAcknowledgements