Warsaw

Warsaw

This article is about the Polish capital. For other uses,see Warsaw (disambiguation).“Warszawa” redirects here. For other uses, seeWarszawa(disambiguation).

Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa [varˈʂava]; see also othernames), is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is lo-cated on the Vistula River, in east-central Poland, roughly260 kilometres (160 mi) from the Baltic Sea and 300kilometres (190 mi) from the Carpathian Mountains. Itspopulation is estimated at 1.740 million residents withina greater metropolitan area of 2.666 million residents,which makes Warsaw the 9th most populous capital cityin the European Union.[2][3][4] The city limits cover 516.9square kilometres (199.6 sq mi), while the metropoli-tan area covers 6,100.43 square kilometres (2,355.39 sqmi).[5]

In 2012, Warsaw was ranked as the 32nd most liveablecity in the world by the Economist Intelligence Unit.[6]It was also ranked as one of the most liveable cities inCentral and Eastern Europe. TodayWarsaw is consideredan Alpha– global city, a major international tourist des-tination and a significant cultural, political and economichub.[7][8][9] Warsaw’s economy, by a wide variety of in-dustries, is characterised by FMCGmanufacturing, metalprocessing, steel and electronic manufacturing and foodprocessing. The city is a significant centre of research anddevelopment, BPO, ITO, as well as Polish media indus-try. TheWarsaw Stock Exchange is one of the largest andmost important in Central Europe. Frontex, the EuropeanUnion agency for external border security, is headquar-tered in Warsaw. Unusually for a European city, Warsawhas a prominent skyline with many skyscrapers and high-rise buildings in the city center. Warsaw is one of only afew cities in the European Union that have such a skyline,together with Frankfurt, London and Paris.The first historical reference to Warsaw dates back tothe year 1313, when initially Kraków served as the Pol-ish capital city. Due to its central location between theCommonwealth's capitals of Kraków and Vilnius, War-saw became the capital of the Commonwealth and theCrown of the Kingdom of Poland when King SigismundIII Vasa moved his court from Kraków to Warsaw in1596.[10] After the Third Partition of Poland in 1795,Warsaw was incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia.In 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars, the city became theofficial capital of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, a puppetstate of the First French Empire created by NapoleonBonaparte. With accordance to the decision of the

Congress of Vienna, Warsaw in 1815 was annexed by theRussian Empire and became part of the “Congress King-dom”. Only in 1918 it regained independence from theforeign rule and emerged as a new capital of the indepen-dent Republic of Poland. Along with the German inva-sion in 1939, the massacre of the Jewish population anddeportations to concentration camps led to the uprisingin the Warsaw ghetto in 1943 and to a major and dev-astating Warsaw Uprising between August and October1944. For this Warsaw gained the title of the “PhoenixCity” because it has survivedmany wars, conflicts and in-vasions throughout its long history. Most notably, the cityhad to be painstakingly rebuilt after the extensive dam-age it suffered in World War II, during which 85% of itsbuildings were destroyed.[11][12] On 9 November 1940,the city was awarded Poland’s highest military decora-tion for heroism, the Virtuti Militari, during the Siege ofWarsaw (1939).[13][14]

The city is the seat of a Roman Catholic archdiocese(left bank) and diocese (right bank of the Vistula), andpossesses various universities, most notably the PolishAcademy of Sciences and the University of Warsaw, twoopera houses, theatres, museums, libraries and monu-ments. The historic city centre of Warsaw with its pic-turesque Old Town in 1980 was listed as a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site. Other main architectural attrac-tions include the Castle Square with the Royal Castleand the iconic King Sigismund’s Column, St. John’sCathedral, Market Square, palaces, churches and man-sions all displaying a richness of colour and architecturaldetail. Buildings are representatives of nearly every Eu-ropean architectural style and historical period. Warsawhas wonderful examples of architecture from the gothic,renaissance, baroque and neoclassical periods and arounda quarter of the city is filled with grand parks and royalgardens.

1 Etymology and names

Warsaw’s name in the Polish language isWarszawa - pro-nounced Varshava - (also formerly spelledWarszewa andWarszowa), meaning “belonging to Warsz”, Warsz beinga shortened form of the masculine name of Slavic originWarcisław; see also etymology of Wrocław.[15] Folk et-ymology attributes the city name to a fisherman, Wars,and his wife, Sawa. According to legend, Sawa was amermaid living in the Vistula River with whomWars fellin love.[16] Actually, Warsz was a 12th/13th-century no-

1

2 2 HISTORY

bleman who owned a village located at the site of today’sMariensztat neighbourhood.[17] The official city name infull is miasto stołeczne Warszawa (English: “The Capi-tal City of Warsaw”).[18] A native or resident of Warsawis known as a Varsovian – in Polish warszawiak (male),warszawianka (female), warszawiacy (plural).Other names for Warsaw include Varsovia (Latin),Varsovie (French), Warschau (German), Varshe/װַארשע(Yiddish), Варшава/Varshava (Russian, Bulgarian, Be-lorussian, Ukrainian), Varšuva (Lithuanian), Varsó(Hungarian).For the name of Warsaw in various languages, seewikt:Warsaw.

2 History

Main article: History of Warsaw

2.1 Early history

Construction of St John’s Cathedral began in 1390. It is one ofWarsaw’s most ancient and important buildings.

The first fortified settlements on the site of today’sWarsaw were located in Bródno (9th/10th century) andJazdów (12th/13th century).[10] After Jazdów was raidedby nearby clans and dukes, a new similar settlement wasestablished on the site of a small fishing village calledWarszowa. The Prince of Płock, Bolesław II of Maso-via, established this settlement, the modern-day Warsaw,in about 1300. In the beginning of the 14th century it be-came one of the seats of the Dukes of Masovia, becom-ing the official capital of Masovian Duchy in 1413.[10]14th-century Warsaw’s economy rested on mostly craftsand trade. Upon the extinction of the local ducal line,the duchy was reincorporated into the Polish Crown in1526.[10]

2.2 16th to 18th centuries

In 1529, Warsaw for the first time became the seat ofthe General Sejm, permanent from 1569.[10] In 1573 thecity gave its name to theWarsaw Confederation, formallyestablishing religious freedom in the Polish–LithuanianCommonwealth. Due to its central location between theCommonwealth’s capitals of Kraków and Vilnius, War-saw became the capital of the Commonwealth and theCrown of the Kingdom of Poland when King SigismundIII Vasa moved his court from Kraków to Warsaw in1596.[10] In the following years the town expanded to-wards the suburbs. Several private independent dis-tricts were established, the property of aristocrats andthe gentry, which were ruled by their own laws. Threetimes between 1655–1658 the city was under siege andthree times it was taken and pillaged by the Swedish,Brandenburgian and Transylvanian forces.[10][19]

Krakowskie Przedmieście in Warsaw as painted by BernardoBellotto in the 1770s.

In 1700, the Great Northern War broke out. The citywas besieged several times and was obliged to pay heavycontributions.[20] Warsaw turned into an early-capitalisticprincipal city.Stanisław II Augustus, who remodelled the interior of theRoyal Castle, also made Warsaw a centre of culture andthe arts.[21][22] This earnedWarsaw the name of the Parisof the east.[23]

2.3 19th and 20th centuries

Warsaw remained the capital of the Polish–LithuanianCommonwealth until 1796, when it was annexed by theKingdom of Prussia to become the capital of the provinceof South Prussia. Liberated by Napoleon's army in 1806,Warsaw was made the capital of the newly created Duchyof Warsaw.[10] Following the Congress of Vienna of1815,Warsaw became the centre of the Congress Poland,a constitutional monarchy under a personal union withImperial Russia.[10] The Royal University of Warsaw wasestablished in 1816.Following the repeated violations of the Polish constitu-

2.5 Second World War 3

Marszałkowska Street as it appeared in 1912.

tion by the Russians, the 1830 November Uprising brokeout. However, the Polish-Russian war of 1831 endedin the uprising’s defeat and in the curtailment of theKingdom’s autonomy.[10] On 27 February 1861 a War-saw crowd protesting against the Russian rule over Polandwas fired upon by the Russian troops.[24][25] Five peo-ple were killed. The Underground Polish National Gov-ernment resided in Warsaw during January Uprising in1863–64.[25]

Warsaw flourished in the late 19th century underMayor Sokrates Starynkiewicz (1875–92), a Russian-born general appointed by Tsar Alexander III. UnderStarynkiewicz Warsaw saw its first water and sewer sys-tems designed and built by the English engineer WilliamLindley and his son, William Heerlein Lindley, as well asthe expansion and modernisation of trams, street lightingand gas works.[10]

The Russian Empire Census of 1897 recorded 626,000people living in Warsaw, making it the third-largest cityof the Empire after St. Petersburg and Moscow.

2.4 Capital of Second Polish Republic:1918–39

Warsaw was occupied by Germany from 4 August 1915until November 1918. The Allied Armistice terms re-quired in Article 12 that Germany withdraw from areascontrolled by Russia in 1914, which includedWarsaw.[26]Germany did so, and underground leader Piłsudski re-turned to Warsaw on 11 November and set up what be-came the Second Polish Republic, with Warsaw the cap-ital. In the course of the Polish-Bolshevik War of 1920,the huge Battle of Warsaw was fought on the eastern out-skirts of the city in which the capital was successfully de-fended and the Red Army defeated. Poland stopped byitself the full brunt of the Red Army and defeated an ideaof the "export of the revolution".[27]

The history of contemporary civilisationknows no event of greater importance than theBattle of Warsaw, 1920, and none of whichthe significance is less appreciated ... yet never

had Poland’s services been greater, never hadthe danger been more imminent.—Sir Edgar Vincent d'Abernon, The Eigh-teenth Decisive Battle of the World, Warsaw1920 [28]

2.5 Second World War

Sea of rubble[29] – over eight out of every ten buildings in War-saw were destroyed by the end of the Second World War. In leftcentre can be seen ruins of Old Town Market Square.

After the German Invasion of Poland on 1 September1939 began the Second World War, central Poland, in-cludingWarsaw, came under the rule of the General Gov-ernment, a German Nazi colonial administration. Allhigher education institutions were immediately closedand Warsaw’s entire Jewish population – several hundredthousand, some 30% of the city – herded into theWarsawGhetto.[30] The city would become the centre of urban re-sistance to Nazi rule in occupied Europe.[31]When the or-der came to annihilate the ghetto as part of Hitler's "FinalSolution" on 19 April 1943, Jewish fighters launched theWarsaw Ghetto Uprising.[32] Despite being heavily out-gunned and outnumbered, the Ghetto held out for almosta month.[32] When the fighting ended, almost all survivorswere massacred, with only a few managing to escape orhide.[32][33]

By July 1944, the Red Army was deep into Polish ter-ritory and pursuing the Germans toward Warsaw.[35]Knowing that Stalin was hostile to the idea of an inde-pendent Poland, the Polish government-in-exile in Lon-don gave orders to the underground Home Army (AK)to try to seize control of Warsaw from the Germans be-fore the Red Army arrived. Thus, on 1 August 1944, asthe Red Army was nearing the city, the Warsaw Uprisingbegan.[35] The armed struggle, planned to last 48 hours,was partially successful, however it went on for 63 days.Eventually the Home Army fighters and civilians assist-ing them were forced to capitulate.[35] They were trans-

4 3 GEOGRAPHY

The Warsaw Uprising took place in 1944. The Polish HomeArmy attempted to liberateWarsaw fromGerman occupation be-fore the arrival of the Red Army.[34]

ported to PoW camps in Germany, while the entire civil-ian population was expelled.[35] Polish civilian deaths areestimated at between 150,000 and 200,000.[36]

The Germans then razed Warsaw to the ground. Hitler,ignoring the agreed terms of the capitulation, orderedthe entire city to be razed to the ground and the libraryand museum collections taken to Germany or burned.[35]Monuments and government buildings were blown upby special German troops known as Verbrennungs-und Vernichtungskommando (“Burning and DestructionDetachments”).[35] About 85% of the city had been de-stroyed, including the historic Old Town and the RoyalCastle.[37]

On 17 January 1945 – after the beginning of the Vistula–Oder Offensive of the Red Army – Soviet troops enteredthe ruins of Warsaw, and liberated Warsaw’s suburbsfrom German occupation.[38] The city was swiftly takenby the Soviet Army, which rapidly advanced towardsŁódź, as German forces regrouped at a more westwardposition.

