Voltaire IX

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E D I T I O N D E L A P A C I F I C A T I O N

T H E W O R K S O F

VOLTAIRE A CONTEMPORARY VERSION

W ITH NOTES BY TOBIAS SMOLLETT, R EVISED AND MODERNIZED

NEW TRANSLATIONS BY W ILLIAM F. FLEMING, AND AN

INTRODUCTION BY OLIVER H. G. LEIGH

A CRITIQUE AND BIOGRAPHY

BY

T H E R T . H O N . J O H N M O R L E Y

F O R T Y - T H R E E V O L U M E S

ONE HUNDRED ANS SIXTY-EIGHT DESIGNS, COMPRISINGS REPRODUCTIONS

OF RARE OLD ENGRAVINGS, STEEL PLATES, PHOTOGRAVURES,

AND CURIOUS FAC-SIMILES

VOLUME IX

AKRON, OHIO

THE WERNER COMPANY

1!"



The WORKS of VOLTAIRE



EDITION DE LA PACIFICATION

Limited to one thousand sets

for America and reat !ritain"

# !et$een t$o ser%ants of &umanit'( $ho a))eared

ei*hteen hundred 'ears a)art( there is a m'sterious re+ation"

, , , , Let us sa' it $ith a sentiment of

)rofound res)ect- .ES/S WEPT- VOLTAIRE S0ILED"

Of that di%ine tear and of that human smi+e is com)osed the

s$eetness of the )resent ci%i+i1ation#

VICTOR &/O"

SAN2 SO/OI

EDITION DE LA PACIFICATION



T&E WORKS OF

VO LTAIRE

A CONTE0PORAR3 VERSION

WIT& NOTES !3 TO!IAS S0OLLETT( REVISED AND 0ODERNI4ED

NEW TRANSLATIONS !3 WILLIA0 F" FLE0IN( AND AN

INTROD/CTION !3 OLIVER &" " LEI&

A CRITI5/E AND !IORAP&3

!3

T&E RT" &ON" .O&N 0ORLE3

FORT36T&REE VOL/0ES

ONE &/NDRED AND SI7T36!I&T DESINS( CO0PRISIN REPROD/CTIONS

OF KAR! OLD ENRAVINS( STEEL PLATES( P&OTORAV/RES(



A0D C/RIO/S FAC6SI0ILES

VOL/0E I7

AKRON( O&IO

T&E WERNER CO0PAN3

89:;

COP3EI&T 89:8

!3 E" R" Du0oNT

OWNED !3

T&E WEKNER CO0PAN3

AKRON( O&IO



T&E WERNER CO0PAN3

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'"

VOLTAIRE

A P&ILOSOP&ICAL DICTIONAR3



IN TEN VOL/0ES

VOL" V"

FANATICIS0 RIOR3 VII"

LIST OF PLATES

VOL" I7

PACK

SANS Souci " " " " Frontis)iece

A LAND STOR0 ?9

T&E TE0PTATION OF ADA0 " " " "8;2

DESCARTES " >>2

A P&ILOSOP&ICAL DICTIONAR3"



FANATICIS0"

SECTION I"

FANATICIS0 is the eBect of a fa+se conscience(

$hich ma<es re+i*ion suser%ient to the ca)rices of

the ima*ination( and the e=cesses of the )assions"

It arises( in *enera+( from +e*is+ators entertainin*

too narro$ %ie$s( or from their e=tendin* their re*6

u+ations e'ond the +imits $ithin $hich a+one the'

$ere intended to o)erate" Their +a$s are made

mere+' for a se+ect societ'" When e=tended '

1ea+ to a $ho+e )eo)+e( and transferred ' amition

from one c+imate to another( some chan*es of insti6

tution shou+d ta<e )+ace( some accommodation to

)ersons( )+aces( and circumstances" !ut $hat( in

fact( has een the case Certain minds( constituted

in a *reat de*ree +i<e those of the sma++ ori*ina+

oc<( ha%e recei%ed a s'stem $ith eua+ ardor( and

ecome its a)ost+es( and e%en its mart'rs( rather than

aate a sin*+e iota of its demands" Others( on the

contrar'( +ess ardent( or more attached to their )reG6

udices of education( ha%e stru**+ed $ith ener*'

a*ainst the ne$ 'o<e( and consented to recei%e it

on+' after considera+e softenin*s and miti*ations-



S

; Phi+oso)hica+

hence the schism et$een ri*orists and moderates(

' $hich a++ are ur*ed on to %ehemence and mad6

ness the one )art' for ser%itude and the other for

freedom"

Let us ima*ine an immense rotunda( a )antheon(

$ith innumera+e a+tars )+aced under its dome" Let

us H*ure to ourse+%es a de%otee of e%er' sect(

$hether at )resent e=istin* or e=tinct( at the feet

of that di%init' $hich he $orshi)s in his o$n )ecu6

+iar $a'( under a++ the e=tra%a*ant forms $hich

human ima*ination has een a+e to in%ent" On the

ri*ht $e )ercei%e one stretched on his ac< u)on a

mat( asored in contem)+ation( and a$aitin* the

moment $hen the di%ine +i*ht sha++ come forth to

inform his sou+" On the +eft is a )rostrate ener*u6

men stri<in* his forehead a*ainst the *round( $ith

a %ie$ to otain from it an aundant )roduce" &ere

$e see a man $ith the air and manner of a mounte6



an<( dancin* o%er the *ra%e of him $hom he in6

%o<es" There $e oser%e a )enitent( motion+ess and

mute as the statue efore $hich he has ent himse+f

in humi+iation" One( on the )rinci)+e that od $i++

not +ush at his o$n resem+ance( dis)+a's o)en+'

$hat modest' uni%ersa++' concea+s another( as if

the artist $ou+d shudder at the si*ht of his o$n

$or<( co%ers $ith an im)enetra+e %ei+ his $ho+e

)erson and countenance another turns his ac<

u)on the south( ecause from that uarter +o$s the

de%i+Js tem)est" Another stretches out his arms

to$ards the east( ecause there od Hrst sho$s &is

Dictionar'" ?

radiant face" 3oun* $omen( suBused $ith tears(

ruise and *ash their +o%e+' )ersons under the idea

of assua*in* the demon of desire( a+thou*h ' means

tendin* in fact rather to stren*then his inuence

others a*ain( in o))osite attitudes( so+icit the a)6

)roaches of the Di%init'" One 'oun* man( in order

to mortif' the most ur*ent of his fee+in*s( attaches

to )articu+ar )arts of his frame +ar*e iron rin*s(

as hea%' as he can ear another chec<s sti++ more



eBectua++' the tem)terJs %io+ence ' inhuman am)u6

tation( and sus)ends the +eedin* sacriHce u)on the

a+tar"

Let us oser%e them uit the tem)+e( and( fu++

of the ins)iration of their res)ecti%e deities( s)read

the terror and de+usion o%er the face of the earth"

The' di%ide the $or+d et$een them and the four

e=tremities of it are a+most instant+' in ames - na6

tions oe' them( and <in*s trem+e efore them"

That a+most des)otic )o$er $hich the enthusiasm of

a sin*+e )erson e=ercises o%er a mu+titude $ho see

or hear him the ardor communicated to each other

' assem+ed minds numer+ess stron* and a*itat6

in* inuences actin* in such circumstances( au*6

mented ' each indi%idua+Js )ersona+ an=iet' and

distress( reuire ut a short time to o)erate( in order

to )roduce uni%ersa+ de+irium" On+' +et a sin*+e

)eo)+e e thus fascinated and a*itated under the

*uidance of a fe$ im)ostors( the seduction $i++

s)read $ith the s)eed of $i+d6Hre( )rodi*ies $i++ e

mu+ti)+ied e'ond ca+cu+ation( and $ho+e commu6

2 Phi+oso)hica+



nities e +ed astra' fore%er" When the human mind

has once uitted the +uminous trac< )ointed out '

nature( it returns to it no more it $anders round

the truth( ut ne%er otains of it more than a fe$

faint *+immerin*s( $hich( min*+in* $ith the fa+se

+i*hts of surroundin* su)erstition( +ea%e it( in fact(

in com)+ete and )a+)a+e oscurit'"

It is dreadfu+ to oser%e ho$ the o)inion that

the $rath of hea%en mi*ht e a))eased ' human

massacre s)read( after ein* once started( throu*h

a+most e%er' re+i*ion and $hat %arious reasons

ha%e een *i%en for the sacriHce( as thou*h( in order

to )rec+ude( if )ossi+e( the esca)e of an' one from

e=tir)ation" Sometimes the' are enemies $ho must

e immo+ated to 0ars the e=terminator" The Sc'th6

ians s+a' u)on the a+tars of this deit' a hundredth

)art of their )risoners of $ar and from this usa*e

attendin* %ictor'( $e ma' form some Gud*ment of

the Gustice of $ar- accordin*+'( amon* other nations

it $as en*a*ed in so+e+' to su))+' these human sac6

riHces( so that( ha%in* Hrst een instituted( as it

$ou+d seem( to e=)iate the horrors of $ar( the' at

+en*th came to ser%e as a GustiHcation of them"



Sometimes a ararous deit' reuires %ictims

from amon* the Gust and *ood" The etae ea*er+'

dis)ute the honor of )ersona++' con%e'in* to 4amo+6

=is the %o$s and de%otions of their countr'" &e

$hose *ood fortune has destined him to e the sac6

riHce is thro$n $ith the *reatest %io+ence u)on a

ran*e of s)ears( H=ed for the )ur)ose" If on fa++6

Dictionar'" 9

in* he recei%es a morta+ $ound( it au*urs $e++ as to

the success of the ne*otiation and the merit of the

en%o' ut if he sur%i%es the $ound( he is a $retch

$ith $hom the *od $ou+d not condescend to ho+d

an' communication"

Sometimes chi+dren are demanded( and the re6

s)ecti%e di%inities reca++ the +ife the' had ut Gust

im)arted - #. ust i ce # sa's 0ontai*ne( #thirstin* for

the +ood of innocence # Sometimes the ca++ is for

the dearest and nearest +ood - the Cartha*inians

sacriHced their o$n sons to Saturn( as if Time did

not de%our them $ith suMcient s)eed" Sometimes

the demand $as for the +ood of the most eautifu+"



That Amestris( $ho had uried t$e+%e men a+i%e in

order to otain from P+uto( in return for so re%o+t6

in* an oBerin*( a some$hat +on*er +ife that same

Amestris further sacriHces to that insatia+e di%init'

t$e+%e dau*hters of the hi*hest )ersona*es in Persia

as the sacriHcin* )riests ha%e a+$a's tau*ht men

that the' ou*ht to oBer on the a+tar the most %a+u6

a+e of their )ossessions" It is u)on this )rinci)+e

that amon* some nations the Hrst6orn $ere im6

mo+ated( and that amon* others the' $ere redeemed

' oBerin*s more %a+ua+e to the ministers of sacri6

Hce" This it is( unuestiona+'( $hich introduced

into Euro)e the )ractice )re%a+ent for centuries of

de%otin* chi+dren to ce+iac' at the ear+' a*e of H%e

'ears( and shuttin* u) in a c+oister the rothers of

an hereditar' )rince( Gust as in Asia the )ractice is

to murder them"

io Phi+oso)hica+

Sometimes it is the )urest +ood that is de6

manded" We read of certain Indians( if I reco++ect

ri*ht+'( $ho hos)ita+' entertain a++ $ho %isit them

and ma<e a merit of <i++in* e%er' sensi+e and %ir6



tuous stran*er $ho enters their countr'( that his ta+6

ents and %irtues ma' remain $ith them" Sometimes

the +ood reuired is that $hich is most sacred"

With the maGorit' of ido+aters( )riests )erform the

oMce of e=ecutioner at the a+tar and amon* the

Sierians( it is the )ractice to <i++ the )riests in order

to des)atch them to )ra' in the other $or+d for the

fu+H+ment of the $ishes of the )eo)+e"

!ut +et us turn our attention to other fren1ies and

other s)ectac+es" A++ Euro)e )asses into Asia ' a

road inundated $ith the +ood of .e$s( $ho com6

mit suicide to a%oid fa++in* into the hands of their

enemies" This e)idemic de)o)u+ates one6ha+f of the

inhaited $or+d- <in*s( )ontiBs( $omen( the 'oun*

and the a*ed( a++ 'ie+d to the inuence of the ho+'

madness $hich( for a series of t$o hundred 'ears(

insti*ated the s+au*hter of innumera+e nations at

the tom of a *od of )eace" Then $ere to e seen

+'in* orac+es( and mi+itar' hermits( monarchs in )u+6

)its( and )re+ates in cam)s" A++ the diBerent states

constitute one de+irious )o)u+ace arriers of moun6

tains and seas are surmounted +e*itimate )osses6

sions are aandoned to ena+e their o$ners to '

to conuests $hich $ere no +on*er( in )oint of fer6

ti+it'( the +and of )romise manners ecome cor6



ru)ted under forei*n s<ies )rinces( after ha%in*

Dictionar'" 8 8

e=hausted their res)ecti%e <in*doms to redeem a

countr' $hich had ne%er een theirs( com)+ete the

ruin of them for their )ersona+ ransom thousands

of so+diers( $anderin* under the anners of man'

chieftains( ac<no$+ed*e the authorit' of none and

hasten their defeat ' their desertion and the dis6

ease terminates on+' to e succeeded ' a conta*ion

sti++ more horri+e and deso+atin*"

The same s)irit of fanaticism cherished the ra*e

for distant conuests - scarce+' had Euro)e re)aired

its +osses $hen the disco%er' of a ne$ $or+d has6

tened the ruin of our o$n" At that terri+e inGunc6

tion( #o and conuer(# America $as deso+ated and

its inhaitants e=terminated Africa and Euro)e

$ere e=hausted in %ain to re)eo)+e it the )oison of

mone' and of )+easure ha%in* ener%ated the s)ecies(

the $or+d ecame near+' a desert and a))eared +i<e+'

e%er' da' to ad%ance nearer to deso+ation ' the

continua+ $ars $hich $ere <ind+ed on our continent(



from the amition of e=tendin* its )o$er to forei*n

+ands"

Let us no$ com)ute the immense numer of

s+a%es $hich fanaticism has made( $hether in Asia(

$here uncircumcision $as a mar< of infam'( or in

Africa( $here the Christian name $as a crime( or in

America( $here the )rete=t of a)tism aso+ute+'

e=tin*uished the fee+in*s of humanit'" Let us com6

)ute the thousands $ho ha%e een seen to )erish

either on scaBo+ds in the a*es of )ersecution( or in

ci%i+ $ars ' the hands of their fe++o$ citi1ens( or

8 > Phi+oso)hica+

' their o$n hands throu*h e=cessi%e austerities(

and maceration" Let us sur%e' the surface of the

earth( and *+ance at the %arious standards unfur+ed

and +a1in* in the name of re+i*ion in S)ain a*ainst

the 0oors( in France a*ainst the Tur<s( in &un*ar'

a*ainst the Tartars at the numerous mi+itar' or6

ders( founded for con%ertin* inHde+s ' the )oint of

the s$ord( and s+au*hterin* one another at the foot

of the a+tar the' had come to defend" Let us then



+oo< do$n from the a))a++in* triuna+ thus raised

on the odies of the innocent and misera+e( in order

to Gud*e the +i%in*( as od( $ith a a+ance $ide+'

diBerent( $i++ Gud*e the dead"

