Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 2-1 Invitation To Psychology Carol Wade and Carol Tavris PowerPoint Presentation by H. Lynn Bradman Metropolitan Community.

Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall

2-1

Invitation To Psychology

Carol Wade and Carol TavrisPowerPoint Presentation by

H. Lynn BradmanMetropolitan Community College-Omaha


2-2

Theories of Personality

Chapter 2


2-3

Theories of Personality

• The Psychodynamic Theories• The Modern Study of Personality• Genetic Influences• Environmental Influences• Cultural Influences• The Inner Experience


2-4

The Psychodynamic Contribution

Freud and PsychoanalysisTwo Other Psychodynamic

ApproachesEvaluating Psychodynamic

Theories


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Psychodynamic Theories

• Emphasis on unconscious intrapsychic dynamics

• Belief in the importance of early childhood• Belief that development occurs in fixed stages• Focus on fantasies and symbolic meanings of

events• Reliance on subjective rather than objective

methods


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The Structure of Personality

• Id: Operates according to the pleasure principle – Primitive and unconscious part of

personality• Ego: Operates according to the

reality principle– Mediates between id and superego

• Superego: Moral ideals and conscience


2-7

Defense Mechanisms

• Repression: Threatening idea is blocked from consciousness

• Projection: Unacceptable feelings are attributed to someone else

• Displacement: Directing emotions toward objects or people that aren’t the real target


2-8

Defense Mechanisms

• Reaction Formation: A feeling that produces anxiety is transformed into its opposite.

• Regression: A person reverts to a previous phase of psychological development.

• Denial: A person refuses to admit that something is unpleasant.


2-9

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

• Oral • Anal• Phallic• Latency period• Genital


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Two Other Psychodynamic Approaches

• Jungian Theory: A psychodynamic theory that includes the concepts of the collective unconscious (the universal memories of the species) and archetypes (universal symbolic images in myths, art, and dreams).

• Object Relations Theory: A psychodynamic approach that emphasizes the importance of the infant’s first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with the mother.


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Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories

• Psychodynamic theories violate the principle of falsifiability

• Psychodynamic theories are criticized for drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients.

• Psychodynamic theories are criticized for basing theories upon the retrospective accounts and fallible memories of patients.


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The Modern Study of Personality


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Five Central Factors in Personality

• Extroversion versus Introversion• Neuroticism• Agreeableness• Conscientiousness• Openness to Experience


2-14

The Genetic Contribution

• Heredity and Temperament• Heredity and Traits• Evaluating Genetic Theories


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Heredity and Temperament

• Temperaments: Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways; they are present in infancy and are assumed to be innate.

• Genes: The functional units of heredity; they are composed of DNA and specify the structure of proteins.


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Heredity and Traits

• Heritability: A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group.

• Behavioral genetics: An interdisciplinary field of study concerned with the genetic basis of behavior and personality.


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Twins

• Identical (Monozygotic) Twins: Twins that develop when a fertilized egg divides into two parts that develop into separate embryos

• Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins: Twins that develop when two separate eggs are fertilized by different sperm; they are no more alike genetically than any other pair of siblings.


2-18

Twin Studies

• Studying identical twins separated near birth is one behavior genetic method

• Gerald and Mark (right) met at age 31 after being separated at birth.

• Both are volunteer firefighters• Like to hunt, eat Chinese food,

and watch John Wayne movies

• Drink the same brand of beer, with their hands held the same way (pinky curled)


2-19

Evaluating Genetic Theories

• Reasons for Caution– Not all traits are equally heritable or

unaffected by shared environment.– Some studies may underestimate the

impact of the environment.– Even traits that are highly heritable

are not rigidly fixed.• Genetic predisposition does not imply

inevitability


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Environmental Influences on Personality

The Behavioral SchoolThe Social-Cognitive Learning School

The Power of ParentsThe Power of Peers


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The Behavioral School

• Behaviorism: An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior.

• Operant Conditioning: The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences.

• Reinforcer: A stimulus or event that strengthens or increases the probability of the response it follows.


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The Social-Cognitive Learning School

• A theory that emphasizes how behavior is learned and maintained through the interaction between individuals and their environment, an interaction strongly influenced by such cognitive processes as observations, expectations, perceptions, and motivating beliefs.


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The Cultural Contribution

Culture and PersonalityEvaluating Cultural Theories


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Culture and Personality

• Culture: A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or society, and a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community


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Individualism or Community?

• Individualist Culture: The self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others.

• Collectivist Culture: The self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes.


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Cultures and Time

• Monochronic Culture: Cultures in which time is organized sequentially; schedules and deadlines are valued over people.

• Polychronic Culture: Cultures in which time is organized horizontally; people tend to do several things at once and value relationships over schedules.


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Culture And Male Aggressiveness

• Richard Nisbett set out to explain why the American South, and some western regions of the country originally settled by southerners, have much higher rates of white homicide than the rest of the country.

• Nisbett ruled out explanations based on poverty, racial tensions, and history of slavery.


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Culture And Male Aggressiveness

• The higher rates of violence in the South derive ultimately from economic causes:

• They occur in cultures whose economies were originally based on herding rather than agriculture.


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Why?

• People who depend on agriculture tend to foster cooperative strategies for survival.

• But people who depend on their herds are extremely vulnerable; their livelihoods can be lost in an instant by the theft of their animals.

• To reduce the likelihood of theft, says Nisbett, herders learn to be hyperalert to any possibly threatening act and respond to it immediately with force.


2-30

Why?

• The emphasis on aggressiveness and vigilance in herding cultures, in turn, fosters a culture of honor, in which even apparently small disputes and trivial insults put a man's reputation for toughness on the line, requiring him to respond with violence to restore his status.


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Why?

• Although the herding economy has become less important in the South and West, the legacy of its culture of honor remains. These regions have higher rates of honor-related homicides (such as murder to avenge a perceived insult to one's honor


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The Inner Experience


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Humanist Psychology

• A psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of human potential rather than the scientific understanding and assessment of behavior.

Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 2-1 Invitation To Psychology Carol Wade and Carol Tavris PowerPoint Presentation by H. Lynn Bradman Metropolitan Community.

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