2.6 Recent times

John Paul II’s Mass in Victory Square, 1979.

In 1945, after the bombings, revolts, fighting, and demo-

lition had ended, most of Warsaw lay in ruins.After the war, under a Communist regime set up by theconquering Soviets, the “Bricks for Warsaw” campaignwas initiated, and large prefabricated housing projectswere erected in Warsaw to address the housing shortage,along with other typical buildings of an Eastern Bloc city,such as the Palace of Culture and Science, a gift from theSoviet Union. The city resumed its role as the capital ofPoland and the country’s centre of political and economiclife. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churcheswere restored to their original form. In 1980, Warsaw’shistoric Old Town was inscribed onto UNESCO's WorldHeritage list.[39]

John Paul II's visits to his native country in 1979 and 1983brought support to the budding solidarity movement andencouraged the growing anti-communist fervor there.[40]In 1979, less than a year after becoming pope, John Paulcelebrated Mass in Victory Square in Warsaw and endedhis sermon with a call to “renew the face” of Poland: LetThy Spirit descend! Let Thy Spirit descend and renew theface of the land! This land![40] These words were verymeaningful for the Polish citizens who understood themas the incentive for the democratic changes.[40]

In 1995, the Warsaw Metro opened with a single line. Asecond line was opened inMarch 2015.[41]With the entryof Poland into the European Union in 2004, Warsaw iscurrently experiencing the largest economic boom of itshistory.[42] The opening fixture of UEFA Euro 2012 tookplace in Warsaw, a game in which Poland drew 1-1 withGreece.[43]

Warsaw was the host city for the 2013 United NationsClimate Change Conference.

3 Geography

3.1 Location and topography

Warsaw, seen from International Space Station

Warsaw lies in east-central Poland about 300 km (190mi)from the Carpathian Mountains and about 260 km (160mi) from the Baltic Sea, 523 km (325 mi) east of Berlin,

3.3 Cityscape 5

Germany.[44] The city straddles the Vistula River. It is lo-cated in the heartland of the Masovian Plain, and its aver-age elevation is 100 metres (330 ft) above sea level. Thehighest point on the left side of the city lies at a heightof 115.7 metres (379.6 ft) (“Redutowa” bus depot, dis-trict of Wola), on the right side – 122.1 metres (400.6ft) (“Groszówka” estate, district of Wesoła, by the east-ern border). The lowest point lies at a height 75.6 metres(248.0 ft) (at the right bank of the Vistula, by the easternborder of Warsaw). There are some hills (mostly artifi-cial) located within the confines of the city – e.g. WarsawUprising Hill (121 metres (397.0 ft)), Szczęśliwice hill(138 metres (452.8 ft) – the highest point of Warsaw ingeneral).Warsaw is located on two main geomorphologic forma-tions: the plain moraine plateau and the Vistula Valleywith its asymmetrical pattern of different terraces. TheVistula River is the specific axis of Warsaw, which di-vides the city into two parts, left and right. The left one issituated both on the moraine plateau (10 to 25 m (32.8 to82.0 ft) above Vistula level) and on the Vistula terraces(max. 6.5 m (21.3 ft) above Vistula level). The signifi-cant element of the relief, in this part of Warsaw, is theedge of moraine plateau called Warsaw Escarpment. Itis 20 to 25 m (65.6 to 82.0 ft) high in the Old Town andCentral district and about 10 m (32.8 ft) in the north andsouth of Warsaw. It goes through the city and plays animportant role as a landmark.The plain moraine plateau has only a few natural and ar-tificial ponds and also groups of clay pits. The pattern ofthe Vistula terraces is asymmetrical. The left side con-sist mainly of two levels: the highest one contains formerflooded terraces and the lowest one the flood plain ter-race. The contemporary flooded terrace still has visiblevalleys and ground depressions with water systems com-ing from the Vistula old – riverbed. They consist of stillquite natural streams and lakes as well as the pattern ofdrainage ditches. The right side of Warsaw has a differ-ent pattern of geomorphological forms. There are sev-eral levels of the plain Vistula terraces (flooded as wellas former flooded once) and only small part and not sovisible moraine escarpment. Aeolian sand with a num-ber of dunes parted by peat swamps or small ponds coverthe highest terrace. These are mainly forested areas (pineforest).

3.2 Climate

Warsaw’s climate is humid continental (Köppen: Dfb)with cold, snowy, cloudy winters and warm, sunny,stormy summers, on the border with an oceanic Cfb cli-mate. The average temperature is −1 °C (30 °F) in Jan-uary and 19.5 °C (67.1 °F) in July. Mean year tempera-ture is 8.5 °C (47.3 °F)Temperatures may often reach 30°C (86 °F) in the summer. Yearly rainfall averages 495millimetres (19.5 in), wettest month being July.

3.3 Cityscape

3.3.1 Overview

Warsaw’s mixture of architectural styles reflects the tur-bulent history of the city and country. During the SecondWorld War, Warsaw was razed to the ground by bombingraids and planned destruction.[35] After liberation, re-building began as in other cities of the communist-ruledPRL. Most of the historical buildings were thoroughly re-constructed. However, some of the buildings from the19th century that had been preserved in reasonably recon-structible form were nonetheless eradicated in the 1950sand 1960s (e.g. Leopold Kronenberg Palace).[47] Massresidential blocks were erected, with basic design typicalof Eastern bloc countries.Public spaces attract heavy investment, so that the cityhas gained entirely new squares, parks and monuments.Warsaw’s current urban landscape is one of modern andcontemporary architecture.[48]

3.3.2 Architecture

Main article: Architecture of WarsawWarsaw’s palaces, churches and mansions display a rich-

Jabłonowski Palace, an example of Renaissance Revival archi-tecture

ness of color and architectural details. Buildings are rep-resentatives of nearly every European architectural styleand historical period. The city has wonderful examplesof architecture from the gothic, renaissance, baroque and

6 3 GEOGRAPHY

neoclassical periods, all of which are located within easywalking distance of the town centre.Gothic architecture is represented in the majesticchurches but also at the burgher houses and fortifications.The most significant buildings are St. John’s Cathedral(14th century), the temple is a typical example of the so-called Masovian gothic style, St. Mary’s Church (1411),a town house of Burbach family (14th century),[49] Gun-powder Tower (after 1379) and the Royal Castle Cu-ria Maior (1407–1410). The most notable examplesof Renaissance architecture in the city are the houseof Baryczko merchant family (1562), building called“The Negro” (early 17th century) and Salwator tene-ment (1632). Themost interesting examples ofmanneristarchitecture are the Royal Castle (1596–1619) and theJesuit Church (1609–1626) at Old Town. Among thefirst structures of the early baroque the most importantare St. Hyacinth’s Church (1603–1639) and Sigismund’sColumn (1644).

Hotel Bristol is a unique example of Warsaw’s architectural her-itage.

Building activity occurred in numerous noble palacesand churches during the later decades of the 17th cen-tury. One of the best examples of this architecture areKrasiński Palace (1677–1683), Wilanów Palace (1677–1696) and St. Kazimierz Church (1688–1692). Themostimpressive examples of rococo architecture are CzapskiPalace (1712–1721), Palace of the Four Winds (1730s)and Visitationist Church (façade 1728–1761). The neo-

classical architecture in Warsaw can be described by thesimplicity of the geometrical forms teamed with a greatinspiration from the Roman period. Some of the bestexamples of the neoclassical style are the Palace on theWater (rebuilt 1775–1795), Królikarnia (1782–1786),Carmelite Church (façade 1761–1783) and EvangelicalHoly Trinity Church (1777–1782). The economic growthduring the first years of Congress Poland caused a rapidrise architecture. The Neoclassical revival affected all as-pects of architecture, the most notable are the Great The-ater (1825–1833) and buildings located at Bank Square(1825–1828).

Warsaw University of Technology building courtyard

Exceptional examples of the bourgeois architecture of thelater periods were not restored by the communist authori-ties after the war (like mentioned Kronenberg Palace andInsurance Company Rosja building) or they were rebuiltin socialist realism style (like Warsaw Philharmony edi-fice originally inspired by Palais Garnier in Paris). De-spite that the Warsaw University of Technology building(1899–1902)[50] is the most interesting of the late 19th-century architecture. Some 19th-century buildings in thePraga district (the Vistula’s right bank) have been restoredalthough many have been poorly maintained. Warsaw’smunicipal government authorities have decided to rebuildthe Saxon Palace and the Brühl Palace, the most distinc-tive buildings in prewar Warsaw.[51]

Notable examples of post-war architecture include thePalace of Culture and Science (1952–1955), a Soc-realistskyscraper located in the city centre, and the Constitution

3.4 Landmarks 7

Square with its monumental Socialist realism architecture(MDM estate).[52]

Contemporary architecture in Warsaw is represented bythe Metropolitan Office Building at Pilsudski Square byLord Foster,[53] Warsaw University Library (BUW) byMarek Budzyński and Zbigniew Badowski, featuring agarden on its roof and view of the Vistula River, Rondo 1office building by Skidmore, Owings &Merrill, Museumof the History of Polish Jews by Rainer Mahlamäki andGolden Terraces, consisting of seven overlapping domesretail and business centre.It has been said that Warsaw, together with Frankfurt,London, Paris and Rotterdam is one of the cities with thehighest amount of skyscrapers in Europe.[54] Warsaw isranked as 48th in the List of cities with themost skyscrap-ers around the world.[55]

• Skycrapers in Warsaw

• PAST, the oldest skyscraper in Warsaw.

• Palace of Culture and Science

• Rondo 1

• Złota 44

• InterContinental Warsaw

• Cosmopolitan Twarda 2/4

• Intraco I

• Spektrum Tower

• Hotel Marriott and Oxford Tower

• Warsaw Trade Tower

• Warsaw Financial Center

• Błękitny Wieżowiec

• Orco Tower

3.4 Landmarks

Main article: Tourist attractions in Warsaw

Although today’s Warsaw is a fairly young city, it hasmany tourist attractions. Apart from the Warsaw OldTown quarter, reconstructed after World War II, eachborough has something to offer. Among the most notablelandmarks of the Old Town are the Royal Castle, KingSigismund’s Column, Market Square, and the Barbican.Further south is the so-called Royal Route, withmany classicist palaces, the Presidential Palace and theUniversity of Warsaw campus. Wilanów Palace, the for-mer royal residence of King John III Sobieski, is notablefor its baroque architecture and parks.[56]

Warsaw’s oldest public park, the Saxon Garden, is locatedwithin 10 minutes’ walk from the old town.[57] Warsaw’sbiggest public park is the Łazienki Park, established in the17th century and given its current classical shape in late18th century.[58] It is located further south, on the RoyalRoute, about 3 km (1.9 mi) from the Warsaw Old Town.The Powązki Cemetery is one of the oldest cemeteries inEurope,[59] full of sculptures, some of them by the mostrenowned Polish artists of the 19th and 20th centuries.Since it serves the religious communities of Warsaw, beit Catholics, Orthodox, Jews, Muslims or Protestants, it isoften called a necropolis. Nearby is the Okopowa StreetJewish Cemetery, one of the largest Jewish cemeteries inEurope.In many places in the city the Jewish culture and historyresonates down through time.[60] Among them the mostnotable are the Jewish theater, the Nożyk Synagogue,Janusz Korczak's Orphanage and the picturesque PróżnaStreet.[60] The tragic pages of Warsaw’s history are com-memorated in places such as theMonument to the GhettoHeroes, the Umschlagplatz, fragments of the Ghetto wallon Sienna Street and a mound in memory of the JewishCombat Organization.[60]

There are also many places commemorating the heroichistory of Warsaw.[61] Pawiak, an infamous GermanGestapo prison now occupied by a Mausoleum of Mem-ory of Martyrdom and the museum, is only the beginningof a walk in the traces of Heroic City.[61] The WarsawCitadel, an impressive 19th-century fortification built af-ter the defeat of the November Uprising, was a place ofmartyr for the Poles.[61] Another important monument,the statue of Little Insurgent located at the ramparts ofthe Old Town, commemorates the children who servedas messengers and frontline troops in the Warsaw Upris-ing, while the impressiveWarsaw UprisingMonument byWincenty Kućma was erected in memory of the largestinsurrection of World War II.[61][62]

In Warsaw there are many places connected with thelife and work of Frédéric Chopin. The heart of Polish-born composer is sealed inside Warsaw’s Holy CrossChurch.[63] During the summer time the Chopin Statuein the Łazienki Park is a place where pianists give con-certs to the park audience.[64]

Also many references to Marie Curie, her work and herfamily can be found in Warsaw: Marie’s birthplace at theWarsaw New Town, the working places where she didher first scientific works[65] and the Radium Institute atWawelska Street for the research and the treatment ofwhich she founded in 1925.[66]

• Old Town Market Square

• The Barbican, one of few remaining relics of thecomplex network of historic fortifications.

• Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is an important cen-tral Warsaw landmark.

8 3 GEOGRAPHY

• The Little Insurgent

• Krasiński Palace

• Nicolaus CopernicusMonument, situated in front ofStaszic Palace.

• Adam Mickiewicz Monument and CarmeliteChurch

• Holy Cross Church

• Pipe organ in the St. Anne’s Church

• Czapski Palace

• Warsaw Uprising Monument

• St. Kazimierz Church

• Nowy Świat Street

• Three Crosses Square

• Ujazdów Castle

• Belweder Palace

• Wilanów Palace

3.4.1 Flora and fauna

Greenspace covers 25% of the surface area ofWarsaw,[67] including a broad range of greenstruc-tures, from small neighborhood parks, green spacesalong streets and in courtyards, trees and avenues to largehistoric parks, nature conservation areas and the urbanforests at the fringe of the city.

Łazienki Palace, also referred to as the Palace on the Water

There are as many as 82 parks in the city which cover 8%of its area.[68] The oldest ones, once parts of representa-tive palaces, are Saxon Garden, the Krasiński Palace Gar-den, the Łazienki Park (Royal Baths Park), the WilanówPalace Park and the Królikarnia Palace Park (See also:Greenery in the city).

The Saxon Garden, covering the area of 15.5 ha, was for-mally a royal garden. There are over 100 different speciesof trees and the avenues are a place to sit and relax. Atthe east end of the park, the Tomb of the Unknown Sol-dier is situated. In the 19th century the Krasiński PalaceGarden was remodelled by Franciszek Szanior. Withinthe central area of the park one can still find old treesdating from that period: maidenhair tree, black walnut,Turkish hazel and Caucasian wingnut trees. With itsbenches, flower carpets, a pond with ducks on and a play-ground for kids, the Krasiński Palace Garden is a pop-ular strolling destination for the Varsovians. The Mon-ument of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising is also situatedhere. The Łazienki Park covers the area of 76 ha. Theunique character and history of the park is reflected inits landscape architecture (pavilions, sculptures, bridges,cascades, ponds) and vegetation (domestic and foreignspecies of trees and bushes). What makes this park differ-ent from other green spaces in Warsaw is the presence ofpeacocks and pheasants, which can be seen here walkingaround freely, and royal carps in the pond. The WilanówPalace Park, dates back to the second half of the 17thcentury. It covers the area of 43 ha. Its central French-styled area corresponds to the ancient, baroque forms ofthe palace. The eastern section of the park, closest to thePalace, is the two-level garden with a terrace facing thepond. The park around the Królikarnia Palace is situatedon the old escarpment of the Vistula. The park has lanesrunning on a few levels deep into the ravines on both sidesof the palace.

Saxon Garden with Temple of Vesta

Other green spaces in the city include the Botanic Gar-den and the University Library garden. They have ex-tensive botanical collection of rare domestic and foreignplants, while a palm house in the New Orangery displaysplants of subtropics from all over the world.[69] Besides,within the city borders, there are also: Pole Mokotowskie(a big park in the northern Mokotów, where was the firsthorse racetrack and then the airport), Park Ujazdowski(close to the Sejm and John Lennon street), Park of Cul-ture and Rest in Powsin, by the southern city border, ParkSkaryszewski by the right Vistula bank, in Praga. The

4.1 Religion 9

oldest park in Praga, the Praga Park, was established in1865–1871 and designed by Jan Dobrowolski.[70] In 1927a zoological garden (Ogród Zoologiczny) was establishedon the park grounds,[71] and in 1952 a bear run, still opentoday.The flora of the city may be considered very rich inspecies. The species richness is mainly due to the loca-tion ofWarsawwithin the border region of several big flo-ral regions comprising substantial proportions of close-to-wilderness areas (natural forests, wetlands along the Vis-tula) as well as arable land, meadows and forests. BielanyForest, located within the borders of Warsaw, is the re-maining part of the Masovian Primeval Forest. BielanyForest nature reserve is connected with Kampinos For-est.[72] It is home to rich fauna and flora. Within the forestthere are three cycling and walking trails. Other big forestarea is Kabaty Forest by the southern city border. War-saw has also two botanic gardens: by the Łazienki park(a didactic-research unit of the University of Warsaw) aswell as by the Park of Culture and Rest in Powsin (a unitof the Polish Academy of Science).There are 13 natural reserves in Warsaw – among others,Bielany Forest, Kabaty Woods, Czerniaków Lake. About15 kilometres (9 miles) from Warsaw, the Vistula river'senvironment changes strikingly and features a perfectlypreserved ecosystem, with a habitat of animals that in-cludes the otter, beaver and hundreds of bird species.[73]There are also several lakes in Warsaw – mainly theoxbow lakes, like Czerniaków Lake, the lakes in theŁazienki or Wilanów Parks, Kamionek Lake. There arelot of small lakes in the parks, but only a few are perma-nent – the majority are emptied before winter to cleanthem of plants and sediments.The Warsaw Zoo covers an area of 40 hectares (99acres).[74] There are about 5,000 animals representingnearly 500 species.[74] Although officially created in1928,[74] it traces back its roots to 17th century privatemenageries, often open to the public.[75][76]

4 Society and demographics

Demographically, it was the most diverse city in Poland,with significant numbers of foreign-born inhabitants.[78]In addition to the Polish majority, there was a significantJewish minority in Warsaw. According to Russian cen-sus of 1897, out of the total population of 638,000, Jewsconstituted 219,000 (around 34% percent).[79] Warsaw’sprewar Jewish population of more than 350,000 consti-tuted about 30 percent of the city’s total population.[30] In1933, out of 1,178,914 inhabitants 833,500 were of Pol-ish mother tongue.[80] World War II changed the demo-graphics of the city, and to this day there is much less eth-nic diversity than in the previous 300 years of Warsaw’shistory.[30] Most of the modern day population growth isbased on internal migration and urbanisation.

Comparison of Warsaw’s city boundaries today and in 1939

In 1939, c. 1,300,000 people lived in Warsaw,[82] butin 1945 – only 420,000. During the first years after thewar, the population growth was c. 6%, so shortly thecity started to suffer from the lack of flats and of ar-eas for new houses. The first remedial measure was theWarsaw area enlargement (1951) – but the city author-ities were still forced to introduce residency registrationlimitations: only the spouses and children of the perma-nent residents as well as some persons of public impor-tance (like renowned specialists) were allowed to get theregistration, hence halving the population growth in thefollowing years. It also bolstered some kind of convic-tion among Poles that Varsovians thought of themselvesas better only because they lived in the capital. Unfortu-nately this belief still lives on in Poland (although not asmuch as it used to be) – even though since 1990 there areno limitations to residency registration anymore.[83][84]

4.1 Religion

Main article: Religion in Warsaw

Throughout its existence, Warsaw has been a multi-cultural city.[85] According to the 1901 census, out of711,988 inhabitants 56.2% were Catholics, 35.7% Jews,5% Greek orthodox Christians and 2.8% Protestants.[86]Eight years later, in 1909, there were 281,754 Jews(36.9%), 18,189 Protestants (2.4%) and 2,818Mariavites(0.4%).[87] This led to construction of hundreds of placesof religious worship in all parts of the town. Most of themwere destroyed in the aftermath of the Warsaw Uprisingof 1944. After the war, the new communist authorities ofPoland discouraged church construction and only a smallnumber were rebuilt.[88]

10 5 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

5 Government and politics

As the capital of Poland, Warsaw is the political centre ofthe country. All state agencies are located there, includ-ing the Polish Parliament, the Presidential Office and theSupreme Court. In the Polish parliament the city and thearea are represented by 31 MPs (out of 460). Addition-ally,Warsaw elects twoMEPs (Members of the EuropeanParliament).The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament.The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Pol-ish (literally 'Envoy'). It is elected by universal ballot andis presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of theSejm (Marszałek Sejmu).

5.1 Municipal government

Themunicipal government existed inWarsaw untilWorldWar II and was restored in 1990 (during the communisttimes, the National City Council – Miejska Rada Naro-dowa – governed in Warsaw). Since 1990, the system ofcity administration has been changed several times – alsoas the result of the reform which restored powiats, can-celled in 1975. Finally, according the Warsaw Act, thecity is divided into 18 districts and forms one city powiatwith a unified municipal government.[89]

Neoclassical Commission Palace, the house of the city’s govern-ment.

The basic unit of territorial division in Poland is a com-mune (gmina).[90] A city is also a commune – but withthe city charter.[90] Both cities and communes are gov-erned by a mayor – but in the communes the mayor isvogt (wójt in Polish), however in the cities – burmistrz.Some bigger cities obtain the entitlements, i.e. tasks andprivileges, which are possessed by the units of the sec-ond level of the territorial division – counties or powiats.An example of such entitlement is a car registration: agmina cannot register cars, this is a powiat’s task (i.e. aregistration number depends on what powiat a car hadbeen registered, not gmina). In this case we say aboutcity county or powiat grodzki. Such cities are for exampleLublin, Kraków, Gdańsk, Poznań. InWarsaw, its districtsadditionally have some of powiat’s entitlements – like al-ready mentioned car registration. For example, the dis-trict Wola has its own evidence and the district Ursynów– its own (and the cars from Wola have another type ofregistration number than these from Ursynów). But for

instance the districts in Kraków do not have entitlementsof powiat, so the registration numbers in Kraków are ofthe same type for all districts.

Embassy of the United Kingdom

Legislative power in Warsaw is vested in a unicameralWarsawCity Council (RadaMiasta), which comprises 60members.[89] Council members are elected directly everyfour years. Like most legislative bodies, the City Councildivides itself into committees which have the oversight ofvarious functions of the city government.[89] Bills passedby a simple majority are sent to the mayor (the Presidentof Warsaw), who may sign them into law. If the mayorvetoes a bill, the Council has 30 days to override the vetoby a two-thirds majority vote.Each of the 18 separate city districts has its own coun-cil (Rada dzielnicy).[89] Their duties are focused on aid-ing the President and the City Council, as well as super-vising various municipal companies, city-owned propertyand schools. The head of each of the District Councils isnamed the Mayor (Burmistrz) and is elected by the localcouncil from the candidates proposed by the President ofWarsaw.The mayor of Warsaw is called President. Generally, inPoland, the mayors of bigger cities are called presidents –i.e. such cities, which have over 100,000 people or these,where already was president before 1990. The first War-saw President was Jan Andrzej Menich (1695–1696).[91]Between 1975 and 1990 the Warsaw Presidents was si-multaneously the Warsaw Voivode. Since 1990 the Pres-ident of Warsaw had been elected by the City council.[92]In the years of 1994–1999 the mayor of the district Cen-trum automatically was designated as the President ofWarsaw: the mayor of Centrum was elected by the dis-trict council of Centrum and the council was elected onlyby the Centrum residents. Since 2002 the President ofWarsaw is elected by all of the citizens of Warsaw.[92]

The current President of Warsaw is Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz (since 2006-12-02) – the former president of theNational Bank of Poland.[93] The first president electedaccording these rules was Lech Kaczyński. When he waselected on the President of Polish Republic (December2005) he resigned as mayor on the day before taking of-fice.

11

• Headquarters of Polish government agencies inWarsaw

• Poland’s bicameral parliament, the Sejm and theSenate.

• Chancellery of the Prime Minister

• Presidential Palace, the seat of the Polish president.

• Supreme Court of Poland

• Admin Court

• The seat of the administration of MasovianVoivodeship.

• Mostowski Palace, the seat ofWarsaw’s police head-quarters.