In a $ord( +et us contem)+ate the horrors of Hf6

teen centuries( a++ freuent+' rene$ed in the course

of a sin*+e one unarmed men s+ain at the feet of

a+tars <in*s destro'ed ' the da**er or ' )oison

a +ar*e state reduced to ha+f its e=tent ' the fur'

of its o$n citi1ens the nation at once the most

$ar+i<e and the most )aciHc on the face of the *+oe(

di%ided in Herce hosti+it' a*ainst itse+f the s$ord

unsheathed et$een the sons and the father usur)6

ers( t'rants( e=ecutioners( sacri+e*ious roers( and

+oodstained )arricides %io+atin*( under the im)u+se

of re+i*ion( e%er' con%ention di%ine or human such

is the dead+' )icture of fanaticism"

SECTION II"

If this term has at )resent an' connection $ith

its ori*ina+ meanin* it is e=ceedin*+' s+i*ht"



Dictionar'" 8

#Fanaticus# $as an honora+e desi*nation" It

si*niHed the minister or enefactor of a tem)+e" Ac6

cordin* to the dictionar' of Tre%ou= some anti6

uaries ha%e disco%ered inscri)tions in $hich Roman

citi1ens of considera+e conseuence assumed the

tit+e of #fanaticus"#

In CiceroJs oration #)ro domo sua# a )assa*e

occurs in $hich the $ord #fanaticus# a))ears to me

of diMcu+t e=)+anation" The seditious and +iertine

C+odius( $ho had rou*ht aout the anishment of

Cicero for ha%in* sa%ed the re)u+ic( had not on+'

)+undered and demo+ished the houses of that *reat

man( ut in order that Cicero mi*ht ne%er e a+e

to return to his cit' residence he )rocured the con6

secration of the +and on $hich it stood and the

)riests had erected there a tem)+e to +iert'( or

rather to s+a%er'( in $hich Csesar( Pom)e'( Crassus(

and C+odius then he+d the re)u+ic" Thus in a++

a*es has re+i*ion een em)+o'ed as an instrument

in the )ersecution of *reat men" When at +en*th( in

a ha))ier )eriod( Cicero $as reca++ed( he )+eaded e6

fore the )eo)+e in order to otain the restoration of

the *round on $hich his house had stood( and the



reui+din* of the house at the e=)ense of the Roman

)eo)+e" &e thus e=)resses himse+f in the s)eech

a*ainst C+odius Oratio )ro Domo sua( cha)( =+ -

#Ads)icite( ads)icite( )ontiHces( hominem re+i*iosum

"""" monete eum( modum uemdam esse re+i*6

ionis nimium esse su)erstitiosum non o)ortere"

5uid tii necesse fuit ani+i su)erstitione( homo fa6

8Q Phi+oso)hica+

natice( sacriHcium( uod a+icence domi Heret in6

%isere#

Does the $ord #fanaticus(# as used ao%e( mean

sense+ess( )iti+ess( aomina+e fanatic( accordin* to

the )resent acce)tation( or does it rather im)+' the

)ious( re+i*ious man( the freuenter and consecrator

of tem)+es Is it used here in the meanin* of de6

cided censure or ironica+ )raise I do not fee+ m'6

se+f com)etent to determine( ut $i++ *i%e a trans+a6

tion of the )assa*e -

#!eho+d( re%erend )ontiBs( eho+d the )ious man

"""" su**est to him that e%en re+i*ion itse+f has its



+imits( that a man ou*ht not to e so o%er6scru)u6

+ous" What occasion $as there for a sacred )erson(

a fanatic +i<e 'ourse+f( to ha%e recourse to the su)er6

stition of an o+d $oman( in order to assist at a sacri6

Hce )erformed in another )ersonJs house #

Cicero a++udes here to the m'steries of the !ona

Dea( $hich had een )rofaned ' C+odius( $ho( in

the dis*uise of a fema+e( and accom)anied ' an o+d

$oman( had otained an introduction to them( $ith

a %ie$ to an assi*nation $ith CaesarJs $ife" The

)assa*e is( in conseuence( e%ident+' ironica+"

Cicero ca++s C+odius a re+i*ious man( and the

iron' reuires to e <e)t u) throu*h the $ho+e )as6

sa*e" &e em)+o's terms of honora+e meanin*( more

c+ear+' to e=hiit C+odiusJs infam'" It a))ears to

me( therefore( that he uses the $ord in uestion(

#fanaticus# in its res)ecta+e sense( as a $ord con6

Dictionar'" 8 @

%e'in* the idea of a sacriHcer( a )ious man( a 1ea+ous

minister of a tem)+e"



The term mi*ht e after$ards a))+ied to those

$ho e+ie%ed themse+%es ins)ired ' the *ods( $ho

esto$ed a some$hat curious *ift on the inter)ret6

ers of their $i++( ' ordainin* that( in order to e

a )ro)het( the +oss of reason is indis)ensa+e"

Les Dieu= a +eur inter)rets

Ont fait un etran*e don

Ne )ent on etre )ro)htte

Sans uJon )erde +a raison

The same dictionar' of Tre%ou= informs us that

the o+d chronic+es of France ca++ C+o%is fanatic and

)a*an" The reader $ou+d ha%e een )+eased to ha%e

had the )articu+ar chronic+es s)eciHed" I ha%e not

found this e)ithet a))+ied to C+o%is in an' of the

fe$ oo<s I )ossess at m' house near 0ount Kra6

)a<( $here I no$ $rite"

We understand ' fanaticism at )resent a re+i6

*ious madness( *+oom' and crue+" It is a ma+ad' of

the mind( $hich is ta<en in the same $a' as sma++6

)o=" !oo<s communicate it much +ess than meet6



in*s and discourses" We se+dom *et heated $hi+e

readin* in so+itude( for our minds are then tranui+

and sedate" !ut $hen an ardent man of stron* im6

a*ination addresses himse+f to $ea< ima*inations(

his e'es dart Hre( and that Hre ra)id+' s)reads his

tones( his *estures( aso+ute+' con%u+se the ner%es of

his auditors" &e e=c+aims( #The e'e of od is at

this moment u)on 'ou sacriHce e%er' mere human

8 ; Phi+oso)hica+

)ossession and fee+in* H*ht the att+es of the Lord#

and the' rush to the H*ht"

Fanaticism is( in reference to su)erstition( $hat

de+irium is to fe%er( or ra*e to an*er" &e $ho is

in%o+%ed in ecstasies and %isions( $ho ta<es dreams

for rea+ities( and his o$n ima*inations for )ro)h6

ecies( is a fanatica+ no%ice of *reat ho)e and )rom6

ise( and $i++ )roa+' soon ad%ance to the hi*hest

form( and <i++ man for the +o%e of od"

!artho+ome$ Dia1 $as a fanatica+ mon<" &e

had a rother at Nuremer* ca++ed .ohn Dia1( $ho



$as an enthusiastic adherent to the doctrines of

Luther( and com)+ete+' con%inced that the )o)e $as

Antichrist( and had the si*n of the east" !artho+o6

me$( sti++ more ardent+' con%inced that the )o)e

$as *od u)on earth( uits Rome( determined either

to con%ert or murder his rother he accordin*+'

murdered him &ere is a )erfect case of fanaticism"

We ha%e noticed and done Gustice to this Dia1 e+se6

$here"

Po+'euctes( $ho $ent to the tem)+e on a da' of

so+emn festi%a+( to thro$ do$n and destro' the stat6

ues and ornaments( $as a fanatic +ess horri+e than

Dia1( ut not +ess foo+ish" The assassins of Francis(

du<e of uise( of Wi++iam( )rince of Oran*e( of

Kin* &enr' III"( of Kin* &enr' IV"( and %arious

others( $ere eua++' )ossessed( eua++' +aorin* un6

der morid fur'( $ith Dia1"

The most stri<in* e=am)+e of fanaticism is that

e=hiited on the ni*ht of St" !artho+ome$( $hen the

Dictionar'" 8?



)eo)+e of Paris rushed from house to house to sta(

s+au*hter( thro$ out of the $indo$( and tear in

)ieces their fe++o$ citi1ens not attendin* mass" u'6

on( Patoui++et( Chaudon( Nonnotte( and the e=6 .esuit

Pau+ian( are mere+' fanatics in a corner contem)t6

i+e ein*s $hom $e do not thin< of *uardin*

a*ainst" The' $ou+d( ho$e%er( on a da' of St"

!artho+ome$( )erform $onders"

There are some co+d6+ooded fanatics such as

those Gud*es $ho sentence men to death for no other

crime than that of thin<in* diBerent+' from them6

se+%es( and these are so much the more *ui+t' and

deser%in* of the e=ecration of man<ind( as( not +a6

orin* under madness +i<e the C+ements( Chate+s(

Ra%ai++acs( and Damiens( the' mi*ht e deemed ca6

)a+e of +istenin* to reason"

There is no other remed' for this e)idemica+ ma+6

ad' than that s)irit of )hi+oso)h'( $hich( e=tendin*

itse+f from one to another( at +en*th ci%i+i1es and

softens the manners of men and )re%ents the access

of the disease" For $hen the disorder has made an'

)ro*ress( $e shou+d( $ithout +oss of time( ' from

the seat of it( and $ait ti++ the air has ecome )uri6

Hed from conta*ion" La$ and re+i*ion are not com6



)+ete+' eMcient a*ainst the s)iritua+ )esti+ence" Re6

+i*ion( indeed( so far from aBordin* )ro)er nutri6

ment to the minds of )atients +aorin* under this

infectious and inferna+ distem)er( is con%erted( '

the diseased )rocess of their minds( into )oison"

These ma+i*nant de%otees ha%e incessant+' efore

Vo+" 9 >

8 2 Phi+oso)hica+

their e'es the e=am)+e of Ehud( $ho assassinated

the <in* of E*+on of .udith( $ho cut oB the head

of &o+ofernes $hi+e in ed $ith him of Samue+(

he$in* in )ieces Kin* A*a* of .ehoiada the )riest(

$ho murdered his ueen at the horse6*ate" The' do

not )ercei%e that these instances( $hich are res)ect6

a+e in antiuit'( are in the )resent da' aomina+e"

The' deri%e their fur' from re+i*ion( decided+' as

re+i*ion condemns it"

La$s are 'et more )o$er+ess a*ainst these )ar6

o='sms of ra*e" To o))ose +a$s to cases of such a

descri)tion $ou+d e +i<e readin* a decree of coun6



ci+ to a man in a fren1'" The )ersons in uestion

are fu++' con%inced that the &o+' S)irit $hich ani6

mates and H++s them is ao%e a++ +a$s that their o$n

enthusiasm is( in fact( the on+' +a$ $hich the' are

ound to oe'"

What can e said in ans$er to a man $ho sa's

he $i++ rather oe' od than men( and $ho conse6

uent+' fee+s certain of meritin* hea%en ' cuttin*

'our throat

When once fanaticism has *an*rened the rain

of an' man the disease ma' e re*arded as near+'

incura+e" I ha%e seen Con%u+sionaries $ho( $hi+e

s)ea<in* of the mirac+es of St" Paris( *radua++'

$or<ed themse+%es u) to hi*her and more %ehement

de*rees of a*itation ti++ their e'es ecame inamed(

their $ho+e frames shoo<( their countenances ecame

distorted ' ra*e( and had an' man contradicted

them he $ou+d ine%ita+' ha%e een murdered"

Dictionar'" i o"

3es( I ha%e seen these $retched Con%u+sionaries



$rithin* their +ims and foamin* at their mouths"

The' $ere e=c+aimin*( #We must ha%e +ood"#

The' eBected the assassination of their <in* ' a

+ac<e'( and ended $ith e=c+aimin* a*ainst )hi+oso6

)hers"

Fanatics are near+' a+$a's under the direction of

<na%es( $ho )+ace the da**er in their hands" These

<na%es resem+e 0ontai*neJs #O+d 0an of the

0ountain(# $ho( it is said( made $ea< )ersons im6

a*ine( under his treatment of them( that the' rea++'

had e=)erienced the Go's of )aradise( and )romised

them a $ho+e eternit' of such de+i*hts if the' $ou+d

*o and assassinate such as he shou+d )oint out to

them" There has een on+' one re+i*ion in the

$or+d $hich has not een )o++uted ' fanaticism and

that is the re+i*ion of the +earned in China" The

diBerent sects of ancient )hi+oso)hers $ere not

mere+' e=em)t from this )est of human societ'( ut

the' $ere antidotes to it- for the eBect of )hi+os6

o)h' is to render the sou+ tranui+( and fanaticism

and tranui++it' are tota++' incom)ati+e" That our

o$n ho+' re+i*ion has een so freuent+' )o++uted

' this inferna+ fur' must e im)uted to the fo++

and madness of man<ind" Thus Icarus aused tho

$in*s $hich he recei%ed for his eneHt" The' $ere



*i%en him for his sa+%ation and the' insured his de6

struction -

>O Phi+oso)hica+

Ainsi du )+uma*e uJi+ eut

Icare )er%ertit I usa*e

II +e reut )our son sa+ut(

II sJen ser%it )our son domma*e"

!ERTA/T( isho) of S;e1"

SECTION III"

Fanatics do not a+$a's H*ht the att+es of the

Lord" The' do not a+$a's assassinate <in*s and

)rinces" There are ti*ers amon* them( ut there are

more fo=es"

What a tissue of frauds( ca+umnies( and roer6

ies has een $o%en ' fanatics of the court of Rome

a*ainst fanatics of the court of Ca+%in( ' .esuits



a*ainst .ansenists( and %ice %ersa And if 'ou *o

farther ac< 'ou $i++ Hnd ecc+esiastica+ histor'(

$hich is the schoo+ of %irtues( to e that of atrocities

and aominations( $hich ha%e een em)+o'ed '

e%er' sect a*ainst the others" The' a++ ha%e the

same anda*e o%er their e'es $hether marchin* out

to urn do$n the cities and to$ns of their ad%er6

saries( to s+au*hter the inhaitants( or condemn them

to Gudicia+ e=ecution or $hen mere+' en*a*ed in

the com)arati%e+' ca+m occu)ation of decei%in* and

defraudin*( of acuirin* $ea+th and e=ercisin* dom6

ination" The same fanaticism +inds them the'

thin< that the' are doin* *ood" E%er' fanatic is

a conscientious <na%e( ut a sincere and honest mur6

derer for the *ood cause"

