War Communism Trotsky leads Red Army over Whites Lenins NEP Compromise w/ capitalism Trotsky vs. Stalin Lenins death leads to a struggle for power Troika-

“POLITICAL EXPERIMENTSOF THE 1920S”

• War Communism• Trotsky leads Red

Army over Whites• Lenin’s NEP

• Compromise w/ capitalism

• Trotsky vs. Stalin• Lenin’s death leads

to a struggle for power

• Troika- Stalin, Kamenev & Zinoviev

• Lenin’s final letter “Stalin is too rude”

• The 3rd International• Comintern- divides

the political left in Eur

• Women & Family in the early USSR• Women were more

liberated- • Perception more

than reality

USSR in the 1920’s & 1930’s

- France- Little Entente &

Reparations- Great Britain

- 1st Labour Govt- General Strike of 1926- Home Rule

- Successor States- Poland-Pilsudski- Czechoslavakia-

democratic- Hungary- Bela Kun/then

reaction- Austria-fighting on left &

right- Southeastern Europe-

dictatorships

Began withinvolved

- Weimar Republic- Sparticists- Invasion of

Ruhr- Inflation of 23- Beer Hall

Putsch- Dawes Plan- Stresemann

Years- Locarno

- Financial Tailspin- Crash of ’29- End of

reparations- Agricultural

collapse Great Depression

in the Democracies Britain-

National Govt France- Popular

Front

• Fascism in Italy• Mussolini leads right

wing group to combat the political left

• March on Rome• Lateran Accords

• Joyless Victors

The Soviet Experiment

Totalitarian States-

Germany, Italy & the

USSR

- Nazi Seizure of Power- Depression leads

to discontent- Hitler comes to

power- Enabling

Act- Night of the

Long Knives- Politce

State- Nuremburg

Laws Italian Fascist

Economics Corporatism

Stalin’s Soviet Union End of NEP Collectivization 5 Yr. Plans Great Purges

Weimar Republic

&The Great Depression

Fascism/ Joyless

Victors & E. Europe

Political Experimentsof the

1920’s & 1930’s

The Soviet Experiment:• War Communism under Trotsky• NEP under Lenin• Trotsky & Stalin compete for power

• Trotsky: Internationalism• Stalin: Socialism in One Country

• Collectivization• 5 Year Plans• Great Purges

Joyless Victors:• France

• Reparations• Little Entente• Popular Front

• Britain • Labour Party• General Strike• Irish Home

Rule• National Govt

France

Britain

Germany

Czechoslavakia

RomaniaYugoslavia

Little Entente

Germany:• Weimar Rep ’19-’33-

• Spartacist• Kapp Putsch• Inflation• Beer Hall• Stresemann

• Nazis ‘33-’39• Reichstag Fire• Enabling Act• Nuremburg Laws• Kristalnacht

PolandAllied with France, but was a military dictatorship

Italy

Italy: Mussolini & Blackshirts March on Rome Lateran Accords/Corporatism

Ireland

Russia (Soviet Union):

Background

Czarist Rule Backwardness Revolution of

1905 World War I March

Revolution November

Revolution Russian Civil

WarIntroduction to the film: Stalin

When Russia withdrew from World War I, a civil war broke out.

Over 15 million Russians die during the Civil War…

Russia would have a difficult time trusting the Allies again…

American and Allied

forces invade and

occupy much of Russia

The Russian Civil War

The Soviet Experiment

War Communism The NEP Stalin vs. Trotsky The 3rd

International Women & Family

War Communism The Red Army

suppresses internal and foreign opposition Defeat of the White

Army Govt runs major

industries and seizes peasant grain

By 1921- facing major opposition from strikes to military mutiny

Propaganda Poster

The New Economic Policy(NEP)

Realizing Russia never experienced the Capitalist stage- Lenin compromises w/ Capitalism

Allows small scale business

Peasant ownership of land (Kulaks prosper)