• The main gate of Ministry of Health

• Ministry of Agriculture

5.2 Districts

Until 1994, there were 7 districts in Warsaw: Śród-mieście, Praga Północ, Praga Południe, Żoliborz, Wola,Ochota, Mokotów. Between 1994 and 2002, there were11 districts: Centrum, Białołęka, Targówek, Rembertów,Wawer, Wilanów, Ursynów, Włochy, Ursus, Bemowo,Bielany. In 2002, the town Wesoła was incorporated andthe territorial division of Warsaw was established as fol-lows:Warsaw is a powiat (county), and is further divided into18 boroughs, each one known as a dzielnica (districts),[94]each one with its own administrative body.[95] Each of theboroughs includes several neighbourhoods which have nolegal or administrative status. Warsaw has two historicdistricts, called Old Town (Stare Miasto) and New Town(Nowe Miasto) in the borough of Śródmieście.[96]

BiałołękaBielanyBemowoŻoliborzPraga PółnocTargówekŚródmieścieWolaOchotaWłochyUrsusMokotówWawerPraga PołudnieRembertówWesołaUrsynówWilanów

6 Economy

In 2011, Warsaw was ranked the world’s 46th most ex-pensive city to live in.[97] It was classified as an Alpha-world city (also known as a “major world city”) by theGlobalization andWorld Cities (GaWC) StudyGroup andNetwork from Loughborough University, placing it on apar with cities such as Washington, San Francisco, Seoul

12 6 ECONOMY

or New Delhi.[98] The city also ranked 8th out of 65 citieson MasterCard's Emerging Markets Index (2008).[99]

6.1 Business and commerce

Panorama of Warsaw’s business district by night

Warsaw, especially its city centre (Śródmieście), is homenot only to many national institutions and governmentagencies, but also to many domestic and internationalcompanies. In 2006, 304,016 companies were registeredin the city.[100] Warsaw’s ever-growing business commu-nity has been noticed globally, regionally, and nation-ally. MasterCard EmergingMarket Index has notedWar-saw’s economic strength and commercial center. More-over, Warsaw was ranked as the 7th greatest emergingmarket. Foreign investors’ financial participation in thecity’s development was estimated in 2002 at over 650mil-lion euro. Warsaw produces 12% of Poland’s nationalincome,[101] which in 2008 was 305.1% of the Polish av-erage, per capita (or 160% of the European Union aver-age). The GDP per capita in Warsaw amounted to PLN94 000 in 2008 (c. EUR 23 800, USD 33 000).[102] Totalnominal GDP of the city in 2010 amounted to 191.766billion PLN, 111696 PLN per capita, which was 301,1% of Polish average. Warsaw leads the region of East-Central Europe in foreign investment and in 2006, GDPgrowth met expectations with a level of 6.1%.[103] It alsohas one of the fastest growing economies, with GDPgrowth at 6.5 percent in 2007 and 6.1 percent in the firstquarter of 2008.[104]

Złote Tarasy (English: Golden Terraces) is a commercial andentertainment complex in the center of Warsaw

At the same time the unemployment rate is one of the

lowest in Poland. According to the official figures it wasaround 4% in February 2015.[105] The city itself collectsaround 8,740,882,000 złotys in taxes and direct govern-ment grants.

6.2 Warsaw Stock Exchange

Main article: Warsaw Stock ExchangeWarsaw’s first stock exchange was established in 1817

The Warsaw Stock Exchange is one of the largest in Central Eu-rope.

and continued trading until World War II. It was re-established in April 1991, following the end of the post-war communist control of the country and the rein-troduction of a free-market economy.[106] Today, theWarsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) is, according to manyindicators,[104] the largest market in the region, with 374companies listed and total capitalization of 162 584 mlnEUR as of 31 August 2009.[107] From 1991 until 2000,the stock exchange was, ironically, located in the buildingpreviously used as the headquarters of the Polish UnitedWorkers’ Party (PZPR).[108]

6.3 Industry

During Warsaw’s reconstruction after World War II, thecommunist authorities decided that the city would be-come a major industrial centre. As a result, numerouslarge factories were built in and around the city. Thelargest were theHuta Warszawa Steel Works, the car fac-tory FSO and the tractor factory “Ursus”.As the communist economy deteriorated, these fac-tories lost significance and most went bankrupt after1989.[109][110] Today, the Arcelor Warszawa Steel Mill(formerly Huta Warszawa) is the only major factory re-maining.The FSO Car Factory was established in 1951. A numberof vehicles have been assembled there over the decades,including theWarszawa, Syrena, Fiat 125p (under license

13

from Fiat, later renamed FSO 125p when the license ex-pired) and the Polonez. The last two models listed werealso sent abroad and assembled in a number of othercountries, including Egypt and Colombia. In 1995 thefactory was purchased by the South Korean car manufac-turer Daewoo, which assembled the Tico, Espero, Nubia,Tacuma, Leganza, Lanos and Matiz there for the Euro-pean market. In 2005 the factory was sold to AvtoZAZ,a Ukrainian car manufacturer which assembled there theChevrolet Aveo. The license for the production of theAveo expired in February 2011 and has since not beenrenewed. Currently the company is defunct.The “Ursus” factory opened in 1893 and is still in op-eration today. Throughout its history various machinerywas assembled there, including motorcycles, military ve-hicles, trucks and buses. However, since World War IIonly tractors are still being assembled there.The number of state-owned enterprises continues to de-crease while the number of companies operating withforeign capital is on the rise, reflecting the continuedshift towards a modern market-based economy.[109] Thelargest foreign investors are Coca-Cola Amatil andMetroAG.[109] Warsaw has the biggest concentration of elec-tronics and high-tech industry in Poland, while the grow-ing consumer market perfectly fosters the developmentof the food-processing industry.[109]

7 Education

Main article: Education in Warsaw

Warsaw holds some of the finest institutions of higher ed-ucation in Poland. It is home to four major universitiesand over 62 smaller schools of higher education.[111] Theoverall number of students of all grades of education inWarsaw is almost 500,000 (29.2% of the city popula-tion; 2002). The number of university students is over280,000.[112] Most of the reputable universities are pub-lic, but in recent years there has also been an upsurge inthe number of private universities.

The main gate of the University of Warsaw.

The University of Warsaw was established in 1816, whenthe partitions of Poland separated Warsaw from theoldest and most influential Polish academic center, inKraków.[113]WarsawUniversity of Technology is the sec-ond academic school of technology in the country, andone of the largest in East-Central Europe, employing2,000 professors.[114] Other institutions for higher edu-cation include the Medical University of Warsaw, thelargest medical school in Poland and one of themost pres-tigious, the National Defence University, highest militaryacademic institution in Poland, the Fryderyk Chopin Uni-versity of Music the oldest and largest music school inPoland, and one of the largest in Europe,[115] the WarsawSchool of Economics, the oldest and most renownedeconomic university in the country,[116] and the WarsawUniversity of Life Sciences the largest agricultural uni-versity founded in 1818.[117]

Warsaw University Library

Warsaw has numerous libraries, many of which containvast collections of historic documents. The most impor-tant library in terms of historic document collections in-clude the National Library of Poland. Library holds 8.2million volumes in its collection.[118] Formed in 1928[119]sees itself as a successor to the Załuski Library, thebiggest in Poland and one of the first and biggest librariesin the world.[119][120]

Another important library – the University Library,founded in 1816,[121] is home to over two millionitems.[122] The building was designed by architects MarekBudzyński and ZbigniewBadowski and opened on 15De-cember 1999.[123] It is surrounded by green. The Uni-versity Library garden, designed by Irena Bajerska, wasopened on 12 June 2002. It is one of the largest and mostbeautiful roof gardens in Europe with an area of morethan 10,000 m2 (107,639.10 sq ft), and plants covering5,111 m2 (55,014.35 sq ft).[124] As the university gardenit is open to the public every day.[124]

8 Transport and infrastructure

Main article: Transport in WarsawWarsaw has seen major infrastructural changes over thepast few years amidst increased foreign investment, eco-

14 8 TRANSPORT AND INFRASTRUCTURE

Night view of the Świętokrzyski Bridge and the National Stadiumfrom the left bank of the Vistula

S8 in Warsaw

nomic growth and EU funding. The city has a much im-proved infrastructure with new roads, flyovers, bridges,etc.[125]

Warsaw lacks a good ring road system and most trafficgoes directly through the city centre, leading to the thirdhighest level of congestion in continental Europe.[126] TheWarsaw ring road has been planned to consist of threeexpress roads: S2, S8 and S17. Currently parts of S2and S8 are open, with the remaining construction to befinished by 2019.Thanks to the A2 motorway stretching west from War-saw, which opened in June 2012, the city now has a directmotorway connection with Łódź, Poznań and ultimatelywith Berlin.The city has two international airports: Warsaw ChopinAirport, located just 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the citycentre, and Warsaw-Modlin Airport, located 35 kilome-tres (22 mi) to the north, opened in July 2012. Witharound 100 international and domestic flights a day andwith 10,590,000 passengers served in 2014, WarsawFrédéric Chopin Airport is by far the biggest airport inPoland.[127]

Public transport in Warsaw includes buses, trams(streetcars), Metro, light rail Warszawska Kolej Dojaz-dowa line, urban railway Szybka Kolej Miejska, regionalrail Koleje Mazowieckie (Mazovian Railways),[128] andbicycle sharing systems (Veturilo and Bemowo Bike).

Warsaw Chopin Airport

The buses, trams, urban railway and Metro are managedby Zarząd TransportuMiejskiego (ZTM, theWarsawMu-nicipal Transport Authority).The regional rail and light rail is operated by Polish StateRailways (PKP). There are also some suburban bus linesrun by private operators.[129] Bus service covers the entirecity, with approximately 170 routes totalling about 2,603kilometres (1,617 mi), and with some 1,600 vehicles.Currently, the Tramwaje Warszawskie (Warsaw Trams)company runs 863 cars on over 240 kilometres (150 mi)of tracks. Twenty-odd lines run across the city with ad-ditional lines opened on special occasions (such as AllSaints’ Day).The first section of the Warsaw Metro was opened in1995 initially with a total of 11 stations.[130] It now has 21stations running a distance of approximately 23 km (14mi).[131] Initially, all of the trains were Russian built. In1998, 108 new carriages were ordered from Alstom.[130]The second line running east-west will be about 31 km(19 mi). The central section is now under constructionand will be 6 km (4 mi) long with seven stations.[130]This central section of the second line opened on 8March2015.The main railway station is Warszawa Centralna servingboth domestic traffic to almost every major city in Poland,and international connections. There are also five othermajor railway stations and a number of smaller suburbanstations.

• Public transport in Warsaw

• Metro Line 1, Wilson Square station

• Metro Line 2, Nowy Świat-Uniwersytet station

• Bus

• Tram car

• Fast City Rail trains, Chopin Airport station

• Koleje Mazowieckie train, Stadium station

• Veturilo bicycles station

9.1 Music and theatre 15

8.1 Infrastructure

Main article: Infrastructure in Warsaw

Like many cities in Central and Eastern Europe, infras-tructure in Warsaw suffered considerably during its timeas an Eastern Bloc economy - though it is worth men-tioning that the initial Three-Year Plan to rebuild Poland(especially Warsaw) was a major success, but what fol-lowed was very much the opposite. However, over thepast decade Warsaw has seen many improvements due tosolid economic growth, an increase in foreign investmentas well as funding from the European Union. In particu-lar, the city’s metro, roads, sidewalks, health care facili-ties and sanitation facilities have improved markedly.[125]

Today, Warsaw has some of the best medical facilitiesin Poland and East-Central Europe. The city is hometo the Children’s Memorial Health Institute (CMHI), thehighest-reference hospital in all of Poland, as well asan active research and education center.[132] While theMaria Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology it is oneof the largest and most modern oncological institutionsin Europe.[133] The clinical section is located in a 10-floor building with 700 beds, 10 operating theatres, anintensive care unit, several diagnostic departments as wellas an outpatient clinic.[133] The infrastructure has devel-oped a lot over the past years.[134]

9 Culture

9.1 Music and theatre

President Bronisław Komorowski attends the 2010 InternationalChopin Piano Competition at Warsaw’s Grand Theater, home ofPoland’s National Theatre and Opera.

Thanks to numerous musical venues, including the TeatrWielki, the Polish National Opera, the Chamber Opera,the National Philharmonic Hall and the National Theatre,as well as the Roma and Buffo music theatres and theCongress Hall in the Palace of Culture and Science, War-saw hosts many events and festivals. Among the eventsworth particular attention are: the International Frédéric

Chopin Piano Competition, the International Contempo-rary Music Festival Warsaw Autumn, the Jazz Jamboree,Warsaw Summer Jazz Days, the International StanisławMoniuszko Vocal Competition, the Mozart Festival, andthe Festival of Old Music.[135]

Warsaw is also considered as one of the European hubs ofunderground electronic music with a very attractive houseand techno music scene.[136]

Warsaw is home to over 30 major theatres spreadthroughout the city, including the National Theatre(founded in 1765) and the Grand Theatre (established1778).[137]

Jazz concert in Tygmont Club.