Read( if 'ou are a+e( the H%e or si= thousand

%o+umes in $hich( for a hundred 'ears to*ether( the

.ansenists and 0o+inists ha%e dea+t out a*ainst each

Dictionar'" > 8

other their re)roaches and re%i+in*s( their mutua+

e=)osures of fraud and <na%er'( and then Gud*e



$hether Sca)in or Tre%e+in can e com)ared $ith

them"

One of the most curious theo+o*ica+ <na%eries

e%er )ractised is( in m' o)inion( that of a sma++

isho) the narrati%e asserts that he $as a !isca'an

isho) ho$e%er( $e sha++ certain+'( at some future

)eriod Hnd out oth his name and his isho)ric

$hose diocese $as )art+' in !isca' and )art+' in

France"

In the French di%ision of his diocese there $as a

)arish $hich had former+' een inhaited ' some

0oors" The +ord of the )arish or manor $as no

0ahometan he $as )erfect+' catho+ic( as the $ho+e

uni%erse shou+d e( for the meanin* of catho+ic is

uni%ersa+" 0' +ord the isho) had some sus)icions

concernin* this unfortunate sei*neur( $hose $ho+e

occu)ation consisted in doin* *ood( and concei%ed

that in his heart he entertained ad thou*hts and

sentiments sa%orin* not a +itt+e of heres'" &e e%en

accused him of ha%in* said( in the $a' of )+easantr'(

that there $ere *ood )eo)+e in 0orocco as $e++ as

in !isca'( and that an honest inhaitant of 0orocco

mi*ht aso+ute+' not e a morta+ enem' of the Su6

)reme !ein*( $ho is the father of a++ man<ind"



The fanatic( u)on this( $rote a +on* +etter to the

<in* of France( the )aramount so%erei*n of our +it6

t+e manoria+ +ord" In this +etter he entreated his

maGest' to transfer the manor of this stra' and un6

88 Phi+oso)hica+

e+ie%in* shee) either to Lo$er !rittan' or Lo$er

Normand'( accordin* to his *ood )+easure( that he

mi*ht e no +on*er a+e to diBuse the conta*ion of

heres' amon* his !isca'an nei*hors( ' his aom6

ina+e Gests" The <in* of France and his counci+

smi+ed( as ma' natura++' e su))osed( at the e=tra%6

a*ance and fo++' of the demand"

Our !isca'an )astor +earnin*( some time after6

$ards( that his French shee) $as sic<( ordered )u6

+ic notices to e H=ed u) at the church *ates of the

canton( )rohiitin* an' one from administerin* the

communion to him( un+ess he shou+d )re%ious+' *i%e

in a i++ of confession( from $hich it mi*ht a))ear

that he $as not circumcised that he condemned

$ith his $ho+e heart the heres' of 0ahomet( and



e%er' other heres' of the +i<e <ind as( for e=am)+e(

Ca+%inism and .ansenism and that in e%er' )oint

he thou*ht +i<e him( the said !isca'an isho)"

!i++s of confession $ere at that time much in

fashion" The sic< man sent for his )arish )riest(

$ho $as a sim)+e and sottish man( and threatened

to ha%e him han*ed ' the )ar+iament of !ordeau=

if he did not instant+' administer the %iaticum to

him" The )riest $as a+armed( and accordin*+' ce+6

erated the sacred ordinance( as desired ' the )a6

tient $ho( after the ceremon'( dec+ared a+oud( e6

fore $itnesses( that the !isca'an )astor had fa+se+'

accused him efore the <in* of ein* tainted $ith

the 0ussu+man re+i*ion that he $as a sincere

Christian( and that the !isca'an $as a ca+umniator"

Dictionar'" >

&e si*ned this( after it had een $ritten do$n( in

)resence of a notar'( and e%er' form reuired '

+a$ $as com)+ied $ith" &e soon after ecame et6

ter( and rest and a *ood conscience s)eedi+' com6

)+eted his reco%er'"



The !isca'an( uite e=as)erated that the o+d )a6

tient shou+d ha%e thus e=)osed and disa))ointed

him( reso+%ed to ha%e his re%en*e( and thus he set

aout it"

&e )rocured( Hfteen da's after the e%ent Gust

mentioned( the farication( in his o$n +an*ua*e or

)atois( of a )rofession of faith $hich the )riest )re6

tended to ha%e heard and recei%ed" It $as si*ned

' the )riest and three or four )easants( $ho had not

een )resent at the ceremon' and the for*ed in6

strument $as then )assed throu*h the necessar' and

so+emn form of %eriHcation and re*istr'( as if this

form cou+d *i%e it authenticit'"

An instrument not si*ned ' the )art' a+one in6

terested( si*ned ' )ersons un<no$n( Hfteen da's

after the e%ent( an instrument disa%o$ed ' the rea+

and credi+e $itnesses of that e%ent( in%o+%ed e%i6

dent+' the crime of for*er' and( as the suGect of

the for*er' $as a matter of faith( the crime c+ear+'

rendered oth the )riest and the $itnesses +ia+e to

the *a++e's in this $or+d( and to he++ in the other"

Our +ord of the manor( ho$e%er( $ho +o%ed a



Go<e( ut had no *a++ or ma+ice in his heart(

too< com)assion oth u)on the odies and sou+s of

these cons)irators" &e dec+ined de+i%erin* them

>Q Phi+oso)hica+

o%er to human Gustice( and contented himse+f $ith

*i%in* them u) to ridicu+e" !ut he dec+ared that

after the death of the !isca'an he $ou+d( if he sur6

%i%ed( ha%e the )+easure of )rintin* an account of

a++ his )roceedin*s and manoeu%res on this usiness(

to*ether $ith the documents and e%idences( Gust to

amuse the sma++ numer of readers $ho mi*ht +i<e

anecdotes of that descri)tion and not( as is often

)om)ous+' announced( $ith a %ie$ to the instruction

of the uni%erse" There are so man' authors $ho

address themse+%es to the uni%erse( $ho rea++' im6

a*ine the' attract( and )erha)s asor( the attention

of the uni%erse( that he concei%ed he mi*ht not

ha%e a do1en readers out of the $ho+e $ho $ou+d

attend for a moment to himse+f" !ut +et us return

to fanaticism"

It is this ra*e for ma<in* )rose+'tes( this in6



tense+' mad desire $hich men fee+ to rin* others

o%er to )arta<e of their o$n )ecu+iar cu) or com6

munion( that induced the .esuit Chate+ and the .es6

uit Routh to rush $ith ea*erness to the deathed of

the ce+erated 0ontesuieu" These t$o de%oted

1ea+ots desired nothin* etter than to e a+e to oast

that the' had )ersuaded him of the merits of contri6

tion and of suMcin* *race" We $rou*ht his con6

%ersion( the' said" &e $as( in the main( a $orth'

sou+ - he $as much attached to the societ' of .esus"

We had some +itt+e diMcu+t' in inducin* him to ad6

mit certain fundamenta+ truths ut as in these

circumstances( in the crisis of +ife and death( the

Dictionar'" >@

mind is a+$a's most c+ear and acute( $e soon con6

%inced him"

This fanatica+ ea*erness for con%ertin* men is

so ardent( that the most deauched mon< in his con6

%ent $ou+d e%en uit his mistress( and $a+< to the

%er' e=tremit' of the cit'( for the sa<e of ma<in* a

sin*+e con%ert"



We ha%e a++ seen Father Poisson( a Corde+ier

of Paris( $ho im)o%erished his con%ent to )a' his

mistresses( and $ho $as im)risoned in conseuence

of the de)ra%it' of his manners" &e $as one of

the most )o)u+ar )reachers at Paris( and one of the

most determined and 1ea+ous of con%erters"

Such a+so $as the ce+erated )reacher Fantin( at

Versai++es" The +ist mi*ht e easi+' en+ar*ed ut

it is unnecessar'( if not a+so dan*erous( to e=)ose

the frea<s and freedoms of constituted authorities"

3ou <no$ $hat ha))ened to &am for ha%in* re6

%ea+ed his fatherJs shame" &e ecame as +ac< as

a coa+"

Let us mere+' )ra' to od( $hether risin* or

+'in* do$n( that he $ou+d de+i%er us from fanatics(

as the )i+*rims of 0ecca )ra' that the' ma' meet

$ith no sour faces on the road"

SECTION IV"

Lud+o$( $ho $as rather an enthusiast for +i6

ert' than a fanatic in re+i*ion that ra%e man( $ho

hated Crom$e++ more than he did Char+es I"( re6



+ates that the )ar+iamentar' forces $ere a+$a's de6

>; Phi+oso)hica+

feated ' the ro'a+ arm' in the e*innin* of the ci%i+

$ar Gust as the re*iment of )orters )ortes6co6

cheres $ere una+e to stand the shoc< of conict(

in the time of the Fronde a*ainst the *reat Conde"

Crom$e++ said to enera+ Fairfa= - #&o$ can 'ou

)ossi+' e=)ect a ra+e of London )orters and a)6

)rentices to resist a noi+it' ur*ed on ' the )rinci6

)+e( or rather the )hantom( of honor Let us actu6

ate them ' a more )o$erfu+ )hantom fanaticism

Our enemies are H*htin* on+' for their <in* +et

us )ersuade our troo)s the' are H*htin* for their

od"

#i%e me a commission( and I $i++ raise a re*i6

ment of rother murderers( $hom I $i++ )+ed*e m'6

se+f soon to ma<e in%inci+e fanatics #

&e $as as *ood as his $ord he com)osed his

re*iment of red6coated rothers( of *+oom' re+i*ion6

ists( $hom he made oedient ti*ers" 0ahomet him6



se+f $as ne%er etter ser%ed ' so+diers"

!ut in order to ins)ire this fanaticism( 'ou must

e seconded and su))orted ' the s)irit of the times"

A French )ar+iament at the )resent da' $ou+d at6

tem)t in %ain to raise a re*iment of such )orters as

$e ha%e mentioned it cou+d( $ith a++ its eBorts(

mere+' rouse into fren1' a fe$ $omen of the Hsh6

mar<et"

On+' the a+est men ha%e the )o$er to ma<e and

to *uide fanatics" It is not( ho$e%er( suMcient to

)ossess the )rofoundest dissimu+ation and the most

determined intre)idit' e%er'thin* de)ends( after

Dictionar'" >?

these )re%ious reuisites are secured( on comin* into

the $or+d at a )ro)er time"

SECTION V"

eometr' then( it seems( is not a+$a's connected

$ith c+earness and correctness of understandin*"



O%er $hat )reci)ices do not men fa++( not$ithstand6

in* their oasted +eadin*6strin*s of reason A ce+6

erated Protestant( $ho $as esteemed one of the

Hrst mathematicians of the a*e( and $ho fo++o$ed

in the train of the Ne$tons( the Leinit1es( and

!ernoui++is( at the e*innin* of the )resent centur'(

struc< out some %er' sin*u+ar coro++aries" It is said

that $ith a *rain of faith a man ma' remo%e moun6

tains and this man of science( fo++o$in* u) the

method of )ure *eometrica+ ana+'sis( reasoned thus

$ith himse+f- I ha%e man' *rains of faith( and

can( therefore( remo%e man' mountains" This $as

the man $ho made his a))earance at London in

8?:? and( associatin* himse+f $ith certain men of

+earnin* and science( some of $hom( moreo%er( $ere

not deHcient in sa*acit'( the' )u+ic+' announced

that the' $ou+d raise to +ife a dead )erson in an'

cemeter' that mi*ht e H=ed u)on" Their reason6

in* $as uniform+' s'nthetica+" The' said( *enuine

disci)+es must ha%e the )o$er of )erformin* mir6

ac+es $e are *enuine disci)+es( $e therefore sha++

e a+e to )erform as man' as $e )+ease" The mere

unscientiHc saints of the Romish church ha%e resus6

citated man' $orth' )ersons therefore( a fortiori(



>2 Phi+oso)hica+

$e( the reformers of the reformed themse+%es( sha++

resuscitate as man' as $e ma' desire"

These ar*uments are irrefra*a+e( ein* con6

structed accordin* to the most correct form )ossi+e"

&ere $e ha%e at a *+ance the e=)+anation $h' a++

antiuit' $as inundated $ith )rodi*ies $h' the

tem)+es of Escu+a)ius at E)idaurus( and in other

cities( $ere com)+ete+' H++ed $ith e=6%otos the roofs

adorned $ith thi*hs strai*htened( arms restored(

and si+%er infants - a++ $as mirac+e"

In short( the famous Protestant *eometrician

$hom I s)ea< of a))eared so )erfect+' sincere he

asserted so conHdent+' that he $ou+d raise the dead(

and his )ro)osition $as )ut for$ard $ith so much

)+ausii+it' and strenuousness( that the )eo)+e en6

tertained a %er' stron* im)ression on the suGect(

and 5ueen Anne $as ad%ised to a))oint a da'( an

hour( and a cemeter'( such as he shou+d himse+f se6

+ect( in $hich he mi*ht ha%e the o))ortunit' of )er6

formin* his mirac+e +e*a++'( and under the ins)ection

of Gustice" The ho+' *eometrician chose St" Pau+Js



cathedra+ for the scene of his e=ertion - the )eo)+e

ran*ed themse+%es in t$o ro$s so+diers $ere sta6

tioned to )reser%e order oth amon* the +i%in* and

the dead the ma*istrates too< their seats the re*6

ister )rocured his record it $as im)ossi+e that the

ne$ mirac+es cou+d e %eriHed too com)+ete+'" A

dead od' $as disinterred a*reea+' to the ho+'

manJs choice and direction he then )ra'ed( he fe++

u)on his <nees( and made the most )ious and de6

Dictionar'" >9

%out contortions )ossi+e his com)anions imitated

him the dead od' e=hiited no si*n of animation

it $as a*ain de)osited in its *ra%e( and the )rofessed

resuscitator and his adherents $ere s+i*ht+' )un6

ished" I after$ards sa$ one of these mis+ed crea6

tures he dec+ared to me that one of the )art' $as

at the time under the stain of a %enia+ sin( for $hich

the dead )erson suBered( and ut for $hich the res6

urrection $ou+d ha%e een infa++i+e"