Small Business thriving

Stalin vs. Trotsky Lenin suffers from a series of

strokes (unable to lead) Two Factions Emerge

Left Wing Stalin- General Secretary

“Socialism in One Country” Zinoviev & Kamenev 3 Man Troika

Right Wing Trotsky

International Revolution Urged rapid industrialization Collectivization of agriculture Open party debate

Trotsky forced out of Politburo (1926) Exiled in 1929/Murdered in 1940

The Troika

Josef Stalin

Lev Kamenev

Grigory Zinoviev

The 3rd International The Creation of the

Comintern Officially separated

Socialist and Communist Parties

Forced socialist parties to acknowledge Moscow’s leadership

Take the Communist name

Refuse to support parliamentary policies• Right Wing Fascists

- Aided by political divisionsSoviet Sculpture dedicatedTo the 3rd International

Women and Family (Early Soviet Union)

Communist Views toward women were both traditional and progressive

Alexandra Kollontai Communism and the

Family Misrepresentation of real

views in USSR Divorce easier Abortion legal Women able to hold

high gov positions- Alexandra Kollontai

ITALY

The Rise of Fascism

Italy After WWI Italy had suffered greatly

and gained little. Economy

very weak even before the war

relied heavily upon small family agriculture 40% of the country’s GNP in

1920. Many of the social,

political, and economic problems that plagued the country after WW1 could not be blamed solely on the war.

Italian Politics (1918-1919) Growing discontent over

troubled economy Italian public looked to the

parties that offered the most reasonable solutions.

Strengthened by universal suffrage & proportional representation in Parliament Socialists doubled seats

Chamber of Deputies in 1919. The new Catholic People’s

Party gained representation. Socialists had little faith in the

democracy & longed wanted it gone

Catholic People’s Party mixed conservative religious ideals with political moderation.

No strong majority coalition emerged & the Parliament elected in 1921 which left the country vulnerable to the fascists

Government of Giovanni Giolitti During 1920- 1921, Italy’s

Premier was Giovanni Giolitti, pre-war figure who had

dominated Italian politics between 1901 and 1914.

Tried to resolve Italy’s international conflicts but stayed aloof of the domestic conflicts Made the country's problems

worse. Socialists took advantage of

this atmosphere and promoted a series of strikes and other labor unrest in August and September of 1920.

The unrest became violent and divided the country and the Socialist Party.

Giolitti let the strikes run their course and worked successfully to lower the government’s deficit by 50%.

Mussolini and Italian Fascism Benito Mussolini, named by

his Socialist father after the Mexican revolutionary Benito Juarez, was born in 1883.

Former teacher Moved to Switzerland to

avoid military service but returned and became active in Socialist politics.

In 1912 he became editor of the Party’s newspaper, Avanti. Several months after the

outbreak of the World War, he broke with the Socialist

Party over involvement in the war

he began to espouse nationalistic ideas that became the nucleus of his fascist movement.

Fired as editor of Avanti

Mussolini After the War Mussolini was drafted into

military service in 1915 and was badly wounded two years later.

After recuperating, he went back to writing his newspaper, where he blended his ideas of socialism and nationalism.

Following the war, he formed the Fascio di Combattmento (Union of Combat) in Milan on March 23, 1919. Initially, Mussolini had few

followers but as the fear of socialism spread, he gained support.

Italians started to believe that only Mussolini could bring stability and prosperity back to Italy.

The Growth of Fascism

Fascism’s most significant growth came in the midst of the Socialist unrest in 1920.

Strengthened by large contributions from wealthy industrialists, Mussolini's blackshirts attacked Socialists, communists, and eventually the government itself.

Mussolini's followers won 35 seats in the legislative elections in May 1921,  and toppled the Giolitti cabinet.

The center of Fascist strength was in the streets of northern Italy, which Mussolini's followers, through violence, came to control.