Warsaw also attracts many young and off-stream direc-tors and performers who add to the city’s theatrical cul-ture. Their productions may be viewed mostly in smallertheatres and Houses of Culture (Domy Kultury), mostlyoutside Śródmieście (Central Warsaw). Warsaw hosts theInternational Theatrical Meetings.From 1833 to the outbreak of World War II, PlacTeatralny (Theatre Square) was the country’s cultural huband home to the various theatres.[138] Plac Teatralny andits environs was the venue for numerous parades, celebra-tions of state holidays, carnival balls and concerts.The main building housed the Great Theatre from 1833to 1834, the Rozmaitości Theatre from 1836 to 1924and then the National Theatre, the Reduta Theatre from1919 to 1924, and from 1928 to 1939 – the Nowy The-atre, which staged productions of contemporary poeticaldrama, including those directed by Leon Schiller.[138]

Nearby, in Ogród Saski (the Saxon Garden), the Sum-mer Theatre was in operation from 1870 to 1939,[139]and in the inter-war period, the theatre complex alsoincluded Momus, Warsaw’s first literary cabaret, andLeon Schiller's musical theatre Melodram. TheWojciechBogusławski Theatre (1922–26), was the best exampleof “Polish monumental theatre”. From the mid-1930s,the Great Theatre building housed the Upati Instituteof Dramatic Arts – the first state-run academy of dra-matic art, with an acting department and a stage directing

16 9 CULTURE

department.[138]

9.2 Events

Warsaw Multimedia Fountain Park

Several commemorative events take place every year.Gatherings of thousands of people on the banks ofthe Vistula on Midsummer’s Night for a festival calledWianki (Polish forWreaths) have become a tradition anda yearly event in the programme of cultural events inWarsaw.[140][141] The festival traces its roots to a peacefulpagan ritual where maidens would float their wreaths ofherbs on the water to predict when they would be mar-ried, and to whom.[140] By the 19th century this traditionhad become a festive event, and it continues today.[140]The city council organize concerts and other events.[141]EachMidsummer’s Eve, apart from the official floating ofwreaths, jumping over fires, looking for the fern flower,there are musical performances, dignitaries’ speeches,fairs and fireworks by the river bank.[141]

Warsaw Multimedia Fountain Park is located in an en-chanting place, near the Old Town and the Vistula. The‘Water – Light – Sound’ multimedia shows take placeeach Friday and Saturday from May till September at9.30 pm (May and - 9 October pm). On other weekdays,the shows do not include lasers and sound.The Warsaw Film Festival, an annual festival that takesplace every October.[142] Films are usually screened intheir original language with Polish subtitles and par-ticipating cinemas include Kinoteka (Palace of Scienceand Culture), Multikino at Golden Terraces and Kultura.Over 100 films are shown throughout the festival, andawards are given to the best and most popular films.[142]

9.3 Museums and art galleries

The levelling of Warsaw during the war has left gapingholes in the city’s historic collections.[143] Although a con-siderable number of treasures were spirited away to safetyin 1939, a great number of collections from palaces andmuseums in the countryside were brought to Warsaw atthat time as the capital was considered a safer place than

Museum of History of Polish Jews

some remote castle in the borderlands.[143] Thus losseswere heavy.[143]

Warsaw Uprising Museum.

As interesting examples of expositions the most notableare: the world’s first Museum of Posters boasting one ofthe largest collections of art posters in the world,[144] Mu-seum of Hunting and Riding and the Railway Museum.From amongWarsaw’s 60 museums, the most prestigiousones are National Museum with a collection of workswhose origin ranges in time from antiquity till the presentepoch as well as one of the best collections of paintings inthe country including some paintings from Adolf Hitler’sprivate collection,[145] and Museum of the Polish Armywhose set portrays the history of arms.The collections of Łazienki and Wilanów palaces (bothbuildings came through the war in good shape) focus onthe paintings of the “old masters”, as are those of theRoyal Castle which displays the Lanckoroński Collectionincluding two paintings by Rembrandt.[146] The Palace inNatolin, a former rural residence of Duke Czartoryski,is another venue with its interiors and park accessible totourists.Holding Poland’s largest private collection of art,the Carroll Porczyński Collection Museum[147] dis-plays works from such varied artists as Paris Bordone,Cornelis van Haarlem, José de Ribera, William-AdolpheBouguereau, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Vincent vanGogh[148] along with some copies of masterpieces of Eu-ropean painting.

9.5 Sports 17

17th century Ostrogski Castle houses the Chopin Museum.

A fine tribute to the fall of Warsaw and history of Polandcan be found in the Warsaw Uprising Museum and inthe Katyń Museum which preserves the memory of thecrime.[149] Museum of Independence host sentimentaland patriotic paraphernalia connected with these epochs.Dating back to 1936WarsawHistoricalMuseum contains60 rooms which host a permanent exhibition of the his-tory of Warsaw from its origins until today.

Zachęta National Gallery of Art

The 17th century Royal Ujazdów Castle currently housesCentre for Contemporary Art, with some permanentand temporary exhibitions, concerts, shows and creativeworkshops. The Centre currently realizes about 500projects a year. Zachęta National Gallery of Art, theoldest exhibition site in Warsaw, with a tradition stretch-ing back to the mid-19th century organises exhibitionsof modern art by Polish and international artists and pro-motes art in many other ways.The city also possesses some oddities such as the Mu-seum of Caricature,[150] the Museum of John Paul IIand Primate Wyszyński, and a Motorisation Museum inOtrębusy.[151]

9.4 Media and film

See also: List of films featuring WarsawWarsaw is the media centre of Poland, and the locationof the main headquarters of TVP and other numerous

Main TVP headquarters at Woronicza street.

local and national TV and radio stations, such as TVN,Polsat, TV4, TV Puls, Canal+ Poland, Cyfra+ and MTVPoland.[152]

Since May 1661 the first Polish newspaper, Polish Or-dinary Mercury, was printed in Warsaw. The cityis also the printing capital of Poland with a widevariety of domestic and foreign periodicals express-ing diverse views, and domestic newspapers are ex-tremely competitive. Rzeczpospolita, Gazeta Wyborcza,Dziennik Polska-Europa-Świat Poland’s large nationwidedaily newspapers[153] have their headquarters in Warsaw.Warsaw also has a sizable movie and television industry.The city houses several movie companies and studios.Among the movie companies are TOR, Czołówka, Ze-bra and Kadr who is behind several international movieproductions.[154]

Over the next few years the new Film City in Nowe Mi-asto, located a mere 80 km (50 mi) from Warsaw, willbecome the centre of Polish film production and inter-national co-production.[154] It is to be the largest high-tech film studio in Europe.[154] The first projects filmedin the new Film City will be two films about the WarsawUprising.[154] Two backlots will be constructed for theseprojects – a lot of pre-WWII Warsaw and city ruins.[154]

Since World War II, Warsaw has been the most impor-tant centre of film production in Poland. It has also beenfeatured in numerous movies, both Polish and foreign,for example: Kanał and Korczak by Andrzej Wajda, TheDecalogue by Krzysztof Kieślowski, also including Oscarwinner The Pianist by Roman Polański.[155]

9.5 Sports

Main article: Sport in Warsaw

On 9 April 2008 the President of Warsaw, HannaGronkiewicz-Waltz, obtained from themayor of StuttgartWolfgang Schuster a challenge award – a commemorativeplaque awarded to Warsaw as the European capital ofSport in 2008.[156]

18 9 CULTURE

The Interior of the National Stadium before the UEFA Euro 2012semi-final match between Germany and Italy on 28 June 2012

The National Stadium, capacity of 58,500 seat football(soccer) stadium, replaced Warsaw’s recently demol-ished 10th-Anniversary Stadium.[157] The national sta-dium hosted the opening match, 2 group matches, a quar-terfinal, and a semifinal of the UEFA Euro 2012 hostedjointly by Poland and Ukraine.[158]

The Olympic Center in Warsaw

There are many sports centres in the city as well. Mostof these facilities are swimming pools and sports halls,many of them built by the municipality in the past severalyears. The main indoor venue is Hala Torwar, used forall kinds of indoor sports (mainly, indoor skating rink).There is also open-air skating rink (Stegny) and the horseracetrack (Służewiec).The best of the city’s swimming centres is at Wodny ParkWarszawianka, 4 km (2 mi) south of the centre at Merlin-iego Street, where there’s an Olympic-sized pool as wellas water slides and children’s areas.[159]

From the Warsovian football teams, the most famous isLegia Warsaw – the army club with a nationwide follow-ing play at Polish Army Stadium, just southeast of thecentre at Łazienkowska Street. Established in 1916, theyhave won the country’s championship 10 times (most re-cently in 2014) and won the Polish Cup 16 times. Theyhave never been relegated divisions. In the ChampionsLeague season 1995/96 they reached the quarter-finals,where they lost to Panathinaikos Athens.

Their local rivals, Polonia Warsaw, have significantlyfewer supporters, yet they managed to win EkstraklasaChampionship in 2000. They also won the country’schampionship in 1946, and won the cup twice as well.Polonia’s home venue is located at Konwiktorska Street,a ten-minute walk north from the Old Town. Polonia wasrelegated from the country’s top flight in 2013 because oftheir disastrous financial situation. They are now playingin the 4th league (5th tier in Poland) -the bottom profes-sional league in the National - Polish Football Association(PZPN) structure.

9.6 Warsaw Mermaid

The 1659 coat of arms of Old Warsaw on the cover of one ofWarsaw’s accounting books.

Main article: Coat of arms of Warsaw

The mermaid (syrenka) is Warsaw’s symbol[160] and canbe found on statues throughout the city and on the city’scoat of arms. This imagery has been in use since at leastthe mid-14th century.[161] The oldest existing armed sealof Warsaw is from the year 1390, consisting of a roundseal bordered with the Latin inscription Sigilium Civi-tatis Varsoviensis (Seal of the city of Warsaw).[162] Cityrecords as far back as 1609 document the use of a crudeform of a sea monster with a female upper body and hold-ing a sword in its claws.[163] In 1653 the poet ZygmuntLaukowski asks the question:The Mermaid Statue stands in the very centre of OldTown Square, surrounded by a fountain. Due to vandal-ism, the original statue had been moved to the grounds

19

1855 bronze sculpture of TheWarsawMermaid in the Old TownMarket Place

of the Historical Museum of Warsaw – the statue in thesquare is a copy. This is not the only mermaid inWarsaw.Another is located on the bank of the Vistula River nearŚwiętokrzyski Bridge and another on Karowa Street.The origin of the legendary figure is not fully known. Thebest-known legend, by Artur Oppman, is that long agotwo of Triton's daughters set out on a journey through thedepths of the oceans and seas. One of them decided tostay on the coast of Denmark and can be seen sitting at theentrance to the port of Copenhagen. The secondmermaidreached the mouth of the Vistula River and plunged intoits waters. She stopped to rest on a sandy beach by thevillage of Warszowa, where fishermen came to admireher beauty and listen to her beautiful voice. A greedymerchant also heard her songs; he followed the fishermenand captured the mermaid.[165]

Another legend says that a mermaid once swam to War-saw from the Baltic Sea for the love of the Griffin, theancient defender of the city, who was killed in a strug-gle against the Swedish invasions of the 17th century.The mermaid, wishing to avenge his death, took the posi-tion of defender of Warsaw, becoming the symbol of thecity.[165]

Every member of the Queen’s Royal Hussars of theUnited Kingdom light cavalry wears theMaid ofWarsaw,the crest of the City of Warsaw, on the left sleeve of hisNo. 2 (Service) Dress.[166] Members of 651 SquadronArmy Air Corps of the United Kingdom also wear theMaid of Warsaw on the left sleeve of their No. 2 (Ser-vice) Dress.[167]

10 Famous people

Maria Skłodowska-Curie

Further information: Category:People from Warsaw

One of the most famous people born in Warsaw wasMaria Skłodowska-Curie, who achieved internationalrecognition for her research on radioactivity and was thefirst female recipient of the Nobel Prize.[168] Famousmusicians include Władysław Szpilman and FrédéricChopin. Though Chopin was born in the village ofŻelazowa Wola, about 60 km (37 mi) from Warsaw, hemoved to the city with his family when he was sevenmonths old.[169] Casimir Pulaski, a Polish general andhero of the American Revolutionary War, was born herein 1745.[170]

Tamara de Lempicka was a famous artist born inWarsaw.[171] She was born Maria Górska in Warsaw towealthy parents and in 1916 married a Polish lawyerTadeusz Łempicki.[172] Better than anyone else she rep-resented the Art Deco style in painting and art.[171]Nathan Alterman, the Israeli poet, was born in Warsaw,as was Moshe Vilenski, the Israeli composer, lyricist,and pianist, who studied music at the Warsaw Conser-vatory.[173] Warsaw was the beloved city of Isaac Bashe-vis Singer, which he described in many of his novels:[174]Warsaw has just now been destroyed. No one will ever seethe Warsaw I knew. Let me just write about it. Let thisWarsaw not disappear forever, he commented.[175]

20 15 NOTES

11 Rankings

• Largest capital cities of the European Union: ranked9th (2012).