Were it a++o$a+e for us to re%ea+ the dis*race of

those to $hom $e o$e the sincerest res)ect( I



shou+d oser%e here( that Ne$ton( the *reat Ne$ton

himse+f( disco%ered in the #A)oca+')se# that the

)o)e $as Antichrist( and made man' other simi+ar

disco%eries" I shou+d a+so oser%e that he $as a de6

cided Arian" I am a$are that this de%iation of Ne$6

ton( com)ared to that of the other *eometrician(

is as unit' to inHnit'" !ut if the e=a+ted Ne$ton

ima*ined that he found the modern histor' of Eu6

ro)e in the #A)oca+')se(# $e ma' sa'- A+as( )oor

human ein*s

It seems as if su)erstition $ere an e)idemic dis6

ease( from $hich the stron*est minds are not a+$a's

e=em)t" There are in Tur<e' )ersons of *reat and

stron* sense( $ho $ou+d under*o em)a+ement for

the sa<e of certain o)inions of Aue<er" These

)rinci)+es ein* once admitted( the' reason $ith

*reat consistenc' and the Na%aricians( the Ra6

darists( and the .aarites mutua++' consi*n each

other to damnation in conformit' to %er' shre$d

: Phi+oso)hica+

and sut+e ar*ument" The' a++ dra$ )+ausi+e con6



seuences( ut the' ne%er dare to e=amine )rinci6

)+es"

A re)ort is )u+ic+' s)read aroad ' some )er6

son( that there e=ists a *iant se%ent' feet hi*h the

+earned soon after e*in to discuss and dis)ute aout

the co+or of his hair( the thic<ness of his thum( the

measurement of his nai+s the' e=c+aim( caa+( and

e%en H*ht u)on the suGect" Those $ho maintain

that the +itt+e Hn*er of the *iant is on+' Hfteen +ines

in diameter urn those $ho assert that it is a foot

thic<" #!ut( *ent+emen(# modest+' oser%es a stran6

*er )assin* '( #does the *iant 'ou are dis)utin*

aout rea++' e=ist# #What a horri+e dout# a++

the dis)utants cr' out to*ether" #What +as)hem'

What asurdit'# A short truce is then rou*ht

aout to *i%e time for stonin* the )oor stran*er

and( after ha%in* du+' )erformed that murderous

ceremon'( the' resume H*htin* u)on the e%er+ast6

in* suGect of the nai+s and +itt+e Hn*er"

FANC3"

FANC3 former+' si*niHed ima*ination( and the

term $as used sim)+' to e=)ress that facu+t' of the

sou+ $hich recei%es sensi+e oGects"



Descartes and assendi( and a++ the )hi+oso)hers

of their da'( sa' that #the form or ima*es of thin*s

are )ainted in the fanc'"# !ut the *reater )art of

astract terms are( in the course of time( recei%ed in

Dictionar'" 8

a sense diBerent from their ori*ina+ one( +i<e too+s

$hich industr' a))+ies to ne$ )ur)oses"

Fanc'( at )resent( means #a )articu+ar desire(

a transient taste# he has a fanc' for *oin* to

China his fanc' for *amin* and dancin* has

)assed a$a'" An artist )aints a fanc' )ortrait( a

)ortrait not ta<en from an' mode+" To ha%e fancies

is to ha%e e=traordinar' tastes( ut of rief dura6

tion" Fanc'( in this sense( fa++s a +itt+e short of

oddit' i1arrerie and ca)rice"

Ca)rice ma' e=)ress #a sudden and unreason6

a+e dis*ust"# &e had a fanc' for music( and ca6

)ricious+' ecame dis*usted $ith it" Whimsica+it'

*i%es an idea of inconsistenc' and ad taste( $hich



fanc' does not he had a fanc' for ui+din*( ut he

constructed his house in a $himsica+ taste"

There are shades of distinction et$een ha%in*

fancies and ein* fantastic the fantastic is much

nearer to the ca)ricious and the $himsica+" The

$ord #fantastic# e=)resses a character uneua+ and

aru)t" The idea of charmin* or )+easant is e=6

c+uded from it $hereas there are a*reea+e fan6

cies"

We sometimes hear used in con%ersation #odd

fancies# des fantasies miisuees ut the e=)res6

sion $as ne%er understood to mean $hat the #Dic6

tionar' of TreVou=# su))oses #The $hims of men

of su)erior ran< $hich one must not %enture to con6

demn# on the contrar'( that e=)ression is used

for the %er' oGect and )ur)ose of condemnin*

> Phi+oso)hica+

them and musuee( in this connection( is an e=)+e6

ti%e addin* force to the term #fancies(# as $e sa'(

Sottise )ommee( fo+ie HeBee( to e=)ress nonsense



and fo++'"

FASTI"

Of the DiBerent Si*niHcations of this Word"

T&E Latin $ord #fasti# si*niHes festi%a+s( and

it is in this sense that O%id treats of it in his )oem

entit+ed #The Fasti"#

odeau has com)osed the Fasti of the church on

this mode+( ut $ith +ess success" The re+i*ion of

the Roman Pa*ans $as more ca+cu+ated for )oetr'

than that of the Christians to $hich it ma' e

added( that O%id $as a etter )oet than odeau"

The consu+ar fasti $ere on+' the +ist of consu+s"

The fasti of the ma*istrates $ere the da's in

$hich the' $ere )ermitted to )+ead and those on

$hich the' did not )+ead $ere ca++ed nefasti( e6

cause then the' cou+d not )+ead for Gustice"

The $ord #nefastus# in this sense does not si*6

nif' unfortunate on the contrar'( nefastus and ne6

fandus $ere the attriutes of unfortunate da's in



another sense( si*nif'in* da's in $hich )eo)+e must

not )+ead da's $orth' on+' to e for*otten #i++e

nefasto te )osuit die"#

!esides other fasti( the Romans had their fasti

uris( fasti rustici( $hich $ere ca+endars of the )ar6

ticu+ar usa*es( and ceremonies of the cit' and the

countr'"

Dictionar'"

On these da's of so+emnit'( e%er' one sou*ht to

astonish ' the *randeur of his dress( his eui)a*e(

or his anuet" This )om)( in%isi+e on other da's(

$as ca++ed fastus" It e=)resses ma*niHcence in

those $ho ' their station can aBord it( ut %anit'

in others"

Thou*h the $ord #fastus# ma' not e a+$a's in6

Gurious( the $ord #)om)ous# is in%aria+' so" A

de%otee $ho ma<es a )arade of his %irtue renders

humi+it' itse+f )om)ous"

FAT&ERS 0OT&ERS C&ILDREN"



Their Duties"

T&E #Enc'c+o)aedia# has een much e=c+aimed

a*ainst in France ecause it $as )roduced in

France( and has done France honor" In other coun6

tries( )eo)+e ha%e not cried out on the contrar'( the'

ha%e ea*er+' set aout )iratin* or s)oi+in* it( ecause

mone' $as to e *ained there'"

!ut $e( $ho do not( +i<e the enc'c+o)aedists of

Paris( +aor for *+or' $e( $ho are not( +i<e them(

e=)osed to en%' $e( $hose +itt+e societ' +ies un6

noticed in &esse( in Wurtemer*( in S$it1er+and(

amon* the risons( or at 0ount Kra)a< and ha%e(

therefore( no a))rehension of ha%in* to dis)ute $ith

the doctor of the Comedie Ita+ienne( or $ith a doc6

tor of the Soronne $e( $ho se++ not our sheets to

a oo<se++er( ut are free ein*s( and +a' not +ac<

on $hite unti+ $e ha%e e=amined( to the utmost of

Vo+" 9

Q Phi+oso)hica+



our ai+it'( $hether the said +ac< ma' e of ser%ice

to man<ind $e( in short( $ho +o%e %irtue( sha++

o+d+' dec+are $hat $e thin<"

#&onor th' father and th' mother( that th' da's

ma' e +on* # I $ou+d %enture to sa'( #&onor

th' father and th' mother( thou*h this da' sha++ e

th' +ast"#

Tender+' +o%e and Go'fu++' ser%e the mother $ho

ore 'ou in her $om( fed 'ou at her reast( and

)atient+' endured a++ that $as dis*ustin* in 'our

infanc'" Dischar*e the same duties to 'our father(

$ho rou*ht 'ou u)"

What $i++ future a*es sa' of a Fran<( named

Louis the Thirteenth( $ho( at the a*e of si=teen(

e*an the e=ercise of his authorit' $ith ha%in* the

door of his motherJs a)artment $a++ed u)( and send6

in* her into e=i+e( $ithout *i%in* the sma++est reason

for so doin*( and so+e+' ecause it $as his fa%oriteJs

$ish

#!ut( sir( I must te++ 'ou in conHdence that m'

father is a drun<ard( $ho e*ot me one da' '

chance( not carin* a Got aout me and *a%e me no



education ut that of eatin* me e%er' da' $hen he

came home into=icated" 0' mother $as a couette(

$hose on+' occu)ation $as +o%e6ma<in*" !ut for

m' nurse( $ho had ta<en a +i<in* to me( and $ho(

after the death of her son( recei%ed me into her

house for charit'( I shou+d ha%e died of $ant"#

#We++( then( honor 'our nurse and o$ to 'our

father and mother $hen 'ou meet them" It is said

Dictionar'" @

in the Vu+*ate( J&onora )atrem tuum et matrem

tuamJ not di+i*e"#

#Ver' $e++( sir( I sha++ +o%e m' father and m'

mother if the' do me *ood I sha++ honor them if

the' do me i++" I ha%e thou*ht so e%er since I e6

*an to thin<( and 'ou conHrm me in m' ma=ims"#

#Fare 'ou $e++( m' chi+d( I see 'ou $i++ )ros)er(

for 'ou ha%e a *rain of )hi+oso)h' in 'our com)o6

sition"#



#One $ord more( sir" If m' father $ere to

ca++ himse+f Araham( and me Isaac( and $ere to

sa' to me( J0' son( 'ou are ta++ and stron* carr'

these fa*ots to the to) of that hi++( to urn 'ou $ith

after I ha%e cut oB 'our head for od ordered

me to do so $hen &e came to see me this mornin*

$hat $ou+d 'ou ad%ise me to do in such critica+

circumstances #

#Critica+( indeed !ut $hat $ou+d 'ou do of

'ourse+f for 'ou seem to e no +oc<head"#

#I o$n( sir( that I shou+d as< him to )roduce a

$ritten order( and that from re*ard for himse+f(

I shou+d sa' to him JFather( 'ou are amon* stran6

*ers( $ho do not a++o$ a man to assassinate his

son $ithout an e=)ress condition from od( du+'

si*ned( sea+ed and de+i%ered" See $hat ha))ened

to )oor a+as( in the ha+f French( ha+f S)anish to$n

of Tou+ouse" &e $as ro<en on the $hee+ and the

)rocureur6*enera+ Riuet decided on ha%in* 0ad6

ame a+as( the mother( urned a++ on the are and

%er' i++6concei%ed sus)icion( that the' had hun* u)



; Phi+oso)hica+

their son( 0ar< Anton' a+as( for the +o%e of od"

I shou+d fear that his conc+usions $ou+d e eua++'

)reGudicia+ to the $e++6ein* of 'ourse+f and 'our

sister or niece( 0adame Sarah( m' mother" Once

more I sa'( sho$ me a +ettre de cachet for cuttin*

m' throat( si*ned ' odJs o$n hand( and coun6

tersi*ned ' Ra)hae+( 0ichae+( or !ee+1eu" If

not( father 'our most oedient - I $i++ *o to Pha6

raoh of E*')t( or to the <in* of the desert of erar(

$ho oth ha%e een in +o%e $ith m' mother( and $i++

certain+' e <ind to me" Cut m' rother Ishmae+Js

throat( if 'ou +i<e ut re+' u)on it( 'ou sha++ not

cut mine"J #

#ood this is ar*uin* +i<e a true sa*e" The

JEnc'c+o)aediaJ itse+f cou+d not ha%e reasoned et6

ter" I te++ 'ou( 'ou $i++ do *reat thin*s" I admire

'ou for not ha%in* said an i++ $ord to 'our father

Araham for not ha%in* een tem)ted to eat him"

And te++ me- had 'ou een that Cram( $hom his

father( the Pran<ish Kin* C+othaire( had urned in

a arn a Don Car+os( son of that fo=( Phi+i) the

Second a )oor A+e=is( son of that C1ar Peter( ha+f

hero( ha+f ti*er #



#Ah( sir( sa' no more of those horrors 'ou $i++

ma<e me detest human nature"#

FAVOR"

Of What is /nderstood ' the Word"

FAVOR( from the Latin $ord #fa%or# rather si*6

niHes a eneHt than a recom)ense"

Dictionar'" ?

We earnest+' e* a fa%or $e merit and +oucP'

demand a recom)ense" The *od Fa%or( accordin*

to the Roman m'tho+o*ists( $as the son of !eaut'

and Fortune" A++ fa%or con%e's the idea of some6

thin* *ratuitous he has done me the fa%or of

introducin* me( of )resentin* me( of recommend6

in* m' friend( of correctin* m' $or<" The fa%or

of )rinces is the eBect of their fanc'( and of assid6

uous com)+aisance" The fa%or of the )eo)+e some6

times im)+ies merit( ut is more often attriuta+e

to +uc<' accident"



Fa%or diBers much from <indness" That man

is in fa%or $ith the <in*( ut he has not 'et re6

cei%ed an' <indnesses from him" We sa' that he

has een recei%ed into the *ood *races of a )erson(

not he has een recei%ed into fa%or thou*h $e sa'

to e in fa%or( ecause fa%or is su))osed to e an

haitua+ taste $hi+e to recei%e into *race is to )ar6

don( or( at +east( is +ess than to esto$ a fa%or"

To otain *race is the eBect of a moment to o6

tain fa%or is a $or< of time" Ne%erthe+ess( $e sa'

indiBerent+'( do me the <indness and do me the fa6

%or( to recommend m' friend"

Letters of recommendation $ere former+' ca++ed

+etters of fa%or" Se%erus sa's( in the tra*ed' of

Po+'euctes -

.e mourrais mi++e fois )+utot ue cFauser

Des +ettres de fa%eur ue fai )our Ft)ouser"

# Letters of fa%or(# thou*h I ha%e to $ed her(

IJd rather die a thousand times than use them"

We ha%e the fa%or and *ood6$i++( not the <ind6



2 Phi+oso)hica+

ness of the )rince and the )u+ic" We ma' otain

the fa%or of our audience ' modest'( ut it $i++

not e *racious if $e are tedious"

This e=)ression #fa%or(# si*niHes a *ratuitous

*ood6$i++( $hich $e see< to otain from the )rince

or the )u+ic" a++antr' has e=tended it to the com6

)+aisance of the +adies and thou*h $e do not sa'

that $e ha%e the fa%ors of the <in*( $e sa' that $e

ha%e the fa%ors of a +ad'"

The eui%a+ent to this e=)ression is un<no$n in

Asia( $here the $omen )ossess +ess inuence" For6

mer+'( rions( *+o%es( uc<+es( and s$ord6<nots

*i%en ' a +ad'( $ere ca++ed fa%ors" The ear+ of

Esse= $ore a *+o%e of 5ueen E+i1aethJs in his hat(

$hich he ca++ed the ueenJs fa%or"

FAVORITE"

T&IS $ord has sometimes a ounded and some6

times an e=tended sense" #Fa%orite# sometimes



con%e's the idea of )o$er and sometimes it on+'

si*niHes a man $ho )+eases his master"