Mussolini now transformed his movement into the Fascist Party, dropped his socialist views began to emphasize Italian

nationalism.

Mussolini Gains Power In 1922, the Fascists gained

control of the cities of Milan and Bologna.

In response Socialist leaders called for nationwide strikes, which Mussolini and his followers put down in less than 24 hours.

On October 24, 1922, Mussolini told followers that if he was not given power, he would “March on Rome.”

Three days later Fascists gained control of several more cities.

The government attempted to declare martial law, but King Victor Emmanuel III would not approve it.

On October 29, the king asked Mussolini to form a new government as Premier of Italy.

Mussolini’s March on Rome

Mussolini’s Consolidation of Power

Mussolini built a government made up of a number of sympathetic parties. Mussolini formed a coalition

cabinet that included all major parties except the Communists and the Socialists.

He assured the Chamber of Deputies that his government intended to respect personal liberties but with “dignity and firmness…,”

His government was approved by a 306 to 116 vote and 9 days later the Chamber granted him quasi-dictatorial powers for a year.

Elections of 1924  In violence marred

elections on April 6, 1924, the Fascists gained 60% of the popular vote and two-thirds of the Chamber’s seats.

The Socialist leader and member of the Chamber, Giacomo Matteotti attacked the Fascists for their strong-arm tactics during the election.

Several days later, Fascists supporters kidnapped and murdered him.

Italy was stunned by this event, and Mussolini was vulnerable but Victor Emmanuel refused to dismiss him form office.

Giacomo Matteotti

Consolidation of the Dictatorship

On Jan. 5, 1925, Mussolini accepted responsibility for events of the past year.

What followed however, was a reign of terror that eliminated many of his opponents.

Throughout the rest of 1925 and 1926, Mussolini will continue to expand his power, gradually taking over the reigns of the government from the Chamber.

An unsuccessful assassination attempt, prompted the formation of the “Law for the Defense of the State,” which established a special court to deal with political crimes.

The Fascist Party In December, 1922, Mussolini

created a Grand Council of Fascism made up of the Party’s principle leaders.

By 1928, the Grand Council became the most important organ of government in Italy.

The structure of the Fascist Party did not reach final form until November 12, 1932. It was defined as a “Civil

militia” with the Duce (Mussolini) as its head.

The Fascists took over complete control of the government as well as many youth organizations in Italy Giovane Italiane (girls 12 and

up) Avanguardisti (boys 14-18)

Avanguardisti

The Lateran Accords of 1929

The Fascist state and Catholic Church agreement Fascist state paid

Church for lost land from 1871

Paid in Govt. bonds Gave Pope Vatican

City Church feared

communism more than fascism

Church support Fascist state

Mussolini and Pius IX sign the Lateran Accords

Mussolini’s Career in the 1920’s

Post-War France Human losses in the war a

population growth slowdown that had begun in the mid-19th century.

Third Republic political life and foreign

policy reflects a country ruled by an aging leadership that sought comfort in its rich past.

Post World War I, France changes politically and culturally. Pessimistic Literature

Erich Maria Remarque Jean Paul Sartre Albert Camus Oswald Spengler

Dada Marcel Duchamp

The Bloc National, 1919-1924 Election of November

1919 momentary shift rightward w/ the moderate-conservatives winning almost 2/3 of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies.

Replaces Clemenceau by Premier Alexandre Millerand, was a coalition known as the Bloc national.

Aristide Briand replaced Millerand in January of 1921, but was removed a year later because of lack of firmness on the German reparations question and was succeeded by Raymond Poincare.

France’s Economy in Turmoil France had borrowed

heavily during the war and spent great sums afterwards to rebuild its devastated economy.

Unfortunately, it relied on German reparations to fund many of these costs.

Problems with these repayments created a financial crisis that saw the French public debt increase accompanied by a steady decline in the value of the franc.

Franco-German Differences Growing Franco-German

differences over Germany’s willingness to meet its debt payments created friction between both countries and toppled the government of Aritide Briand.