• Most expensive cities: ranked 113th of 144.

• Livability Index: ranked 32nd (2012)[6]

12 International relations

12.1 Twin towns and sister cities

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Poland

Warsaw is twinned with:[176]

References – city’s official site.[193]

12.2 Partnerships

13 Varieties

14 See also

• Battle of Warsaw

• Street names of Warsaw

• Tourism in Poland

• Warsaw concentration camp

• Warsaw dialect

• Warsaw Fire Brigade

15 Notes[1] “Population in Poland. Size and structure by territorial

division as of December 31, 2013” (ASPX) (in Polish).Retrieved 2 October 2013.

[2] “Ludność w gminach według stanu w dniu 31.12.2011 r.bilans opracowany w oparciu o wyniki NSP’2011” (in Pol-ish). Glówny Urząd Statystyczny. Retrieved 21 August2012.

[3] “European Metropolitan Transport Authorities”. EMTA.Retrieved 3 June 2011.

[4] “CityProfiles”. Urban Audit. Retrieved 3 June 2011.

[5] “Warsaw”. goeuro2012.com. Archived from the originalon 3 June 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.

[6] http://pages.eiu.com/rs/eiu2/images/EIU_BestCities.pdf

[7] “Top 150 City Destinations: London Leads the Way”.blog.euromonitor.com. 11 October 2007. Retrieved 18November 2011. City Ranking '000 tourist arrivals /War-saw 29 2,925

[8] George Friedman (30 November 2010). “GeopoliticalJourney, Part 6: Ukraine”. stratfor.com. Retrieved 18November 2011. Far more interesting than their geopo-litical speculation was their fixation on Warsaw. (...) Butwhat was most interesting was how little talk there was ofUkrainian oligarchs compared to Warsaw markets. Theoligarchs might have been way beyond them and thereforeirrelevant, but it was Warsaw, not the European Union orthe power structure, that got their juices flowing.

[9] “Warsaw Stock Exchange to List Bulgarian Companies”.novinite.com. 15 February 2010. Retrieved 18 Novem-ber 2011. Bulgarian public companies will now be able tosecure the financing of their projects through investors onthe Warsaw Stock Exchange, according to the site Darik-Finance.

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[14] Czerkawski, Andrzej; Jurga, Tadeusz (1969). Dla ciebieojczyzno. Sport i Turystyka. p. 435. ORDER OF VAL-OUR “VIRTUTI MILITARI”, FIFTH CLASS CapitalCity of Warsaw 1940 To the inhabitants of the CapitalCity of Warsaw — in recognition of their heroism andunshakable bravery in the struggle with the Nazi aggres-sor.

[15] Kazimierz Rymut (1987). Nazwy miast Polski (in Polish).Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. ISBN 83-04-02436-5.

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21

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22 15 NOTES

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[71] “Park Praski”. naszemiasto.pl (in Polish). Archived fromthe original on 14 March 2008. Retrieved 18 February2008.

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[75] Warsaw Zoo opened 11 March 1928, on RatuszowaStreet. It was not the first zoological garden in Warsaw;King Jan Sobieski III kept a court menagerie in Wilanów.Several private zoos were also established in Warsaw inthe 19th century. “New Zoo Revue”. warsawvoice.pl. 24April 2003. Retrieved 9 May 2009.

[76] VernonN. Kisling, ed. (2000). Zoo and aquarium history:ancient animal collections to zoological gardens. CRCPress. pp. 118–119. ISBN 0-8493-2100-X.

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[79] Joshua D. Zimmerman (2004). Poles, Jews and the poli-tics of nationality. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 16.ISBN 0-299-19464-7.

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[85] Geert Mak (2008). In Europe: travels through the twen-tieth century. Pantheon Books. p. 427. ISBN 0-307-28057-8. Today Warsaw is a monocultural city, whichis some people’s ideal. But before 1939 it was a typicallymulticultural society. Those were the city’s most productiveyears. We lost that multicultural character during the war.

[86] Hermann Julius Meyer (1909). Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (in German) 20 (6 ed.). Leipzig and Vienna. p.388.

[87] Erich Zechlin (1916). Die Bevölkerungs- und Grundbe-sitzverteilung im Zartum Polen (The distribution of pop-ulation and property in tsaristic Poland) (in German).Reimer, Berlin. pp. 82–83.

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[94] http://www.e-warsaw.pl/images/mapa_dzielnice.gif

23

[95] “Dzielnice”. um.warszawa.pl (in Polish). Archived fromthe original on 1 July 2008. Retrieved 11 July 2008.

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24 15 NOTES

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[145] Schwarz, Birgit (2009). Geniewahn: Hitler und die Kunst.Böhlau Verlag Wien. p. 312. ISBN 32-05783-07-7.Mehrere Gemälde aus dem Berghof befinden sich heuteim Nationalmuseum in Warschau. Bordones Venus undAmor etwa (Abb. 100) ebenso wie der Madonnen-TondoBugiardinis (Abb. 62) oder ein großes Ruinenbild vonPannini, das in der verglasten Veranda gehangen hatte(Abb. 113).

[146] Wetering, van de, Ernst (2005). A Corpus of RembrandtPaintings IV: Self-Portraits. Springer. p. 245. ISBN 14-02032-80-3.

[147] Official name: Museum of John Paul II Collection

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[170] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/483059/Kazimierz-Pulaski

[171] Uta Grosenick, Ilka Becker (2001). Women artists in the20th and 21st century. Taschen. p. 576. ISBN 3-8228-5854-4.

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[178] “Berlin’s international city relations”. Berlin Mayor’s Of-fice. Retrieved 1 July 2009. Berlin and Warsaw’s agree-ment on friendship and cooperation and a correspondingsupporting program was signed in Berlin on 12 August1991.

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[179] “Listado de ciudades hermanas” (PDF). bueno-saires.gov.ar (in Spanish). Gobierno de la Ciudad deBuenos Aires. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18October 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011. 1990. Praga.1992. Rótterdam. 1990. Varsovia 1992.

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[185] Madrid city council webpage “Mapa Mundi de las ciu-dades hermanadas”. Ayuntamiento de Madrid.

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[192] “Tel Aviv sister cities” (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv-Yafo Mu-nicipality. Archived from the original on 14 February2009. Retrieved 14 July 2009.

[193] “Miasta partnerskie Warszawy”. um.warszawa.pl (in Pol-ish). Biuro Promocji Miasta. 4 May 2005. Archived fromthe original on 4 July 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2008.

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[195] “Partnerská města HMP” [Prague - Twin Cities HMP].Portál “Zahraniční vztahy” [Portal “Foreign Affairs"] (inCzech). 18 July 2013. Archived from the original on 25June 2013. Retrieved 5 August 2013.

[196] “Poet of Flaming Warsaw”. Retrieved 10 July 2008.

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16 References• Crowley, David (2003). Warsaw. Reaktion Books.ISBN 1-86189-179-2. Retrieved 28 August 2011.

• Olchowik-Adamowska, Liliana; Ławecki, Tomasz(1 April 2006). Travellers Warsaw (First ed.).Peterborough, United Kingdom: Thomas CookPublishing. ISBN 978-1-84157-492-9. Retrieved11 March 2010.

• Bozenna Kirkpatrick (July 18, 2012). “Polish Vis-tula River Victory of 1920, implications” (InternetArchive). An Outline. Electronic Museum.ca. Re-trieved 3 March 2013.

• Official webpage of Warsaw includes 360° panora-mas of the UNESCO listed area.

• District Police Headquarters – Warsaw II (part ofWarsaw Metropolitan Police)

• Warsaw Guide. Online City Guide for Warsaw inPoland. Retrieved 17 May 2015.

Coordinates: 52°14′N 21°1′E / 52.233°N 21.017°E

26 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

17 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

17.1 Text• Warsaw Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw?oldid=676755231 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kpjas, MichaelTinkler, JHK, The