&enr' III" had fa%orites $ho $ere on+' )+a'6

thin*s( and he had those $ho *o%erned the state(

as the du<es of .o'euse and H)ernon" A fa%orite

ma' e com)ared to a )iece of *o+d( $hich is %a+ued

at $hate%er the )rince )+eases"

An ancient $riter has as<ed( #Who ou*ht to e

the <in*Js fa%orite the )eo)+e # ood )oets are

ca++ed the fa%orites of the muses( as )ros)erous men

are ca++ed the fa%orites of fortune( ecause oth are

Dictionar'" 9

su))osed to recei%e these *ifts $ithout +aorin* for

them" It is thus( that a ferti+e and $e++6situated

+and is ca++ed the fa%orite of nature"

The $oman $ho )+eases the su+tan most is ca++ed

the fa%orite su+tana" Someod' has $ritten the his6

tor' of fa%orites that is to sa'( the mistresses of

the *reatest )rinces"



Se%era+ )rinces in erman' ha%e countr' houses

$hich the' ca++ fa%orites"

A +ad'Js fa%orite is no$ on+' to e found in ro6

mances and stories of the +ast centur'"

FEASTS"

SECTION I"

A POOR *ent+eman of the )ro%ince of &a*enau(

cu+ti%ated his sma++ estate( and St" Ra*onda( or Rad6

e*onda( $as the )atron of his )arish"

No$ it ha))ened( on the feast of St" Ra*onda(

that it $as necessar' to do somethin* to this )oor

*ent+emanJs He+d( $ithout $hich *reat +oss $ou+d

e incurred" The master( $ith a++ his fami+'( after

ha%in* de%out+' assisted at mass( $ent to cu+ti%ate

his +and( on $hich de)ended the susistence of his

fami+'( $hi+e the rector and the other )arishioners

$ent to ti))+e as usua+"



The rector( $hi+e enGo'in* his *+ass( $as in6

formed of the enormous oBence committed in his

)arish ' this )rofane +aorer( and $ent( urnin*

Q: Phi+oso)hica+

$ith $ine and an*er( to see< the cu+ti%ator" #Sir(

'ou are %er' inso+ent and %er' im)ious to dare to

cu+ti%ate 'our He+d( instead of *oin* to the ta%ern

+i<e other )eo)+e"# #I a*ree( sir(# re)+ied the *en6

t+eman( #that it is necessar' to drin< to the honor

of the saint ut it is a+so necessar' to eat( and m'

fami+' $ou+d die of hun*er if I did not +aor"#

#Drin< and die( then(# said the %icar" #In $hat +a$(

in $hat oo< is it so $ritten# said the +aorer" #In

O%id(# re)+ied the %icar" #I thin< 'ou are mis6

ta<en(# said the *ent+eman #in $hat )art of O%id

ha%e 'ou read that I shou+d *o to the ta%ern rather

than cu+ti%ate m' He+d on St" Ra*ondaJs da' #

It shou+d e remar<ed that oth the *ent+eman

and the )astor $ere $e++ educated men" #Read the

metamor)hoses of the dau*hters of 0in'as(# said

the %icar" #I ha%e read it(# re)+ied the other( #and



I maintain that the' ha%e no re+ation to m' )+ou*h"#

#&o$( im)ious man do 'ou not rememer that the

dau*hters of 0in'as $ere chan*ed into ats for

ha%in* s)un on a feast da'# #The case is %er' dif6

ferent(# re)+ied the *ent+eman( #these +adies had not

rendered an' homa*e to !acchus" I ha%e een at

the mass of St" Ra*onda( 'ou can ha%e nothin* to

sa' to me 'ou cannot chan*e me into a at"# #I

$i++ do $orse(# said the )riest( #I $i++ Hne 'ou"#

&e did so" The )oor *ent+eman $as ruined- he

uitted the countr' $ith his fami+' $ent into a

stran*e one ecame a Lutheran and his *round

remained uncu+ti%ated for se%era+ 'ears"

Dictionar'" Q8

This aBair $as re+ated to a ma*istrate of *ood

sense and much )iet'" These are the reections

$hich he made u)on it -

#The' $ere no dout inn<ee)ers(# said he( #that

in%ented this )rodi*ious numer of feasts the re6

+i*ion of )easants and artisans consists in *ettin*

ti)s' on the da' of a saint( $hom the' on+' <no$ '



this <ind of $orshi)" It is on these da's of id+eness

and deaucher' that a++ crimes are committed it

is these feasts $hich H++ the )risons( and $hich su)6

)ort the )o+ice oMcers( re*isters( +ieutenants of )o6

+ice( and han*men the on+' e=cuse for feast6da's

amon* us" From this cause Catho+ic countries are

scarce+' cu+ti%ated at a++ $hi+st heretics( ' dai+'

cu+ti%atin* their +ands( )roduce aundant cro)s"#

It is a++ %er' $e++ that the shoema<ers shou+d *o

in the mornin* to mass on St" Cris)inJs da'( ecause

cre)ido si*niHes the u))er +eather of a shoe that

the rush6ma<ers shou+d honor St" !arara their

)atron that those $ho ha%e $ea< e'es shou+d hear

the mass of St" C+ara- that St" shou+d e

ce+erated in man' )ro%inces ut after ha%in* )aid

their de%oirs to the saints the' shou+d ecome ser6

%icea+e to men( the' shou+d *o from the aitar to

the )+ou*h it is the e=cess of ararit'( and in6

su))orta+e s+a%er'( to consecrate our da's to id+e6

ness and %ice" Priests( command( if it e necessar'

that the saints Roche( Eustace( and Fiacre( e

)ra'ed to in the mornin* ut( ma*istrates( order

'our He+ds to e cu+ti%ated as usua+" It is +aor that



Q> Phi+oso)hica+

is necessar' the *reater the industr' the more the

da' is sanctiHed"

SECTION II"

Letter from a Wea%er of L'ons to the ent+emen of the

Commission esta+ished at Paris( for the Reformation of

Re+i*ious Orders( )rinted in the )u+ic )a)ers in 8?;2"

#ent+emen- I am a si+<6$ea%er( and ha%e

$or<ed at L'ons for nineteen 'ears" 0' $a*es

ha%e increased insensi+' at )resent I *et thirt'6

H%e sous )er da'" 0' $ife( $ho ma<es +ace( $ou+d

*et Hfteen more( if it $ere )ossi+e for her to de6

%ote her time to it ut as the cares of the house(

i++ness( or other thin*s( continua++' hinder her( I

reduce her )roHt to ten sous( $hich ma<es fort'6

H%e sous dai+'" If from the 'ear $e deduct ei*ht'6

t$o Sunda's( or ho+ida's( $e sha++ ha%e t$o hun6

dred and ei*ht'6four )roHta+e da's( $hich at for6

t'6H%e sous ma<e si= hundred and thirt'6nine +i%res"



That is m' re%enue the fo++o$in* are m' e=)enses -

#I ha%e ei*ht +i%in* chi+dren( and m' $ife is on

the )oint of ein* conHned $ith the e+e%enth for

I ha%e +ost t$o" I ha%e een married Hfteen 'ears -

so that I annua++' rec<on t$ent'6four +i%res for the

e=)enses of her conHnements and a)tisms( one hun6

dred and ei*ht +i%res for t$o nurses( ha%in* *en6

era++' t$o chi+dren out at nurse( and sometimes e%en

three" I )a' Hft'6se%en +i%res rent and fourteen

ta=es"

#0' income is then reduced to four hundred and

thirt'6si= +i%res( or t$ent'6H%e sous three deniers

Dictionar'" Q

a da'( $ith $hich I ha%e to c+othe and furnish m'

fami+'( u' $ood and cand+es( and su))ort m' $ife

and si= chi+dren"

#I +oo< for$ard to ho+ida's $ith disma'" I con6

fess that I often a+most curse their institution" The'

cou+d on+' ha%e een instituted ' usurers and inn6



<ee)ers"

#0' father made me stud' hard in m' 'outh(

and $ished me to ecome a mon<( sho$in* me in

that state a sure as'+um a*ainst $ant ut I a+$a's

thou*ht that e%er' man o$es his triute to societ'(

and that mon<s are use+ess drones $ho +i%e u)on the

+aor of the ees" Not$ithstandin*( I ac<no$+ed*e

that $hen I see .ohn C ( $ith $hom I stud6

ied( and $ho $as the most id+e o' in the co++e*e(

)ossessin* the Hrst )+ace amon* the )remontres(

I cannot he+) re*rettin* that I did not +isten to m'

fatherJs ad%ice"

#This is the third ho+ida' in Christmas( I ha%e

)a$ned the +itt+e furniture I had( I am in a $ee<Js

det $ith m' tradesman( and I $ant read ho$ are

$e to *et o%er the fourth This is not a++ I ha%e the

)ros)ect of four more ne=t $ee<" reat od

Ei*ht ho+ida's in ten da's 'ou cannot ha%e com6

manded it

#One 'ear I ho)ed that rents $ou+d diminish '

the su))ression of one of the monasteries of the

Ca)uchins and Corde+iers" What use+ess houses

in the centre of L'ons are those of the .acoins(



nuns of St" Peter( etc" Wh' not esta+ish them in

QQ Phi+oso)hica+

the suurs if the' are thou*ht necessar' &o$

man' more usefu+ inhaitants $ou+d su))+' their

)+aces 8

#A++ these reections( *ent+emen( ha%e induced

me to address m'se+f to 'ou $ho ha%e een chosen

' the <in* for the tas< of rectif'in* auses" I am

not the on+' one $ho thin<s thus" &o$ man'

+aorers in L'ons and other )+aces( ho$ man'

+aorers in the <in*dom are reduced to the same

e=tremities as m'se+f It is e%ident that e%er'

ho+ida' costs the state se%era+ mi++ions +i%res"

These considerations $i++ +ead 'ou to ta<e more to

heart the interests of the )eo)+e( $hich are rather

too +itt+e attended to"

#I ha%e the honor to e( etc"(

#!OCEN"#



This reuest( $hich $as rea++' )resented( $i++

not e mis)+aced in a $or< +i<e the )resent"

SECTION III"

The feast *i%en to the Roman )eo)+e ' .u+ius

Caesar and the em)erors $ho succeeded him are

$e++ <no$n" The feast of t$ent'6t$o thousand

ta+es ser%ed ' t$ent'6t$o thousand )ur%e'ors

the na%a+ H*hts on artiHcia+ +a<es( etc"( ha%e not(

ho$e%er( een imitated ' the &eru+ian( Lomard(

and Pran<ish chieftains( $ho $ou+d ha%e their

festi%it' eua++' ce+erated"

Dictionar'" Q@

FERRARA"

W&AT $e ha%e to sa' of Ferrara has no re+ation

to +iterature( ut it has a %er' *reat one to Gustice(

$hich is much more necessar' than the e++es6+ettres(

and much +ess cu+ti%ated( at +east in Ita+'"

Ferrara $as constant+' a Hef of the em)ire( +i<e



Parma and P+acentia" Po)e C+ement VIII" roed

Caesar dJEste of it ' force of arms( in 8@9?" The

)rete=t for this t'rann' $as a %er' sin*u+ar one for

a man $ho ca++ed himse+f the hum+e %icar of .esus

Christ"

A+)honso dJEste( the Hrst of the name( so%erei*n

of Ferrara( 0odena( Este( Car)io( and Ro%i*no( es6

)oused a sim)+e *ent+e$oman of Ferrara( named

Laura Eustochia( ' $hom he had three chi+dren

efore marria*e" These chi+dren he so+emn+' ac6

<no$+ed*ed in the face of the Church" None of the

forma+ities )rescried ' the +a$s $ere $antin* at

this reco*nition" &is successor( A+)honso dJEste(

$as ac<no$+ed*ed du<e of Ferrara he es)oused

.u+ia dJ/rino( the dau*hter of Francis( du<e dJ/r6

ino( ' $hom he had the unfortunate Caesar

dJEste( the incontesta+e heir of a++ the )ro)ert' of

a++ the fami+'( and dec+ared so ' the +ast du<e(

$ho died Octoer >?( 8@9?" Po)e C+ement VIII"(

surnamed A+dorandino( and ori*ina++' of the

fami+' of a merchant of F+orence( dared to )retend

that the *randmother of Caesar dJEste $as not

suMcient+' no+e( and that the chi+dren that she had



Q; Phi+oso)hica+

rou*ht into the $or+d ou*ht to e considered

astards" The Hrst reason is ridicu+ous and scan6

da+ous in a isho)( the second is un$arranta+e in

e%er' triuna+ in Euro)e" If the du<e $as not

+e*itimate( he ou*ht to ha%e +ost 0odena and his

other states a+so and if there $as no a$ in his

tit+e( he ou*ht to ha%e <e)t Ferrara as $e++ as

0odena"

The acuisition of Ferrara $as too Hne a thin*

for the )o)e not to )rocure a++ the decreta+s and

decisions of those ra%e theo+o*ians( $ho dec+are

that the )o)e can render Gust that $hich is unGust"

Conseuent+' he Hrst e=communicated Caesar dJEste(

and as e=communication necessari+' de)ri%es a man

of a++ his )ro)ert'( the common father of the faith6

fu+ raised his troo)s a*ainst the e=communicated(

to ro him of his inheritance in the name of the

Church" These troo)s $ere defeated( ut the du<e

of 0odena soon sa$ his Hnances e=hausted( and

his friends ecome coo+"

To ma<e his case sti++ more de)+ora+e( the <in*



of France( &enr' IV"( e+ie%ed himse+f o+i*ed to

ta<e the side of the )o)e( in order to a+ance the

credit of Phi+i) II" at the court of Rome in the

same manner that *ood Kin* Louis 7II" +ess e=6

cusa+' dishonored himse+f ' unitin* $ith that

monster A+e=ander VI"( and his e=ecra+e astard(

the du<e of !or*ia" The du<e $as o+i*ed to re6

turn( and the )o)e caused Ferrara to e in%aded

' Cardina+ A+dorandino( $ho entered this ourish6

Dictionar'" Q?

in* cit' at the head of a thousand horse and H%e

thousand foot so+diers"

It is a *reat )it' that such a man as &enr' IV"

descended to this un$orthiness $hich is ca++ed

)o+itic" The Catos( 0ete++uses( Sci)ios( and Fari6

ciuses $ou+d not thus ha%e etra'ed Gustice to )+ease

a )riest and such a )riest

From this time Ferrara ecame a desert its

uncu+ti%ated soi+ $as co%ered $ith standin* marshes"

This )ro%ince( under the house of Este( had een one



of the Hnest in Ita+' the )eo)+e a+$a's re*retted

their ancient masters" It is true that the du<e $as

indemniHed he $as nominated to a isho)ric and a

eneHce he $as e%en furnished $ith some measures

of sa+t from the mines of Ser%ia" !ut it is no +ess

true that the house of 0odena has incontesta+e and

im)rescri)ta+e ri*hts to the duch' of Ferrara( of

$hich it $as thus shamefu++' des)oi+ed"