In December, 1922, Poincare declared Germany in default on its reparations payments.

In January, France and Belgium occupied the Ruhr.

Efforts to obtain payments in kind via Franco-Belgium operation of the Ruhr’s mines and factories failed because of passive resistance by German workers in the area.

The Ruhr’s occupiers gained little more financially in payments than they had through normal means, and found the cost of occupation expensive. The French government raised

taxes 20%.

The Cartel des Gauches(1924-1926)

Poincare’s Ruhr occupation policy had divided French voters, while tax increases helped defeat the Bloc National in the May, 1924 elections.

A Radical/Socialist coalition, the Cartel des Gauches had majority control of the Chamber.

It selected, Edouard Herriot, a Radical leader, as Premier.

France’s ailing economy was plagued by a declining France and inflation.

Herriot was removed from office due to his lack of success in invigorating the French economy.

Briand, as Foreign Minister Briand, dominated

French foreign policy until 1932.

Briand pursued a policy of reconciliation with Germany and better relations with Europe’s other pariah, the U.S.S.R.

France granted diplomatic recognition to Soviet Russia in 1924 despite problems relations quickly

worsened because of the difficulty in obtaining tsarist debt

Soviet’s use of their Paris embassy for espionage activities.

The Union Nationale(1926-1928)

Biggest domestic problem of the Carte des Gauches declining franc by 1926 was only worth

one-tenth of its prewar value.

Its fall caused a political crisis so severe that the country had six cabinets over a nine month period.

Consequently, on July 15, 1926, Briand resigned his premiership succeeded by Poincare &

forms Union National cabinet that had six

former premiers in it. This move was backed by

several different factions in France.

The Franc Issue To resolve the franc

problem, the chamber granted Poincare special authority.

Over the next two years, he dramatically raised taxes and was able to get capital that had been taken out of the country reinvested in government bonds or other areas of the economy.

By 1928, the franc had risen to 20% of its prewar value, and Poincare was considered a financial miracle worker.

Unfortunately, the political and psychological scars left by the crisis would haunt France for two more decades.

England 1918-1922 England had a set of

problems unique to its status as a nation absolutely dependent upon trade and commerce for its economic well-being.

With the war at an end, the Coalition government of David Lloyd George held the first parliamentary elections since 1910. Known as the “Coupon” or

“khaki” elections, the question of victory, the nature of the settlement with Germany, and the Prime Minister himself were the election's burning issues.

Before the election was held, the People’s Act granted women over 30 the right to vote.

George and his Conservative Party won by a landslide.

David Lloyd George

The Post War Economy Afterwards, England enjoyed

an economic boom fueled by government policies and economic production based on pre-war conditions.

Unfortunately, government retrenchment, blended with tax increases and over production resulted in a severe recession, by the end of 1921.

It began in 1920 with almost 700,000 unemployed by the end of that year and jumped to 2 million within months. Until the Depression,

unemployment averaged 12% annually.

This resulted in the passage of the Unemployment Insurance Acts of 1920 and 1922 and the construction of 200,000 subsidized housing units.

Politics (1922-1924) These problems caused the

Conservatives to withdraw from Lloyd George’s coalition.

Andrew Bonar-Law replaced him as head of a new Conservative government, though ill health forced him to resign in 1923, followed briefly by Stanley Baldwin.

Continued unemployment and labor problems coupled with a decline to adopt more protectionistic trade policies resulted in a significant drop in support for the Conservatives in the elections of November, 1923.

Baldwin resigned, followed in office by Ramsey MacDonald, head of the Labour Party. His party only lasted nine

months, and fell principally because of his efforts to establish formal ties with Russia.

England and Stanley Baldwin Baldwin will return as Prime

Minister in 1925. The year saw an economic

turnaround with increases in both wages and prices.