Epopt, WojPob, David Parker, Mav, Szopen, Koyaanis Qatsi, Andre Engels, LA2, Danny, Enchanter, Deb, Karen Johnson, WilliamAvery, Space Cadet, SimonP, Drbug, Mintguy, Topory, Leandrod, Fransvannes, Patrick, D, Michael Hardy, Gdarin, Delirium, Aho-erstemeier, Snoyes, GCarty, Ruhrjung, Mxn, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Przepla, RickK, JCarriker, WhisperToMe, Maya~enwiki, Tp-bradbury, Nv8200pa, Fibonacci, Tuomas, Sabbut, Heine, Eugene van der Pijll, Francs2000, Caius2ga, Nufy8, Robbot, Pigsonthewing,Nico~enwiki, Fredrik, Moncrief, Nyh, Fifelfoo, Altenmann, Ianb, Pkmink~enwiki, Halibutt, Radomil, Hadal, Profoss, Cautious, Katarzyna,SpellBott, Lysy, Gobeirne, Dbenbenn, Poszwa~enwiki, Bwood, Gdansk, Folks at 137, Meursault2004, Bwasiluk, Tsca, Curps, Paluszak,Szwejk~enwiki, DO'Neil, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Jason Quinn, Kpalion, Mboverload, Tweenk, Gzornenplatz, Avala, Agnus, Wmahan, Isidore,ChicXulub, Chowbok, Antandrus, Beland, Piotrus, Szy, Emax, Karol Langner, OwenBlacker, Adziura, Balcer, Wurzeller, Krupo, Pol-ishPoliticians, Wlodi, Arcturus, Neutrality, Joyous!, Irpen, Football in Poland, Adashiel, Chepry, Arminius, Gdabski, Dryazan, MikeRosoft, Rfl, EBL, Chris j wood, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Naive cynic, Smog~enwiki, Erolos, SpookyMulder, SamEV, Bender235,CanisRufus, PS~enwiki, El C, Mulder1982, Bletch, Kwamikagami, Vecrumba, Gilgamesh he, Myszodorn, RoyBoy, Jpgordon, PatrikR,Bobo192, Ruszewski, Vortexrealm, Vegalabs, Giraffedata, Diceman, Nk, Darwinek, MPerel, Pearle, Gsklee, Jumbuck, Red Winged Duck,Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Rd232, Ricky81682, Nwinther, Logologist, Robweiller~enwiki, Ciceronl, Kocio, Mailer diablo, Cdc,DreamGuy, Zsero, Aegis Maelstrom, ProhibitOnions, Garzo, Jheald, Derbeth, Sciurinæ, Scott Gall, Freyr, Gene Nygaard, Ghirlandajo,Kerry7374, Kitch, TShilo12, Woohookitty, BillC, Tabletop, Twthmoses, Eagor, SDC, Graham87, TaivoLinguist, BD2412, DePiep, Pmj,Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Koavf, NatusRoma, Gryffindor, Cyberchimp, Eeamoscopolecrushuva~enwiki, Seraphimblade, Feydey,HappyCamper, SeanMack, The wub, Olessi, Ev, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, RobertG, Powerek38, Ground Zero, Grippenn~enwiki, Paolo914,Mark83, IgorMagic, Colonel Mustard, Witkacy, Russavia, Valentinian, Butros, CJLL Wright, Chobot, Elpaw, Fourdee, Visor, Guliolopez,Volunteer Marek, 334a, Bgwhite, Zimbabweed, JPD, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Alektzin, Brandmeister (old), Superplexus, RussBot,John Quincy Adding Machine, Conscious, Thmars10, Markpeak, SylwiaS, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Meteor2017, Mikkip, Nawlin-Wiki, Mokhov, Bachrach44, Voyevoda, Czyrko, Ejdzej, Rjensen, Irishguy, Rwerp~enwiki, Egor9, Molobo, AlbertR, Dbfirs, Mieciu K,Bota47, Brisvegas, Mareklug, Berdov, Brzeszczot~enwiki, Chanheigeorge, Bpa, Petri Krohn, GraemeL, RobotF, VodkaJazz, Kevin, Guin-ness man, Oly Majoieka, Bziomek, Allens, Appleseed, RG2, Ish warsaw, Starbot, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, Crystallina, Smack-Bot, YellowMonkey, Elonka, Jacek Kendysz, Nickst, Delldot, Edgar181, Alsandro, Sebesta, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Andy M.Wang, Averette, Marcin.sobczyk, Keegan, 32X, Ksenon, Oli Filth, Norum, MalafayaBot, Xx236, Heikoh, Darius Dhlomo, Enfantsdupar-adis, Viva-Verdi, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Dr. Dan, Springeragh, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Duncancumming,Rhollenton, Shalom Alechem~enwiki, OrphanBot, MJBurrage, Snowmanradio, MJCdetroit, Rrburke, Jpaulm, Flyguy649, Nakon, Valen-ciano, Alexandra lb, Weregerbil, Jklin, Evlekis, Galis, Bejnar, Kukini, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, BrownHairedGirl, John, Anishpp, Thealliance, LUCPOL, Scientizzle, Mathiasrex, Vumba, Catapult, Linnell, Jazzmaphone, Barry Kent~enwiki, Green Giant, Goodnightmush,Hoodinski, IronGargoyle, CPAScott, Hvn0413, Beetstra, NaturalBornKiller, Jose77, NeroN BG, Violncello, Levineps, Alan.ca, Siebrand,Karolczu~enwiki, JoeBot, Myrtone86, Amakuru, Foundert~enwiki, Courcelles, StoM~enwiki, FairuseBot, Themilstead, JForget, RSido,Kowalmistrz~enwiki, 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CommonsDelinker, Ssol-bergj, J.delanoy, BigrTex, Adavidb, Skurwiel, Bogey97, Numbo3, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Yonidebot, Gareth.randall, Hiuppo, Bushy mous-tache, FlyingOko, LOTkid, Mikej007, Mrg3105, AntiSpamBot, Viragkamil, Plasticup, DarthSmee, SJP, Biglovinb, Pundit, Dubhe.sk, Mis-terBee1966, Erdeniss, KylieTastic, Bogdan~enwiki, Jamesofur, RVJ, Xnuala, Lancashire69, Deor, LeszekB, VolkovBot, Joeoettinger, Al-noktaBOT, Fujicolor, Philip Trueman, Sssmok1, ArnoldPettybone, TXiKiBoT, Davehi1, Ignatius libre, JhsBot, Heszy, Mazzelino, Bleaney,Rumiton, M0RD00R, McHooty hoot the owl numbah 4!, Bonzon, Yomomo1, Sk8er121, GiZiBoNG, Synthebot, Orestek, Heyst, Le Fou,AlleborgoBot, SalJyDieBoereKomLei, Pikolo, EmxBot, Gustav von Humpelschmumpel, Romuald Wróblewski, SieBot, K. Annoyomous,Ostap R, Nihil novi, Moonriddengirl, BotMultichill, ToePeu.bot, Kferden, Janobr, TR, HkCaGu, Oda Mari, Jotel, Oxymoron83, Byrialbot,ComUSSR, Yone Fernandes, Lightmouse, Sliwers, Minimus1, Seedbot, Rabbigeorge, Bacique, Kajzderski, StaticGull, Paulinho28, Polan-drulez, Bestalex, Bpeps, Angelo De La Paz, Oktan, Joytotheworld982, Explicit, MenoBot, Martarius, ClueBot, Dvl007, Terry Vaserum,PipepBot, Kotniski, The Thing That Should Not Be, Franekwiki~enwiki, IceUnshattered, Knepflerle, MorganaFiolett, Martinete, DerGolem, Jacurek, A.Savin, Polaco77, Watti Renew, Regibox, Kotbot, Imperium Europeum, Niceguyedc, Brzeszczykiewicz, KizzyB, Pointil-list, Pernambuko, Masterpiece2000, DragonBot, Excirial, Clint.hotvedt, Readin, Dufourspitze, Verwolff, Cenarium, Zarbi1, Tomazzz,Remark knights, Thingg, Aitias, DerBorg, Cpt.schoener, StevenDH, Dana boomer, Kubek15, MelonBot, BurgererSF~enwiki, Appari-tion11, Loosmark, Profsowa, Martim33, DumZiBoT, Doopdoop, Darkicebot, Pebbles1979, Editorofthewiki, Delicious carbuncle, Wma-ciej~enwiki, Stickee, Ger-man, LeManche211, Julekmanowski, NellieBly, JinJian, Kadellar, Jhendin, Bpiotrek, Some jerk on the Internet,Betterusername, Xxlittlekiwixx, UltioUltionis, UnLoCode, Ronhjones, CactusWriter, NjardarBot, Debresser, IAnton7, Stlvu2, Numbo3-bot, Mirek46, Lightbot, Foledman~enwiki, Krano, Xenobot, Plongerstoop, Wawsrm, Aaroncrick, DK4, Legobot, Luckas-bot, João P.M. Lima, Yobot, Worldbruce, Pusior, Ptbotgourou, Ajh1492, Amirobot, Poland rules the area east of Germany, House1630, Kamikaze-Bot, South Bay, Bbb23, Russian Luxembourger, AnomieBOT, Szpaq, Mike Hayes, Patrick Nagel, Kristen Eriksen, Rubinbot, 1exec1,Galoubet, AdjustShift, Kuzia, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, DuttyYo, Xqbot, Texmon, Timir2,Khajidha, Animeguardxox123, Klik9, Rasnaboy, Jane McCann, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Adriano 7, MaciejKudra, Inter-man, Whitewhirlwind, LukWarUrs, Joaquin008, Samwb123, Candbender, FrescoBot, Tobby72, AlexanderKaras, Tomica, Gilado, Kaiser von Europa,M2545, Louperibot, SuperJew, AstaBOTh15, Bartel1977, Elockid, HRoestBot, MMBBTT, Maciek 18, Pawello071, Baltic Soul, A8UDI,Emanuilsabotinov, Lars Washington, Divčinka, Biala Gwiazda, Full-date unlinking bot, Lissajous, Strawtree, Horst-schlaemma, Cn-williams, PerV, Elekhh, FoxBot, Ukanio, TobeBot, Iloni Label, Hedviberit, Khaadimone, Lotje, DESU TOYS, Zuy czuowieq, Amiodarone,Neferkare, Extra999, Garfield333, Frankyaraceae, Eric Bauman, Pashko 2, Rzuwig, IRISZOOM, Gustavo Rubén, Purz12, RjwilmsiBot,TjBot, Alph Bot, Ripchip Bot, Omgstupidlag, Thiridaz, VernoWhitney, Spacejam2, Random2001, EmausBot, Mamalala, John of Reading,Bgmur, Dodsosk~enwiki, GoingBatty, Bigdumbsex, Marek Chalecki, Exok, TCUfan, NotAnonymous0, Sp33dyphil, Solarra, Jim Michael,Wikipelli, Karlos87, Number10a, ZéroBot, Bongoramsey, Mariusemillian, Wojgniew, Druzhnik, Psubrat2000, Subtropical-man, H3llBot,

17.2 Images 27

Ceriparrymorgan, SporkBot, Rcsprinter123, Brandmeister, Carsten R D, Noodleki, Donner60, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, Mantchi, Convi, Tot12,Hazard-Bot, ChuispastonBot, Atwardow, Iketsi, Gnesener1900, Inoruox, TheTimesAreAChanging, Marias87, ClueBot NG, Zoidbergness,Iloveandrea, Michael.gierasimiuk, Superkid72, Duster555, MusicGeek101, Muslim lo Juheu, Snotbot, Frietjes, 08OceanBeach SD, Sc135,Rezabot, Pensionero, Ziemniak12314, Newyorkadam, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lovetelaviv, Jkirk2012, InfoQultura, DBigXray, BG19bot, Fer-nandoAngel, Krenair, Tolea93, Mohagheghorg, Edupolandcom, Zachtaylor12, Cgoodrich 12, Axeldysko, Jfhutson, Hamish59, Mayast,Nango14, TwinePL, Robertpolska, Aresceo, Viper1992, Pmelton87, Anbu121, Batbayarb, Tekken99, Kolombus, Cyberbot II, Chris-Gualtieri, Andreas Hasanai, TrueHistoryPoland, Tandrum, EnzaiBot, SD5bot, Khazar2, JanaMitz, ÄDA - DÄP, Dexbot, DemonicElbow,Dissident93, EuroLine, Aditya Mahar, Boston9, Hiotto667, ਰਾਜੇਨ੍ਦ੍ਰ ਸਿੰਘ, Bosyantek, Lugia2453, Flurry1985, StefanBielau, FitJock87,The Triple M, ZH8000, CNN555, Xwoodsterchinx, SnrRailways, Emanisafreak, Lekoren, Samotny Wędrowiec, The Anonybot, Gvhawk,Kuyi123w, Marekd s, Ellienallien, Mandruss, Oliszydlowski, Spacenut42, Werddemer, Computeruser9999, Tranzakciós-illeték, Kind Ten-nis Fan, Noyster, Motique, Meganesia, Stamptrader, Vert33, ArkadiuszZ, Monkbot, Shaaaaaaaa, Chrissperl, Dawi88, Biedpietz, Truthabout past, Vaselineeeeeeee, LuciusVarenus, YOMOMA10, Craylee, Shumkichi, Nikolaserbboy1995, WCIT, KasparBot, Europeanwaw,Bmc3689, OfficialJobejer and Anonymous: 1047

17.2 Images• File:6_Warszawa_149.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/6_Warszawa_149.jpg License: CC BY-SA

3.0 Contributors: http://www.poczta-polska.pl/mw Original artist: Marek & Ewa Wojciechowscy• File:6_Warszawa_411.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/6_Warszawa_411.jpg License: CC BY-SA

3.0 Contributors: http://www.poczta-polska.pl/mw/ Original artist: Marek i Ewa Wojciechowscy• File:Arms_of_Bucharest.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/ROU_Bucharest_CoA1.svg License: CC

BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: File:ROU Bucharest CoA.svg Original artist: Zorlot• File:Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg License:

CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This vector graphics image was created with Adobe Illustrator. Original artist: Katepanomegas• File:Bellotto_Cracow_Suburb_leading_to_the_Castle_Square.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/

Bellotto_Cracow_Suburb_leading_to_the_Castle_Square.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Stéphane Loire, Hanna Małachowicz,Andrzej Rottermund (2004). Bernardo Bellotto: a Venetian painter in Warsaw. Musée du Louvre. ISBN 88-74391-23-4 Original artist:Bernardo Bellotto

• File:Blason_La_Ferté-Gaucher.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Blason_La_Fert%C3%A9-Gaucher.svg License: Public domain Contributors: <a href='//validator.w3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='W3C'src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/88px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png' width='88' height='30' style='vertical-align: top' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/132px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/176px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 2x'data-file-width='91' data-file-height='31' /></a>iThe source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FBlason_La_Fert%25C3%25A9-Gaucher.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>.Original artist: Anno16

• File:Blason_de_Dublin.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Blason_de_Dublin.svg License: GFDL Con-tributors: dessin personnel (own work) Original artist: Spedona

• File:Blason_paris_75.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Blason_paris_75.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: <a href='//validator.w3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='W3C' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/88px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png' width='88' height='30' style='vertical-align: top' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/132px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/176px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='91' data-file-height='31' /></a>iThe source code of this SVG is<a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FBlason_paris_75.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>.Original artist: Manassas

• File:Brama_Uniwersytetu_Warszawskiego.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Brama_Uniwersytetu_Warszawskiego.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/pasa/14235946698/ Originalartist: Paul Sableman

• File:Chopin_competition_2010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Chopin_competition_2010.jpg Li-cense: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: http://www.prezydent.pl/aktualnosci/zdjecia/galeria,475.html Original artist: Chancellary of the Presidentof Poland