No$( m' dear reader( +et us su))ose that this

scene too< )+ace at the time in $hich .esus Christ

a))eared to his a)ost+es after his resurrection( and

that Simon !arGonas( surnamed Peter( $ished to

)ossess himse+f of the states of this )oor du<e of

Ferrara" Ima*ine the du<e comin* to !ethan' to

demand Gustice of the Lord .esus" Our Lord sends

immediate+' for Peter and sa's to him( # Simon( son

of .onas( I ha%e *i%en thee the <e's of hea%en( ut

I ha%e not *i%en thee those of the earth" !ecause

thou hast een to+d that the hea%ens surround the

*+oe( and that the contained is in the containin*(

Q2 Phi+oso)hica+



dost them ima*ine that <in*doms here e+o$ e+on*

to thee( and that thou hast on+' to )ossess th'se+f

of $hate%er thou +i<est I ha%e a+read' foridden

thee to dra$ the s$ord" Thou a))earest to me a

%er' stran*e com)ound at one time cuttin* oB the

ear of 0a+chus( and at another e%en den'in* me"

!e more +enient and decorous( and ta<e neither the

)ro)ert' nor the ears of an' one for fear of thine

o$n"#

FEVER"

IT is not as a )h'sician( ut as a )atient( that I

$ish to sa' a $ord or t$o on fe%er" We cannot

he+) no$ and then s)ea<in* of our enemies and

this one has een attac<in* me for more than

t$ent' 'ears not Freron himse+f has een more

im)+aca+e"

I as< )ardon of S'denham( $ho deHned fe%er

to e #an eBort of nature( +aorin* $ith a++ its

)o$er to e=)e+ the )eccant matter"# We mi*ht

thus deHne sma++)o=( meas+es( diarrhoea( %omitin*s(

cutaneous eru)tions( and t$ent' other diseases"

!ut( if this )h'sician deHned i++( he )ractised $e++"

&e cured( ecause he had e=)erience( and he <ne$



ho$ to $ait"

!oerhaa%e sa's( in his #A)horisms#- #A more

freuent o))osition( and an increased resistance

aout the ca)i++ar' %esse+s( *i%e an aso+ute idea of

an acute fe%er" These are the $ords of a *reat

Dictionar'" Q9

master ut he sets out $ith ac<no$+ed*in* that

the nature of fe%eG# is )rofound+' hidden"

&e does not te++ us $hat that secret )rinci)+e

is $hich de%e+o)s itse+f at re*u+ar )eriods in inter6

mittent fe%er $hat that interna+ )oison is( $hich(

after the +a)se of a da'( is rene$ed $here that

ame is( $hich dies and re%i%es at stated moments"

We <no$ fair+' $e++ that $e are +ia+e to fe%er

after e=cess( or in unseasona+e $eather" We

<no$ that uinine( Gudicious+' administered( $i++

cure it" This is uite enou*h the ho$ $e do not

<no$"



E%er' anima+ that does not )erish sudden+' dies

' fe%er" The fe%er seems to e the ine%ita+e eBect

of the uids that com)ose the +ood( or that $hich

is in the )+ace of +ood" The structure of e%er'

anima+ )ro%es to natura+ )hi+oso)hers that it must(

at a++ times( ha%e enGo'ed a %er' short +ife"

Theo+o*ians ha%e he+d( as ha%e )romu+*ated other

o)inions" It is not for us to e=amine this uestion"

The )hi+oso)hers and )h'sicians ha%e een ri*ht in

sensu humano( and the theo+o*ians( in sensu di%ino"

It is said in Deuteronom'( ==%iii( >>( that if the .e$s

do not ser%e the +a$ the' sha++ e smitten #$ith a

consum)tion( and $ith a fe%er( and $ith an inam6

mation( and $ith an e=treme urnin*"# It is on+'

in Deuteronom'( and in 0o+iereJs #Ph'sician in

S)ite of &imse+f(# that )eo)+e ha%e een threatened

$ith fe%er"

It seems im)ossi+e that fe%er shou+d not e an

Vo+"

@: Phi+oso)hica+



accident natura+ to an animate od'( in $hich so

man' uids circu+ate Gust as it is im)ossi+e for an

animate od' not to e crushed ' the fa++in* of a

roc<"

!+ood ma<es +ife it furnishes the %iscera( the

+ims( the s<in( the %er' e=tremities of the hairs

and nai+s $ith the uids( the humors )ro)er for

them"

This +ood( ' $hich the anima+ has +ife( is

formed ' the ch'+e" Durin* )re*nanc' this ch'+e

is transmitted from the uterus to the chi+d( and(

after the chi+d is orn( the mi+< of the nurse )ro6

duces this same ch'+e" The *reater di%ersit' of a+i6

ments it after$ards recei%es( the more the ch'+e is

+ia+e to e soured" This a+one formin* the +ood(

and this +ood( com)osed of so man' diBerent hu6

mors so suGect to corru)tion( circu+atin* throu*h

the $ho+e human od' more than H%e hundred and

Hft' times in t$ent'6four hours( $ith the ra)idit'

of a torrent( it is not on+' astonishin* that fe%er is

not more freuent( it is astonishin* that man +i%es"

In e%er' articu+ation( in e%er' *+and( in e%er' )as6

sa*e( there is dan*er of death ut there are a+so as

man' succors as there are dan*ers" A+most e%er'



memrane e=tends or contracts as occasion reuires"

A++ the %eins ha%e s+uices $hich o)en and shut( *i%6

in* )assa*e to the +ood and )re%entin* a return(

' $hich the machine $ou+d e destro'ed" The

+ood( rushin* throu*h a++ these cana+s( )uriHes it6

se+f" It is a ri%er that carries $ith it a thousand

Dictionar'" @ 8

im)urities it dischar*es itse+f ' )ers)iration( '

trans)iration( ' a++ the secretions" Fe%er is itse+f

a succor it is a rectiHcation $hen it does not <i++"

0an( ' his reason( acce+erates the cure ' ad6

ministerin* itters( and( ao%e a++( ' re*imen" This

"reason is an oar $ith $hich he ma' ro$ for some

time on the sea of the $or+d $hen disease does not

s$a++o$ him u)"

It is as<ed - &o$ is it that nature has aandoned

the anima+s( her $or<( to so man' horri+e diseases(

a+most a+$a's accom)anied ' fe%er &o$ and

$h' is it that so man' disorders e=ist $ith so much

order( formation( and destruction e%er'$here( side

' side This is a diMcu+t' that often *i%es me a



fe%er( ut I e* 'ou $i++ read the +etters of 0em6

mius" Then( )erha)s( 'ou $i++ e inc+ined to sus6

)ect that the incom)rehensi+e artiHcer of %e*eta6

+es( anima+s( and $or+ds( ha%in* made a++ for the

est( cou+d not ha%e made an'thin* etter"

FICTION"

Is not a Hction( $hich teaches ne$ and interest6

in* truths( a Hne thin* Do 'ou not admire the

Araian stor' of the su+tan $ho $ou+d not e+ie%e

that a +itt+e time cou+d a))ear +on*( and $ho dis6

)uted $ith his der%ish on the nature of duration

The +atter to con%ince him of it( e**ed him on+'

to )+un*e his head for a moment into the asin in

$hich he $as $ashin*" Immediate+' the su+tan

@> Phi+oso)hica+

Hnds himse+f trans)orted into a fri*htfu+ desert he

is o+i*ed to +aor to *et a +i%e+ihood he marries(

and has chi+dren $ho *ro$ u) and i++ treat him

Hna++' he returns to his countr' and his )a+ace and

he there Hnds the der%ish $ho has caused him to



suBer so man' e%i+s for H%e and t$ent' 'ears" &e

is aout to <i++ him( and is on+' a))eased $hen he is

assured that a++ )assed in the moment in $hich( $ith

his e'es shut( he )ut his head into the $ater"

3ou sti++ more admire the Hction of the +o%es of

Dido and Eneas( $hich caused the morta+ hatred

et$een Cartha*e and Rome( as a+so that $hich e=6

hiits in E+'sium the destinies of the *reat men of

the Roman Em)ire"

3ou a+so +i<e that of A+cina( in Ariosto( $ho

)ossesses the di*nit' of 0iner%a $ith the eaut' of

Venus( $ho is so charmin* to the e'es of her +o%ers(

$ho into=icates them $ith %o+u)tuous de+i*hts( and

unites a++ the +o%es and *races( ut $ho( $hen she is

at +ast reduced to her true se+f and the enchant6

ment has )assed a$a'( is nothin* more than a +itt+e

shri%e++ed( dis*ustin*( o+d $oman"

As to Hctions $hich re)resent nothin*( teach

nothin*( and from $hich nothin* resu+ts( are the'

an'thin* more than fa+sities And if the' are in6

coherent and hea)ed to*ether $ithout choice( are

the' an'thin* etter than dreams



3ou $i++ )ossi+' te++ me that there are ancient

Hctions $hich are %er' incoherent( $ithout in*e6

nuit'( and e%en asurd( $hich are sti++ admired ut

Dictionar'" @

is it not rather o$in* to the Hne ima*es $hich are

scattered o%er these Hctions than to the in%entions

$hich introduce them I $i++ not dis)ute the )oint(

ut if 'ou $ou+d e hissed at ' a++ Euro)e( and af6

ter$ards for*otten fore%er( $rite Hctions simi+ar

to those $hich 'ou admire"

FIERTE"

FIERTE is one of those e=)ressions( $hich( ha%in*

een ori*ina++' em)+o'ed in an oBensi%e sense( are

after$ards use#d in a fa%ora+e one" It is censure

$hen this $ord si*niHes hi*h6o$n( )roud( hau*ht'(

and disdainfu+" It is a+most )raise $hen it means

the +oftiness of a no+e mind"

It is a Gust eu+o*ium on a *enera+ $ho marches

to$ards the enem' $ith Herte" Writers ha%e )raised



the Herte of the *ait of Louis 7IV" the' shou+d

ha%e contented themse+%es $ith remar<in* its no6

+eness"

Fierte( $ithout di*nit'( is a merit incom)ati+e

$ith modest'" It is on+' Herte in air and manners

$hich oBends it then dis)+eases( e%en in <in*s"

Fierte of manner in societ' is the e=)ression of

)ride Herte of sou+ is *reatness" The distinctions

are so nice that a )roud s)irit is deemed +ama+e(

$hi+e a )roud sou+ is a theme of )raise" !' the

former is understood one $ho thin<s ad%anta*eous+'

of himse+f $hi+e the +atter denotes one $ho enter6

tains e+e%ated sentiments"

@Q Phi+oso)hica+

Fierte( announced ' the e=terior( is so *reat a

fau+t that the $ea<( $ho aGect+' )raise it in the

*reat are o+i*ed to soften it( or rather to e=to+ it(

' s)ea<in* of #this no+e Herte"# It is not sim)+'

%anit'( $hich consists in settin* a %a+ue u)on +itt+e

thin*s it is not )resum)tion( $hich e+ie%es itse+f



ca)a+e of *reat ones it is not disdain( $hich adds

contem)t of others to a *reat o)inion of se+f ut

it is intimate+' a++ied to a++ these fau+ts"

This $ord is used in romances( )oetr'( and ao%e

a++( in o)eras( to e=)ress the se%erit' of fema+e mod6

est'" We meet $ith %ain Herte( %i*orous Herte( etc"

Poets are( )erha)s( more in the ri*ht than the' im6

a*ine" The Herte of a $oman is not on+' ri*id mod6

est' and +o%e of dut'( ut the hi*h %a+ue $hich she

sets u)on her eaut'" The Herte of the )enci+ is

sometimes s)o<en of to si*nif' free and fear+ess

touches"

FI/RE"

EVER3 one desirous of instruction shou+d read

$ith attention a++ the artic+es in the #Dictionnaire

Enc'c+o)ediue# under the head #Fi*ure(# %i1" -

#Fi*ure of the Earth(# ' 0" dJA+emert a

$or< oth c+ear and )rofound( in $hich $e Hnd a++

that can e <no$n on the suGect"

#Fi*ure of Rhetoric(# ' Cesar Dumarsais a

)iece of instruction $hich teaches at once to thin<



and to $rite and( +i<e man' other artic+es( ma<e

Dictionar'" @@

us re*ret t&at 'oun* )eo)+e in *enera+ ha%e not a

con%enient o))ortunit' of readin*6 thin*s so usefu+"

#&uman Fi*ure(# as re+atin* to )aintin* and

scu+)ture an e=ce++ent +esson *i%en to e%er' artist(

' 0" Wate+et"

#Fi*ure(# in )h'sio+o*' a %er' in*enious arti6

c+e( ' 0" de Caero+es"

#Fi*ure(# in arithmetic and in a+*era ' 0"

0a++et"

#Fi*ure(# in +o*ic( in meta)h'sics( and in )o+ite

+iterature( ' 0" +e Che%a+ier de .aucourt a man

su)erior to the )hi+oso)hers of antiuit'( inasmuch

as he has )referred retirement( rea+ )hi+oso)h'( and

indefati*a+e +aor( to a++ the ad%anta*es that his

irth mi*ht ha%e )rocured him( in a countr' $here

irth is set ao%e a++ eside( e=ce)tin* mone'"



Fi*ure or Form of the Earth"

P+ato( Aristot+e( Eratosthenes( Posidonius( and

a++ the *eometricians of Asia( of E*')t( and of

reece( ha%in* ac<no$+ed*ed the s)hericit' of our

*+oe( ho$ did it ha))en that $e( for so +on* a

time( ima*ined that the earth $as a third +on*er

than it $as road( and thence deri%ed the terms

#+on*itude# and #+atitude# $hich continua++' ear

testimon' to our ancient i*norance

The re%erence due to the #!i+e(# $hich teaches

us so man' truths more necessar' and more su6

+ime( $as the cause of this( our a+most uni%ersa+

error" It had een found( in Psa+m ciii( that od

@; Phi+oso)hica+

had stretched the hea%ens o%er the earth +i<e a s<in

and as a s<in is common+' +on*er than it is $ide(

the same $as conc+uded of the earth"

St" Athanasius e=)resses himse+f as $arm+'



a*ainst *ood astronomers as a*ainst the )artisans

of Arius and Euseius" #Let us(# sa's he( #sto)

the mouths of those ararians( $ho( s)ea<in* $ith6

out )roof( dare to assert that the hea%ens a+so e=6

tend unc+er the earth"# The fathers considered the

earth as a *reat shi)( surrounded ' $ater( $ith

the )ro$ to the east( and the stern to the $est"

We sti++ Hnd( in #Cosmos(# a $or< of the fourth

centur'( a sort of *eo*ra)hica+ chart( in $hich the

earth has this H*ure"