Baldwin was able to control various labor strikes during the mid 20s. In 1927 he supported the

passage of the Trade Union Act, which outlawed various forms of strikes.

Baldwin’s government also passed social legislation such as the Widows’, Orphans, and Old Age Pensions Act in 1925.

In foreign affairs, Baldwin cancelled the 1924 commercial agreement with the Soviet Union.

Europe in 1919Europe in 1919

From the German Point of View

From the German Point of View Lost—but not forgotten country.

Into the heart You are to dig yourself these words as into stone: Which we have lost may not be truly lost!

Maimed German WW I VeteranMaimed German WW I Veteran

The “Stabbed-in-the-Back” Theory

The “Stabbed-in-the-Back” Theory

Disgruntled German WWI veteransDisgruntled German WWI veterans

German “Revolutions” [1918]German “Revolutions” [1918]

German FreikorpsGerman Freikorps

Sparticist PosterSparticist Poster

The Spartacist LeagueThe Spartacist League

Rosa Luxemburg[1870-1919]

murdered by the Freikorps

Rosa Luxemburg[1870-1919]

murdered by the Freikorps

German communists attempt to take over Berlin & Germany Friekorps- former WWI vets put down rebellion with ruthless force

Friedrich Ebert:First President of the

Weimar Republic

Friedrich Ebert:First President of the

Weimar Republic

The German Government: 1919-1920

The German Government: 1919-1920

The German

Mark

The German

Mark

The German MarkThe German Mark

The French in the

Ruhr: 1923

The French in the

Ruhr: 1923

The French Occupation of the Ruhr

The French Occupation of the Ruhr

The Beer Hall Putsch: 1923

The Beer Hall Putsch: 1923

The Beer Hall Putsch Idealized

The Beer Hall Putsch Idealized

Hitler in Landesberg Prison

Hitler in Landesberg Prison

Mein Kampf [My Struggle]

Mein Kampf [My Struggle]

European Debts to the United States

European Debts to the United States

The Dawes Plan (1924)

The Dawes Plan (1924)

The Young Plan (1930)The Young Plan (1930)

For three generations, you’ll have to slave away!

$26,350,000,000 to be paid over a period of 58½ years.

For three generations, you’ll have to slave away!

$26,350,000,000 to be paid over a period of 58½ years.

Weimar Germany: Political Representation

[1920-1933]

Weimar Germany: Political Representation

[1920-1933]Political Parties in the Reichstag

May 1924

Dec. 1924

May1928

Sep.1930

July1932

Nov.1932

Mar.1933

Communist Party (KPD)

62 45 54 77 89 100 81

Social Democratic Party (SDP)

100 131 153 143 133 121 120

Catholic Centre Party (BVP)

81 88 78 87 97 90 93

Nationalist Party (DNVP)

95 103 73 41 37 52 52

Nazi Party (NSDAP)

32 14 12 107 230 196 288

Other Parties 102 112 121 122 22 35 23

League of Nations Members

League of Nations Members

Washington Naval Conference[1921-1922]

Washington Naval Conference[1921-1922]

U. S. Britain Japan France Italy 5 5 3 1.67 1.67U. S. Britain Japan France Italy 5 5 3 1.67 1.67

The Maginot

Line

The Maginot

Line

Locarno Pact: 1925Locarno Pact: 1925

Gustav Stresemann and Aristide Briand agreements Western border issue settled Germany accepts Western border France agrees not to invade & discuss future issues

Kellogg-Briand Pact: 1928

Kellogg-Briand Pact: 1928

15 nations committed to outlawing aggression and war for settling disputes.

Problem no way of enforcement.

15 nations committed to outlawing aggression and war for settling disputes.

Problem no way of enforcement.