• File:Coa_Hungary_Town_Budapest.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Coa_Hungary_Town_Budapest.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Madboy74

• File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Bratislava.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Coat_of_Arms_of_Bratislava.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Christian Bier (talk · contribs)

• File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Brussels.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Coat_of_Arms_of_Brussels.svgLicense: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Coat_of_arms_of_Zagreb.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Coat_of_arms_of_Zagreb.svg Li-cense: Public domainContributors: THECITYOFZAGREB - EMBLEMANDFLAGOriginal artist: original unknown, SVG:User:Justass

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Destroyed_Warsaw,_capital_of_Poland,_January_1945.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Destroyed_Warsaw%2C_capital_of_Poland%2C_January_1945.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

28 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• Wiesław Głębocki; Karol Mórawski (1985) Kultura Walcząca 1939-1945, Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Interpress, pp. p.64 ISBN 83-02-00773-0Original artist: M. Swierczynski

• File:Dzwonnica_kosciol_sw_anny.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Dzwonnica_kosciol_sw_anny.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Paul Kowalow

• File:Elewacja_wschodnia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Elewacja_wschodnia.jpg License: CCBY-SA 3.0 pl Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mrksmlk

• File:Escudo_de_Madrid.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Escudo_de_Madrid.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Dibujada a partir de Image:Escudo de Madrid.png, por Sanbec Original artist: Valadrem (http://valadrem.blogspot.com)

• File:FB_Warszawa_panorama.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/FB_Warszawa_panorama.jpg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/filip_bramorski/10535820833/ Original artist: Filip Bramorski

• File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: (Vector graphics byDbenbenn)

• File:Flag_of_Armenia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp

• File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp

• File:Flag_of_Belarus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg License: Public domainContributors: http://www.tnpa.by/ViewFileText.php?UrlRid=52178&UrlOnd=%D1%D2%C1%20911-2008 Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domainContributors:

• File based on the specification given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-xfi-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig-inal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work based on File:Brdzanebuleba 31.pdf Original artist: User:SKopp

• File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public do-main Contributors:

• Flags of the World – Hungary Original artist: SKopp• File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

? Original artist: ?• File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Con-

tributors: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem Origi-nal artist: “The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel” of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) providesthe official specification for the design of the Israeli flag.

• File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -xfi-

• File:Flag_of_Latvia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg License: Public domainContributors: Drawn by SKopp Original artist: Latvija

• File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: SuffKopp

• File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Template: Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn

• File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and colorguidelines (Russian/English) ← This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various

17.2 Images 29

• File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domainContributors: Turkish Flag Law (Türk Bayrağı Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of theTurkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)

• File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domainContributors: ДСТУ 4512:2006 - Державний прапор України. Загальні технічні умови

SVG: 2010

Original artist: України• File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public do-

main Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lưu Ly vẽ lại theo nguồn trên

• File:Flag_of_Warsaw.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Flag_of_Warsaw.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

• -xfi-'s file• -xfi-'s code• Zirland’s codes of colors

Original artist:(of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-.

• File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_People’{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp

• File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Gielda3_Wwa_beax.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Gielda3_Wwa_beax.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Beax

• File:Hejnal-Warszawski.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Hejnal-Warszawski.ogg License: CC BY3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Borys Kozielski

• File:Hotel_Bristol,_Warszawa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Hotel_Bristol%2C_Warszawa.jpgLicense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Robert Parma

• File:Increase2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Increase2.svg License: Public domain Contributors:Own work Original artist: Sarang

• File:Insigne_Aemonae.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Insigne_Aemonae.svg License: CC BY-SA4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Insigne_Amstelodamensis.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Insigne_Amstelodamensis.svg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Insigne_Athenarum.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Insigne_Athenarum.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work, based on blason seen here Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Insigne_Berolini.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Insigne_Berolini.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Insigne_Helsingiae.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Insigne_Helsingiae.svg License: CCBY-SA4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Insigne_Olipsionis.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Insigne_Olipsionis.svg License: CC BY-SA4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Insigne_Rigae.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Insigne_Rigae.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Con-tributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Insigne_Romanum.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Insigne_Romanum.svg License: CC BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Insigne_Serdicae.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Insigne_Serdicae.svg License: CCBY-SA 4.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Insigne_Varsoviae.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Insigne_Varsoviae.svg License: CC BY-SA2.5 Contributors: File:POL Warszawa COA.svg Original artist: Poznaniak

30 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Insigne_Vilnae.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Insigne_Vilnae.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Insigne_Vindobonae.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Insigne_Vindobonae.svg License: CCBY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:Kawalerii_Street_in_Warsaw_DSC_1557.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Kawalerii_Street_in_Warsaw_DSC_1557.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wistula

• File:Lesser_Coat_of_Arms_of_The_City_of_London.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Lesser_Coat_of_Arms_of_The_City_of_London.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, File:Coat_of_Arms_of_The_City_of_London.svg Original artist: Ssolbergj, Sodacan

• File:Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_Copenhagen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_Copenhagen.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work based on: File:Københavns byvåben 1894.png Thisfile was derived from: Greater coat of arms of Copenhagen.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_Copenhagen.svg' class='image'><img alt='Greater coat of arms of Copenhagen.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_Copenhagen.svg/50px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_Copenhagen.svg.png'width='50' height='64' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_Copenhagen.svg/75px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_Copenhagen.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_Copenhagen.svg/100px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_Copenhagen.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1403' data-file-height='1803' /></a>Original artist: Greater_coat_of_arms_of_Copenhagen.svg: *Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_City_of_Brussels.svg: S. Solberg J. andautors of source files

• File:Lotnisko_chopina_warszawa.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Lotnisko_chopina_warszawa.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mateusz Włodarczyk

• File:Mariecurie.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios/MarieCurie.html Original artist: Unknown

• File:Moderne_wolkenkrabber_Warschau_0875.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Moderne_wolkenkrabber_Warschau_0875.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: VanNouten

• File:Moderne_wolkenkrabber_Warschau_0883.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Moderne_wolkenkrabber_Warschau_0883.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: VanNouten

• File:Msza_św_na_Pl_Zwycięstwa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Msza_%C5%9Bw_na_Pl_Zwyci%C4%99stwa.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: PAP/ADM [1] Original artist: Unknown

• File:Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews_in_Warsaw_building_0010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews_in_Warsaw_building_0010.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 pl Contributors:Museum of the History of Polish Jews Original artist: Wojciech Kryński

• File:Old_Town_in_Warsaw_map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Old_Town_in_Warsaw_map.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alina Zienowicz Ala z

• File:Ostrogski_Palace_Chopin_Museum_June_2010_b.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Ostrogski_Palace_Chopin_Museum_June_2010_b.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (self-made photograph) Originalartist: Szczebrzeszynski

• File:POL_Krakowskie_Przedmieście_Street_in_Warsaw_2008_07_12_(2).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/POL_Krakowskie_Przedmie%C5%9Bcie_Street_in_Warsaw_2008_07_12_%282%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alina Zienowicz Ala z

• File:POL_Warszawa_S8_05.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/POL_Warszawa_S8_05.jpg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tadeusz Rudzki

• File:POL_województwo_mazowieckie_COA.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_mazowieckie_COA.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based on:

• Uchwała Nr 90/06 Sejmiku Województwa Mazowieckiego z dnia 29 maja 2006 r. ws. wzoru herbu Województwa Mazowieckiegooraz zasad jego używania

• red colour -- Pantone 185 C ↔ RGB 230/13/46

• yellow colour -- Pantone 130 C ↔ RGB 232/176/18

Original artist: vectorization: Poznaniak• File:Palac_prezydencki_warsaw.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Palac_prezydencki_warsaw.

JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Grippenn• File:Palace_on_the_Water,_Łazienki_Park,_Warsaw.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Palace_

on_the_Water%2C_%C5%81azienki_Park%2C_Warsaw.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:Gnesener1900

• File:Panorama_of_Warsaw_by_night.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Panorama_of_Warsaw_by_night.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:by Spens03Original artist: Bosyantek

• File:Panorama_ul._Emilii_Plater_w_Warszawie_radek_kołakowski.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Panorama_ul._Emilii_Plater_w_Warszawie_radek_ko%C5%82akowski.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:Radek Kołakowski

17.2 Images 31

• File:Pałac_Krasińskich_BK2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Pa%C5%82ac_Krasi%C5%84skich_BK2.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Robert Wielgórski

• File:Poland_Warsaw_boundaries_1939_and_2005.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Poland_Warsaw_boundaries_1939_and_2005.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marcin Floryan

• File:Poland_Warsaw_Łazienki_Palace_5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Poland_Warsaw_%C5%81azienki_Palace_5.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wojsyl

• File:Poland_administrative_division_1999_literki.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Poland_administrative_division_1999_literki.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Poland_location_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Poland_location_map.svg License: CCBY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work using

• United States National Imagery and Mapping Agency data

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Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Petr Dlouhý• File:Przyokopowa_Muzeum_Powstania01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Przyokopowa_

Muzeum_Powstania01.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: self made / własna praca Original artist: Łeba• File:Ratusz_warszawski_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Ratusz_warszawski_01.jpg License:

Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Szczebrzeszynski• File:Red_pog.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0c/Red_pog.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original

artist: ?• File:Reservoir_Warsaw.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Reservoir_Warsaw.jpg License: CC BY

2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: PawełMM• File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con-

tributors: ? Original artist: ?• File:St._John’{}s_Archcathedral_(9629601375).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/St._John%27s_

Archcathedral_%289629601375%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: St. John’s Archcathedral Original artist: Jorge Láscar fromAustralia

• File:Stadion_Narodowy_-_Wisla.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Stadion_Narodowy_-_Wisla.jpgLicense: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://www.fmix.pl/zdjecie/3211737/panorama-3 Original artist: Polex (zezwolenie na OTRS będziewkrótce wysłane)

• File:Stockholm_vapen_bra.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Stockholm_vapen_bra.svg License: CCBY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Koyos

• File:Syrenka_Warszawska.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Syrenka_Warszawska.jpg License: CCBY-SA 2.0 Contributors: plWiki; Original artist: Grzegorz Polak; uploaded to Commons by Janmad

• File:TVP_Sport_11_12_2007_(48).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/TVP_Sport_11_12_2007_%2848%29.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Paweł Zienowicz Sp5uhe

• File:Tress-Jazz-in-Tygmont-AB.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Tress-Jazz-in-Tygmont-AB.jpgLicense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Andrzej Barabasz (Chepry)

• File:VARSOVIA._Plaza_del_Mercado_de_la_Ciudad_Vieja_(Rynek_Starego_Miasta)_2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/VARSOVIA._Plaza_del_Mercado_de_la_Ciudad_Vieja_%28Rynek_Starego_Miasta%29_2.JPG License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tony Castle

• File:WarsawFromTheISS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/WarsawFromTheISS.jpg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: Twitter Original artist: NASA/Chris Hadfield

• File:Warsaw_Castle_Square_Panorama_2010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Warsaw_Castle_Square_Panorama_2010.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This image was created with Hugin Original artist: MichaelBueker

• File:Warsaw_Multimedia_Fountain_Park_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Warsaw_Multimedia_Fountain_Park_1.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 pl Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adrian Grycuk

• File:Warsaw_National_Stadium_before_Germany_-_Italy_(6).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Warsaw_National_Stadium_before_Germany_-_Italy_%286%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Picasa : UEFA EURO 2012Halbfinale Italien - Deutschland in Warschau Original artist: Joern Fehrmann

• File:Warsaw_National_Theater_-_panoramio_-_ekeidar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Warsaw_National_Theater_-_panoramio_-_ekeidar.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.panoramio.com/photo/2948156 Original artist: ekeidar

• File:Warsaw_Sirene_1659.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Warsaw_Sirene_1659.PNG License:Public domain Contributors: Warsaw Sirene from merchant book 1659 [1] Original artist: Unknown

• File:Warsaw_Uprising'44.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Warsaw_Uprising%2744.gif License:Public domain Contributors: Warsaw Uprising, created with free evaluation copy of Active GIF Creator 3.1 Original artist: Unknown

• File:Warsaw_emblem.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Warsaw_emblem.png License: Public do-main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Warszawa_-_Marszałkowska_1912.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Warszawa_-_Marsza%C5%82kowska_1912.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.warszawa1939.pl/index.php?r1=marszalkowska_66&r3=0Original artist: Unknown

32 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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