Tortato( isho) of A%i+a( near the c+ose of the Hf6

teenth centur'( dec+ares in his commentar' on en6

esis( that the Christian faith is sha<en( if the earth

is e+ie%ed to e round" Co+umus( Ves)ucius( and

0a*e++an( not ha%in* the fear of e=communication

' this +earned isho) efore their e'es( the earth

resumed its rotundit' in s)ite of him"

Then man $ent from one e=treme to the other(

and the earth $as re*arded as a )erfect s)here" !ut

the error of the )erfect s)here $as the mista<e of

)hi+oso)hers( $hi+e that of a +on*( at earth $as

the +under of idiots"

When once it e*an to e c+ear+' <no$n that our



*+oe re%o+%es on its o$n a=is e%er' t$ent'6four

hours( it mi*ht ha%e een inferred from that a+one

that its form cou+d not e aso+ute+' round" Not

Dictionar'" @?

on+' does the centrifu*a+ 1one considera+' raise the

$aters in the re*ion of the euator( ' the motion

of the diurna+ rotation( ut the' are moreo%er e+e6

%ated aout t$ent'6H%e feet( t$ice a da'( ' the

tides the +ands aout the euator must then e

)erfect+' inundated" !ut the' are not so therefore

the re*ion of the euator is much more e+e%ated( in

)ro)ortion( than the rest of the earth - then the earth

is a s)heroid e+e%ated at the euator( and cannot e

a )erfect s)here" This )roof( sim)+e as it is( had

esca)ed the *reatest *eniuses- ecause a uni%ersa+

)reGudice rare+' )ermits in%esti*ation"

We <no$ that( in 8?;>( in a %o'a*e to Ca'enne(

near the +ine( underta<en ' order of Louis 7IV"(

under the aus)ices of Co+ert( the )atron of a++ the

arts( Richer( amon* man' other oser%ations( found

that the osci++ations or %irations of his time)iece



did not continue so freuent as in the +atitude of

Paris( and that it $as aso+ute+' necessar' to

shorten the )endu+um one +ine and somethin* more

than a uarter" Ph'sics and *eometr' $ere at that

time not near+' so much cu+ti%ated as the' no$ are

$hat man $ou+d ha%e e+ie%ed that an oser%ation

so tri%ia+ in a))earance( a +ine more or +ess( cou+d

+ead to the <no$+ed*e of the *reatest )h'sica+

truths It $as Hrst of a++ disco%ered that the $ei*ht

must necessari+' e +ess on the euator than in our

+atitudes( since $ei*ht a+one causes the osci++ation of

a )endu+um" Conseuent+'( the $ei*ht of odies

ein* the +ess the farther the' are from the centre

@2 Phi+oso)hica+

of the earth( it $as inferred that the re*ion of the

euator must e much more e+e%ated than our o$n

much more remote from the centre so the earth

cou+d not e an e=act s)here"

0an' )hi+oso)hers acted( on the occasion of these

disco%eries( as a++ men act $hen an o)inion is to e

chan*ed the' dis)uted on RicherJs e=)eriment



the' )retended that our )endu+ums made their %i6

rations more s+o$+' aout the euator on+' e6

cause the meta+ $as +en*thened ' the heat ut

it $as seen that the heat of the most urnin* sum6

mer +en*thens it ut one +ine in thirt' feet and here

$as an e+on*ation of a +ine and a uarter( a +ine and

a ha+f( or e%en t$o +ines( in an iron rod( on+' three

feet and ei*ht +ines +on*"

Some 'ears after 00" Varin( Desha'es(

Feui++ee( and Cou)+et( re)eated the same e=)eri6

ment on the )endu+um( near the euator and it

$as a+$a's found necessar' to shorten it( a+thou*h

the heat $as %er' often +ess on the +ine than Hfteen

or t$ent' de*rees from it" This e=)eriment $as

a*ain conHrmed ' the academicians $hom Louis

7V" sent to Peru and $ho $ere o+i*ed( on the

mountains aout 5uito( $here it fro1e( to shorten

the second )endu+um aout t$o +ines"

Aout the same time( the academicians $ho $ent

to measure an arc of the meridian in the north( found

that at Pe++o( $ithin the Po+ar circ+e( it $as neces6

sar' to +en*then the )endu+um( in order to ha%e the

same osci++ations as at Paris- conseuent+' $ei*ht



Dictionar'" @9

is *reater at the )o+ar circ+e than in the +atitude of

France( as it is *reater in our +atitude than at the

euator" Wei*ht ein* *reater in the north( the

north $as therefore nearer the centre of the earth

than the euator therefore the earth $as attened

at the )o+es"

Ne%er did reasonin* and e=)eriment so fu++' con6

cur to esta+ish a truth" The ce+erated &u'*ens(

' ca+cu+atin* centrifu*a+ forces( had )ro%ed that

the conseuent diminution of" $ei*ht on the surface

of a s)here $as not *reat enou*h to e=)+ain the

)henomena( and that therefore the earth must e

a s)heroid attened at the )o+es" Ne$ton( ' the

)rinci)+es of attraction( had found near+' the same

re+ations- on+' it must e oser%ed( that &u'*ens

e+ie%ed this force inherent in odies determinin*

them to$ards the centre of the *+oe( to e e%er'6

$here the same" &e had not 'et seen the disco%eries

of Ne$ton so that he considered the diminution

of $ei*ht ' the theor' of centrifu*a+ forces on+'"

The eBect of centrifu*a+ forces diminishes the )rim6



iti%e *ra%it' on the euator" The sma++er the cir6

c+es in $hich this centrifu*a+ force is e=ercised

ecome( the more it 'ie+ds to the force of *ra%it'

thus( at the )o+e itse+f the centrifu*a+ force ein*

nu++( must +ea%e the )rimiti%e *ra%it' in fu++ action"

!ut this )rinci)+e of a *ra%it' a+$a's eua+( fa++s

to nothin* efore the disco%er' made ' Ne$ton(

that a od' trans)orted( for instance( to the distance

of ten diameters from the centre of the earth( $ou+d

;: Phi+oso)hica+

$ei*h one hundred times +ess than at the distance

of one diameter"

It is then ' the +a$s of *ra%itation( comined

$ith those of the centrifu*a+ force( that the rea+

form of the earth must e sho$n" Ne$ton and

re*or' had such conHdence in this theor' that the'

did not hesitate to ad%ance that e=)eriments on

$ei*ht $ere a surer means of <no$in* the form of

the earth than an' *eo*ra)hica+ measurement"

Louis 7IV" had si*na+i1ed his rei*n ' that me6



ridian $hich $as dra$n throu*h France - the i++us6

trious Dominico Cassini had e*un it $ith his son

and had( in 8?:8( dra$n from the feet of the P're6

nees to the oser%ator' a +ine as strai*ht as it cou+d

e dra$n( considerin* the a+most insurmounta+e

ostac+es $hich the hei*ht of mountains( the

chan*es of refraction in the air( and the a+terin* of

instruments $ere constant+' o))osin* to the e=ecu6

tion of so %ast and de+icate an underta<in* he

had( in 8?:8( measured si= de*rees ei*hteen minutes

of tKat meridian" !ut( from $hate%er cause the

error mi*ht )roceed( he had found the de*rees to6

$ards Paris( that is to$ards the north( shorter than

those to$ards the P'renees and the south" This

measurement *a%e the +ie oth to the theor' of Nor6

$ood and to the ne$ theor' of the earth attened at

the )o+es" 3et this ne$ theor' $as e*innin* to

e so *enera++' recei%ed that the academ'Js secretar'

did not hesitate( in his histor' of 8?:8( to sa' that

the ne$ measurements made in France )ro%ed the

Dictionar'" ; 8

earth to e a s)heroid attened at the )o+es" The



truth $as( that Dominico CassiniJs measurement +ed

to a conc+usion direct+' o))osite ut( as the H*ure

of the earth had not 'et ecome a uestion in France(

no one at that time $as at the trou+e of comatin*

this fa+se conc+usion" The de*rees of the meridian

from Co++ioure to Paris $ere e+ie%ed to e e=act+'

measured and the )o+e( $hich from that measure6

ment must necessari+' e e+on*ated( $as e+ie%ed to

e attened"

An en*ineer( named 0" de Rouais( astonished

at this conc+usion( demonstrated that( ' the meas6

urements ta<en in France( the earth must e an o6

+ate s)heroid( of $hich the meridian )assin* throu*h

the )o+es must e +on*er than the euator( the )o+es

ein* e+on*ated" !ut of a++ the natura+ )hi+oso)hers

to $hom he addressed his dissertation( not one

$ou+d ha%e it )rinted ecause it seemed that the

academ' had )ronounced it as too o+d in an in6

di%idua+ to raise his %oice" Some time after the

error of 8?:8 $as ac<no$+ed*ed( that $hich had

een said $as unsaid and the earth $as +en*thened

' a Gust conc+usion dra$n from a fa+se )rinci)+e"

The meridian $as continued in the same )rinci)+e

from Paris to Dun<ir< and the de*rees $ere sti++

found to *ro$ shorter as the' a))roached the north"



Peo)+e $ere sti++ mista<en res)ectin* the H*ure of

the earth( as the' had een concernin* the nature

of +i*ht" Aout the same time( some mathematicians

$ho $ere )erformin* the same o)erations in China

;> "Phi+oso)hica+

$ere astonished to Hnd a diBerence amon* their

de*rees( $hich the' had e=)ected to Hnd a+i<e and

to disco%er( after man' %eriHcations( that the' $ere

shorter to$ards the north than to$ards the south"

This accordance of the mathematicians of France

$ith those of China $as another )o$erfu+ reason

for e+ie%in* in the o+ate s)heroid" In France the'

did sti++ more the' measured )ara++e+s to the eua6

tor" It is easi+' understood that on an o+ate s)he6

roid our de*rees of +on*itude must e shorter than

on a s)here" 0" de Cassini found the )ara++e+ $hich

)asses throu*h St" 0a+o to e shorter ' one thou6

sand and thirt'6se%en toises than it $ou+d ha%e een

on a s)herica+ earth"

A++ these measurements )ro%ed that the de*rees

had een found as it $as $ished to Hnd them" The'



o%erturned( for a time( in France( the demonstra6

tions of Ne$ton and &u'*ens and it $as no +on*er

douted that the )o+es $ere of a form )recise+' con6

trar' to that $hich had at Hrst een attriuted to

them" In short( nothin* at a++ $as <no$n aout the

matter"

At +en*th( other academicians( $ho had %isited

the )o+ar circ+e in 8?;( ha%in* found( ' ne$ meas6

urements( that the de*ree $as +on*er there than in

France( )eo)+e douted et$een them and the Cas6

sinis" !ut these douts $ere soon after remo%ed-

for these same astronomers( returnin* from the )o+e(

e=amined afresh the de*ree to the north of Paris(

measured ' Picard( in 8;??( and found it to e a

Dictionar'" ;

hundred and t$ent'6three toises +on*er than it $as

accordin* to PicardJs measurement" If( then( Picard(

$ith a++ his )recautions( had made his de*ree one

hundred and t$ent'6three toises too short( it $as

not at a++ un+i<e+' that the de*rees to$ards the south

had in +i<e manner een found too +on*" Thus the



Hrst error of Picard( ha%in* furnished the founda6

tions for the measurements of the meridian( a+so fur6

nished an e=cuse for the a+most ine%ita+e errors

$hich %er' *ood astronomers mi*ht ha%e commit6

ted in the course of these o)erations"

/nfortunate+'( other men of science found that(

at the Ca)e of ood &o)e( the de*rees of the meri6

dian did not a*ree $ith ours" Other measurements(

ta<en in Ita+'( +i<e$ise contradicted those of France(

and a++ $ere fa+siHed ' those of China" Peo)+e

a*ain e*an to dout( and to sus)ect( in m' o)inion

uite reasona+'( that the earth had )rotuerances"

As for the En*+ish( thou*h the' are fond of tra%e+6

+in*( the' s)ared themse+%es the fati*ue( and he+d

fast their theor'"

The diBerence et$een one diameter and the

other is not more than H%e or si= of our +ea*ues

a diBerence immense in the e'es of a dis)utant( ut

a+most im)erce)ti+e to those $ho consider the

measurement of the *+oe on+' in reference to the

)ur)oses of uti+it' $hich it ma' ser%e" A *eo*6

ra)her cou+d scarce+' ma<e this diBerence )erce)t6

i+e on a ma) nor $ou+d a )i+ot e a+e to disco%er

$hether he $as steerin* on a s)heroid or on a



;Q Phi+oso)hica+

s)here" 3et there ha%e een men o+d enou*h to

assert that the +i%es of na%i*ators de)ended on this

uestion" Oh uac<er' $i++ 'ou s)are no de*rees

not e%en those of the meridian

FI/RED FI/RATIVE"

WE sa'( a truth #H*ured# ' a fa+e( ' a )ar6

a+e the church #H*ured# ' the 'oun* s)ouse in

So+omonJs Son* ancient Rome #H*ured# ' !a'6

+on" A H*urati%e st'+e is constituted ' meta)hor6

ica+ e=)ressions( H*urin* the thin*s s)o<en of

and disH*urin* them $hen the meta)hors are not

correct"

Ardent ima*ination( )assion( desire freuent+'

decei%ed )roduce the H*urati%e st'+e" We do not

admit it into histor'( for too man' meta)hors are

hurtfu+( not on+' to )ers)icuit'( ut a+so to truth(

' sa'in* more or +ess than the thin* itse+f"



In didactic $or<s( this st'+e shou+d e reGected"

It is much more out of )+ace in a sermon than in a

funera+ oration( ecause the sermon is a )iece of in6

struction in $hich the truth is to e announced

$hi+e the funera+ oration is a dec+aration in $hich

it is to e e=a**erated"

The )oetr' of enthusiasm( as the e)o)ee and the

ode( is that to $hich this st'+e is est ada)ted" It

is +ess admissi+e in tra*ed'( $here the dia+o*ue

shou+d e natura+ as $e++ as e+e%ated and sti++ +ess

in comed'( $here the st'+e must e more sim)+e"

The +imit to e set to the H*urati%e st'+e( in

Dictionar'" ;@

each <ind( are determined ' taste" !a+tasar ra6

cian sa's( that #our thou*hts de)art from the %ast

shores of memor'( emar< on the sea of ima*ina6

tion( arri%e in the haror of inte++i*ence( and are

entered at the custom house of the understandin*"#

This is )recise+' the st'+e of &ar+euin" &e sa's

to his master( #The a++ of 'our commands has re6



ounded from the racuet of m' oedience"# 0ust

it not e o$ned that such is freuent+' that orienta+

st'+e $hich )eo)+e tr' to admire Another fau+t of

the H*urati%e st'+e is the accumu+atin* of incohe6

rent H*ures" A )oet( s)ea<in* of some )hi+oso)hers(

has ca++ed them -

DJamitieu= )'*mies

5ui sur +eurs )ieds %ainement redresses

Et sur des monts dJar*umens entassts

DeGour en Gour su)eres Ence +ades(

Vont redou+ant +eurs fo +ies esca+ades"