Dada Art

George Grosz

Grey Day

(1921)

George Grosz

Grey Day

(1921)

DaDa

George Grosz

The Pillars of Society

(1926)

George Grosz

The Pillars of Society

(1926)

DaDa

Cubist Art

Picasso Studio with Plaster Head [1925]

Picasso Studio with Plaster Head [1925]

Cubism

Georges Braque Still Life LeJeur [1929]

Georges Braque Still Life LeJeur [1929]

Cubism

Girl Before A MirrorPablo Picasso

PicassoSurrealist or Cubist?

Adriana: I love it! I’m already hooked. Hooked!(Gil to Adriana: You’re taking art groupie to a whole new level.)

Surrealist Art

"Elle a chaud au cul," meaning, "She has a hot

butt." Marcel Duchamp, L.H.O.O.Q., 1919

DADA

Walter Gropius Bauhaus Bldg. [1928]

Walter Gropius Bauhaus Bldg. [1928]

Bauhaus

ENGLAND

England: Ramsay MacDonald and the Depression, 1929-1931

Required by law to hold elections in 1929, the May 30th contest saw the Conservatives drop to 260 seats, Labour rise to 287, and the Liberals 59.

Ramsay MacDonald formed a minority Labour government that would last until 1931.

The most serious problem facing the country was the Depression, which caused unemployment to reach 1.7 million by 1930 and over 3 million by 1932.

England: Ramsay MacDonald and the Depression, 1929-1931

To meet growing budget deficits caused by heavy subsidies to the unemployed, a special government commission recommended budget cuts and tax increases.

Cabinet and labor union opposition helped reduce the total for the cuts from 78 million to 22 million.

This however did not restore confidence in the government, which fell on August 24, 1931.

The “National Government,” 1931-1935

The following day, King George VI helped convince MacDonald to return to office as head of a National Coalition cabinet made up of 4 Conservatives, 4 Laborites, and 2 Liberals.

The Labour Party refused to recognize the new government and ejected MacDonald and Snowden from the Party.

MacDonald’s coalition swept the November 1931 general elections winning 554 of 615 seats.

The “National Government,” 1931-1935

The British government abandoned the gold standard on September 21, 1931 and adopted a series of high tariffs on imports.

Unemployment peaked at 3 million in 1932 and dropped to 2 million two years later.

In 1931, the British government implemented the Statue of Westminster, which created the British Commonwealth of Nations, granted its members political equality, and freedom to reject any act passed by parliament that related to a Dominion state.

The Election of 1935

MacDonald resigned his position in June, 1935 because of ill health and was succeeded by Stanley Baldwin, whose conservative coalition won 428 seats in new elections in November.

Baldwin’s coalition government will continue the economic gains made by MacDonald’s coalition.

Restored industrial production to the pre-Depression level

FRANCE

France Under Andre Tardieu, 1929-1932

On July 27, 1929, Poincare resigned as Premier because of ill health.

Over the next three years, the dominant figure in French politics was Andre Tardieu, who headed or played a role in Moderate cabinets.

Tardieu tried to initiate political changes along American or British lines to create a stable two party system that would help France deal with the world economic crisis.

He convinced the Laval government and the Chamber to accept electing its members by a plurality vote, though the Senate rejected it.

Social Welfare Programs and the Depression

In 1930, the government passed France’s most important social welfare legislation, the National Workingman's Insurance Law.

It provided various forms of financial aid for illness, retirement, and death.

The Depression did not hit France until late 1931, and it took it four years to begin to recover from it.

At first, however, the country seemed immune to the Depression and the economy boomed.

Depression came later and lasted longer

The economy recovered the following year and dropped again through 1935.

Return of the Cartel des Gauches, 1932-1934

Defeat of Moderates returns leftists in the elections of May 1, 1932 reflects concern over the economy and failed efforts of the gov to respond to country’s problems.

France remained plagued by differences over economic reform between the Radicals and Socialists.

The latter advocated nationalization of major factories, expanded social reforms, and public works programs for the unemployed, while the Radicals sought a reduction in government spending.

This instability was also reflected in the fact that there were six Cabinets between June 1932 and February 1934.

The Emergence of Radical Groups

The government's inability to deal with the country's economic and political problems saw the emergence of a number of radical groups from across the political spectrum.

Some of the more prominent were the Fascist Francistes. The Solidarite Francaise, the “Cagoulards,” the Parti Populaire Francaise and the Jeunesses Patriotes.

Not as radical, through still on the right were the Croix de Feu and the Action Francaise.

At the other extreme were the French Communist Party.

Stavisky Affair

Scandal over a bond scheme orchestrated by a small time gangster leads to riots between the political left and right

The Popular Front Leon Blum’s Left

Wing Coalition Made possible by

Stalin’s shift in the Comintern’s approach to cooperation w/ other Socialist parties and democratic politics

Economic policies Resisted devaluation

of the franc

GERMANY

The Young Plan

One of the last accomplishments of Stresemann before his death on October 3 was the Young Plan.

An altered reparations proposal that required Germany to make yearly payments for 59 years that varied from 1.6 to 2.4 billion Reichsmarks.

In return the Allies removed all foreign controls on Germany’s economy and agreed to leave the Rhineland the following year.

Efforts by the conservative extremists to stop Reichstag adoption failed, while a national referendum on the reactionary bill suffered the same fate.

Germany and the Depression The Depression had a

dramatic effect on the German economy and politics.

German exports which had peaked at 13.5 billion marks in 1929, fell to 12 billion marks in 1930 and to 5.7 billion in 1932.

Imports suffered the same fate, going from 14 billion marks in 1928 to 4.7 billion in 1932.

The country’s national income dropped 20% during this period, while unemployment rose fro 1.3 million in 1929 to 6 million (43% of the workforce).

Reichstag Elections of September 14, 1930

The Nazis saw their 1928 vote jump from 800,000 to 6.5 million (18.3% of the vote).

Gave them 107 seats in the Reichstag, second only to the Social Democrats with143 seats.

Bruenig continued to serve as Chancellor of a weak coalition with the support of Hindenburg and rule by presidential decree.

His policies failed to resolve the country's growing economic dilemmas.

Use of emergency powers due to party divisions within the Reichstag prevented overriding of emergency decrees

Presidential Elections of 1932 Hindenburg’s seven

year term of office ended in 1932, and felt he had to run for president again to stop Hitler from gaining the presidency.

Hindenburg received 49% of the vote while Hitler gained 30%.

Since Hindenburg did not receive a majority of the votes a run-off election was held.

Hindenburg 53% / Hitler 37%

The von Papen Chancellorship On June 1, Bruenig was

replaced by Franz von Papen, who headed up an conservative government with the support of Hindenburg in an attempt to keep Hitler from gaining power.

New elections were held in July and the Nazis gained 230 Reichstag seats.

Hitler was offered a Vice Chancellorship and an opportunity to join a coalition government but he refused.

New elections were again held in November, in which the Nazis lost 34 seats while the Communists went from 89 to 120 seats.

Von Papen resigned and Kurt von Scheicher, was named Chancellor.

Hitler Becomes Chancellor Von Papen joined with Hitler

to undermine Schleicher and convinced Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor and head of a new coalition government.

Hitler dissolved the Reichstag and called for new elections in March, 1933.

Initiated an anti-Communist campaign

On Feb. 7, 1933, the Reichstag burned down and Hitler got Hindenburg to issue the “Ordinance for the Protection of the German State and Nation.”

Enabling Act- permitted Hitler to rule by decree

Removed all civil and press liberties.

When elections were held in March, the Nazis controlled 288 seats.

Hitler’s New Government

Within a few weeks, Hitler had complete legislative power and began a policy of Gleichschltung or “coordination.”

An attempt to bring all independent organizations and agencies under his control.

All political parties were outlawed or forced to dissolve.

July 14th, the Nazi Party was the only legal party in Germany.

Non-Aryan and anti-Nazis were removed from civil service.

Strikes were declared illegal and labor unions were dissolved.

Finally, the GESTAPO was created on April 24, 1933.

Night of the Long Knives

Hitler eliminates his political enemies

Disbands the SA Kills off the SA

leadership Kills Ernst Roehm Makes his

commitment to the German army and in return gains its loyalty

Hitler’s Economic and Social Policies

Reversed deflationary policies

Restored full employment

Instituted massive public works projects autobahns

The Collectivization of AgricultureSoviet Union

At the end of 1927, Stalin concerned over problems of grain supply ordered the gradual consolidation of the country’s 25 million small farms, on which 80% of the population lived, into state-run collective farms.

According to the First Five Year Plan’s goals (1928-1932), agricultural output was to rise 150% over five years, and 20% of the country’s private farms transformed into collectives.

Growth of Collectivities In an effort to link

agricultural efficiency with heavy industrial developments, Stalin decided by the end of 1929 to rapidly collectivize the country’s entire agricultural system.

Because of earlier resistance from peasants between 1927 and 1929, Stalin ordered war against the kulak or “middle class” peasant class.

Some sources claim that as many as 5 million ill-defined kulaks were internally deported during this period.

Kulak Resistance The deportations along

with forced grain seizures, triggered massive, bloody resistance in the country-side.

Though half of the nation’s peasants were forced onto collectives during this period, they destroyed a great deal of Russia’s livestock in the process.

In the spring of 1930, Stalin called a momentary halt to the process, which prompted many peasants to leave the state farms.

Results of Collectivization Direct and indirect deaths

from Stalin’s collectivization efforts totaled 14.5 million.

Grain production levels did not reach 1928 levels until 1935.

It did, though, break the back of rural peasant independence and created a totalitarian network of control throughout the countryside.

It also undercut his own base of political support within the Party.

Industrialization Goals The industrialization

goals of the First Five Year Plan, supported hopefully by a flourishing agricultural system, were to increase total industrial production by 236%, heavy industry by 330%, coal, 200%, electrical output, 400%, and pig-iron production, 300%.

Workers were to increase their efforts over 100%.

Efficiency was also a hallmark of this program and production costs were to drop by over a third, and prices by a quarter.

Unrealistic Goals

In most instances, the Plan’s unrealistic goals were hard to meet.

Regardless, steel production doubled, though it fell short of the Plan’s goals, as did oil, and hard coal output.

Total industrial production, however, did barely surpass the Plan’s expectations.

The Second Five Year Plan The Second Five Year Plan

(1933-37) was adopted by the XVII Party Congress in early 1934.

Its economic and production targets were less severe than the first Plan, and thus more was achieved.

The model for workers was Alexis Stakhanov, a miner who met 1400% of his quota.

A Stakhanovite movement arose arose to stimulate workers to greater efforts.

By the end of the Second Plan, Soviet Russia had emerged as a leading world industrial power, though at great costs.

Gave up quality for quantity. Created tremendous discord

with in the USSR

Party Politics and Purges The tremendous upheaval

caused by forced collectivization, blended with the remnants of the Rightist conflict with Stalin, prompted the Soviet leader to initiate one of the country's periodic purges of the Party.

Approved by the top leadership, suspected opponents were driven from party ranks while Zinoviev and Kamenev was exiled to Siberia.

Continued uncertainty over the best policies to follow after the initiation of the Second Five Year Plan ended with the murder at the end of 1934 of Sergei Kirov, Stalin’s supposed heir, and Leningrad Party chief.

Was liberal and a growing threat to Stalin’s leadership.

Results of the Purges In the spring of 1935, the

recently renamed and organized secret police, the NKVD, oversaw the beginnings of a new, violent Purge that eradicated 70% of the 1934 Central Committee.

A large number of powerful military officers were also eliminated.

Stalin sent 8 to 9 million to camps and prisons, and caused untold deaths before the Purges ended in 1938.