When )hi+oso)hers are to e $ritten a*ainst( it

shou+d e done etter" &o$ do amitious )'*mies(

reared on their hind +e*s on mountains of ar*u6

ments( continue esca+ades What a fa+se and ridic6

u+ous ima*e What e+aorate du+ness

In an a++e*or' ' the same author( entit+ed the

#Litur*' of C'therea(# $e Hnd these +ines -

De toutes )arts( autour de rinconnue(

/s %ont tomer comme *re+e menue(

0oissons des cceurs sur +a terre Gonc heJs(

Et des Dieu= meme a son char attacheJs(



De )ar Venus nous %enons cette aBaire

Si sJen retourne au= deu= dans son serai+ t

En ruminant comment i+ )ourra faire

Pour ramener +a reis au ercaiL

&ere $e ha%e har%ests of hearts thro$n on the

Vo+" 96@

;; Phi+oso)hica+

*round +i<e sma++ hai+ and amon* these hearts

)a+)itatin* on the *round( are *ods ound to the

car of the un<no$n $hi+e +o%e( sent ' Venus( ru6

minates in his sera*+io in hea%en( $hat he sha++ do

to rin* ac< to the fo+d this +ost mutton surrounded

' scattered hearts" A++ this forms a H*ure at once

so fa+se( so )ueri+e( and so incoherent so dis*ust6

in*( so e=tra%a*ant( so stu)id+' e=)ressed( that

$e are astonished that a man( $ho made *ood %erses

of another <ind( and $as not de%oid of taste( cou+d

$rite an'thin* so misera+' ad"

Fi*ures( meta)hors( are not necessar' in an a++e6

*or' $hat has een in%ented $ith ima*ination ma'



e to+d $ith sim)+icit'" P+ato has more a++e*ories

than H*ures he often e=)resses them e+e*ant+'

and $ithout ostentation"

Near+' a++ the ma=ims of the ancient orienta+s

and of the ree<s $ere in the H*urati%e st'+e" A++

those sentences are meta)hors( or short a++e*ories

and in them the H*urati%e st'+e has *reat eBect in

rousin* the ima*ination and im)ressin* the mem6

or'"

We <no$ that P'tha*oras said( #In the tem)est(

adore the echo(# that is( durin* ci%i+ roi+s retire

to the countr' and #Stir not the Hre $ith the

s$ord(# meanin*( do not irritate minds a+read' in6

amed" In e%er' +an*ua*e( there are man' common

)ro%ers $hich are in the H*urati%e st'+e"

Dictionar'" ;?

FI/RE IN T&EOLO3"

IT is uite certain( and is a*reed ' the most

)ious men( that H*ures and a++e*ories ha%e een car6



ried too far" Some of the fathers of the church re6

*ard the )iece of red c+oth( )+aced ' the courtesan

Raha at her $indo$( for a si*na+ to .oshuaJs s)ies(

as a H*ure of the +ood of .esus Christ" This is an

error of an order of mind $hich $ou+d Hnd m'ster'

in e%er'thin*"

Nor can it e denied that St" Amrose made %er'

ad use of his taste for a++e*or'( $hen he sa's( in

his oo< of #Noah and the Ar<(# that the ac< door

of the ar< $as a H*ure of our hinder )arts"

A++ men of sense ha%e as<ed ho$ it can e )ro%ed

that these &ere$ $ords( #ma<er( sa+as6has6asJ

ta<e uic< the s)oi+s are a H*ure of .esus Christ

&o$ is .udah( t'in* his ass to a %ine( and $ashin*

his c+oa< in the $ine( a+so a H*ure of &im" &o$

can Ruth( s+i))in* into ed to !oa1( H*ure the

church( ho$ are Sarah and Rache+ the church(

and &a*ar and Leah the s'na*o*ue &o$ do

the <isses of the Shunamite t')if' the marria*e

of the church A %o+ume mi*ht e made of these

eni*mas( $hich( to the est theo+o*ians of +ater

times( ha%e a))eared to e rather far6fetched than

edif'in*"



The dan*er of this ause is fu++' admitted '

Ae F+eur'( the author of the #Ecc+esiastica+ &is6

tor'"# It is a %esti*e of rainism a fau+t into

;2 Phi+oso)hica+

$hich the +earned St" .erome ne%er fe++" It is +i<e

oneiromanc'( or the e=)+anation of dreams" If a

*ir+ sees mudd' $ater( $hen dreamin*( she $i++ e

i++6married if she sees c+ear $ater( she $i++ ha%e a

*ood husand a s)ider denotes mone'( etc" In

short( $i++ en+i*htened )osterit' e+ie%e it The un6

derstandin* of dreams has( for more than four thou6

sand 'ears( een made a serious stud'"

S'mo+ica+ Fi*ures"

A++ nations ha%e made use of them( as $e ha%e

said in the artic+e #em+em"# !ut $ho e*an

Was it the E*')tians It is not +i<e+'" We thin<

$e ha%e a+read' more than once )ro%ed that E*')t

is a countr' uite ne$( and that man' a*es $ere

reuisite to sa%e the countr' from inundations( and

render it haita+e" It is im)ossi+e that the E*')6



tians shou+d ha%e in%ented the si*ns of the 1odiac(

since the H*ures denotin* our seed6time and har6

%est cannot coincide $ith theirs" When $e cut our

corn( their +and is co%ered $ith $ater and $hen

$e so$( their rea)in* time is a))roachin*" Thus

the u++ of our 1odiac and the *ir+ earin* ears of

corn cannot ha%e come from E*')t"

&ere is a+so an e%ident )roof of the fa+sit' of

the ne$ )arado=( that the Chinese are an E*')tian

co+on'" The characters are not the same" The Chi6

nese mar< the course of the sun ' t$ent'6ei*ht con6

ste++ations and the E*')tians( after the Cha+dseans(

rec<oned on+' t$e+%e( +i<e ourse+%es"

Dictionar'" ;9

The H*ures that denote the )+anets are in China

and in India a++ diBerent from those of E*')t and

of Euro)e so are the si*ns of the meta+s so is the

method of *uidin* the hand in $ritin*" Nothin*

cou+d ha%e een more chimerica+ than to send the

E*')tians to )eo)+e China"



A++ these fau+ous foundations( +aid in fau+ous

times( ha%e caused an irre)ara+e +oss of time to a

)rodi*ious mu+titude of the +earned( $ho ha%e a++

een e$i+dered in their +aorious researches( $hich

mi*ht ha%e een ser%icea+e to man<ind if directed

to arts of rea+ uti+it'"

P+uche( in his &istor'( or rather his fa+e( of the

&ea%ens( assures us that &am( son of Noah( $ent

and rei*ned in E*')t( $here there $as nood' to

rei*n o%er that his son 0enes $as the *reatest of

+e*is+ators( and that Thoth $as his )rime minister"

Accordin* to him and his authorities( this Thoth(

or someod' e+se( instituted feasts in honor of the

de+u*e and the Go'fu+ cr' of #+o !acche# so fa6

mous amon* the ree<s( $as( amon* the E*')tians(

a +amentation" #!acche# came from the &ere$

#e<e# si*nif'in* sos( and that at a time $hen the

&ere$ )eo)+e did not e=ist" Accordin* to this e=6

)+anation( #Go'# means #sorro$J and #to sin*# si*6

niHes #to $ee)"#

The Irouois ha%e more sense" The' do not ta<e

the trou+e to inuire $hat )assed on the shores of

La<e Ontario some thousand 'ears a*o- instead



of ma<in* s'stems( the' *o huntin*"

.O Phi+oso)hica+

The same authors aMrm that the s)hin=es( $ith

$hich E*')t $as adorned( si*niHed su)eraun6

dance( ecause some inter)reters ha%e asserted that

the &ere$ $ord #s)an*# meant an #e=cess# as

if the E*')tians had ta<en +essons from the &ere$

ton*ue( $hich is( in *reat )art( deri%ed from the

Phoenician - esides( $hat re+ation has a s)hin= to

an aundance of $ater Future schoo+men $i++

maintain( $ith *reater a))earance of reason( that

the mas<s $hich decorate the <e'stones of our $in6

do$s are em+ems of our masuerades and that

these fantastic ornaments announced that a++s $ere

*i%en in e%er' house to $hich the' $ere aM=ed"

Fi*ure( Fi*urati%e( A++e*orica+( 0'stica+( Tro)o6

+o*ica+( T')ica+( etc"

This is often the art of Hndin* in oo<s e%er'6

thin* ut $hat the' rea++' contain" For instance(

Romu+us <i++in* his rother Remus sha++ si*nif' the



death of the du<e of !err'( rother of Louis 7I"

Re*u+us( im)risoned at Cartha*e( sha++ t')if' St"

Louis ca)ti%e at 0ansurah"

It is %er' Gust+' remar<ed in the #Enc'c+o)aedia(#

that man' fathers of the church ha%e( )erha)s( car6

ried this taste for a++e*orica+ H*ures a +itt+e too far

ut the' are to e re%erenced( e%en in their $ander6

in*s" If the ho+' fathers used and then aused this

method( their +itt+e e=cesses of ima*ination ma' e

)ardoned( in consideration of their ho+' 1ea+"

The antiuit' of the usa*e ma' a+so e )+eaded

Dictionar'" ? 8

in GustiHcation( since it $as )ractised ' the ear+iest

)hi+oso)hers" !ut it is true that the s'mo+ica+ H*6

ures em)+o'ed ' the fathers are in a diBerent taste"

For e=am)+e- When St" Au*ustine $ishes to

ma<e it a))ear that the fort'6t$o *enerations of the

*enea+o*' of .esus are announced ' St" 0atthe$(

$ho *i%es on+' fort'6one( he sa's that .echonias



must e counted t$ice( ecause .echonias is a corner6

stone e+on*in* to t$o $a++s that these t$o $a++s

H*ure the o+d and the ne$ +a$ and that .echonias(

ein* thus the corner6stone( H*ures .esus Christ(

$ho is the rea+ corner6stone"

The same saint( in the same sermon( sa's that

the numer fort' must )re%ai+ and at once aan6

dons .echonias and his corner6stone( counted as t$o"

The numer fort'( he sa's( si*niHes +ife ten( $hich

is )erfect eatitude( ein* mu+ti)+ied ' four( $hich(

ein* the numer of the seasons( H*ures time"

A*ain( in the same sermon( he e=)+ains $h' St"

Lu<e *i%es .esus Christ se%ent'6se%en ancestors-

Hft'6si= u) to the )atriarch Araham( and t$ent'6

one from Araham u) to od himse+f" It is true

that( accordin* to the &ere$ te=t( there $ou+d e

ut se%ent'6si= for the &ere$ does not rec<on a

Cainan( $ho is inter)o+ated in the ree< trans+ation

ca++ed #The Se)tua*int"#

Thus said Au*ustine- #The numer se%ent'6

se%en H*ures the ao+ition of a++ sins ' a)tism

"""" the numer ten si*niHes Gustice and eatitude(

resu+tin* from the creature( $hich ma<es se%en $ith



?> Phi+oso)hica+

the Trinit'( $hich is three - therefore it is that odJs

commandments are ten in numer" The numer

e+e%en denotes sin( ecause it trans*resses ten" " " "

This numer se%ent'6se%en is the )roduct of e+e%en(

H*urin* sin( mu+ti)+ied ' se%en( and not ' ten( for

se%en is the s'mo+ of the creature" Three re)re6

sents the sou+( $hich is in some sort an ima*e of

the Di%init' and four re)resents the od'( on ac6

count of its four ua+ities"# In these e=)+ana6

tions( $e Hnd some trace of the caa+istic m'steries

and the uaternar' of P'tha*oras" This taste $as

%er' +on* in %o*ue"

St" Au*ustine *oes much further( concernin* the

dimensions of matter" !readth is the di+atation of

the heart( $hich )erforms *ood $or<s +en*th is

)erse%erance de)th is the ho)e of re$ard" &e car6

ries the a++e*or' %er' far( a))+'in* it to the cross(

and dra$in* *reat conseuences therefrom" The

use of these H*ures had )assed from the .e$s to

the Christians +on* efore St" Au*ustineJs time" It



is not for us to <no$ $ithin $hat ounds it $as

ri*ht to sto)"

The e=am)+es of this fau+t are innumera+e" No

one $ho has studied to ad%anta*e $i++ ha1ard the

introduction of such H*ures( either in the )u+)it or

in the schoo+" We Hnd no such instances amon* the

Romans or the ree<s( not e%en in their )oets"

In O%idJs #0etamor)hoses# themse+%es( $e Hnd

on+' in*enious deductions dra$n from fa+es $hich

are *i%en as fa+es" Deuca+ion and P'rrha thre$

Dictionar'" ?

stones ehind them et$een their +e*s( and men

$ere )roduced therefrom" O%id sa's -

Inde *enus durum sumus( e=)eriensue +aorum(

Et documenta damus ua simus ori*ins nati"

Thence $e are a hardened and +aorious race(

Pro%in* fu++ $e++ our ston' ori*in"



A)o++o +o%es Da)hne( ut Da)hne does not +o%e

A)o++o" This is ecause +o%e has t$o <inds of ar6

ro$s the one *o+den and )iercin*( the other +eaden

and +unt" A)o++o has recei%ed in his heart a *o+den

arro$( Da)hne a +eaden one"

Ecce sa*ittifera )rom)sit duo te+a )haretra

Di%ersorum o)erum fu*at hoc(facit i++ud amorem

5uodfacit auratum est( et cus)ide fu+*et acuta

5uod fu*at otusum est( ethaetsu arundine )+umum """"

T$o diBerent shafts he from his ui%er dra$s

One to re)e+ desire( and one to cause"

One shaft is )ointed $ith refu+*ent *o+d(

To rie the +o%e( and ma<e the +o%er o+d

One +unt and ti))ed $ith +ead( $hose ase a++a'

Pro%o<es disdain( and dri%es desire a$a'" DR3DEN"

These H*ures are a++ in*enious( and decei%e no

one"

That Venus( the *oddess of eaut'( shou+d not

*o unattended ' the races( is a charmin* truth"

These fa+es( $hich $ere in the mouths of a++

these a++e*ories( so natura+ and attracti%e had so

much s$a' o%er the minds of men( that )erha)s the



Hrst Christians imitated $hi+e the' o))osed them"

The' too< u) the $ea)ons of m'tho+o*' to de6

stro' it( ut the' cou+d not $ie+d them $ith the same

address" The' did not reect that the sacred aus6

terit' of our ho+' re+i*ion )+aced these resources

?Q Phi+oso)hica+

out of their )o$er( and that a Christian hand $ou+d

ha%e dea+t ut a$<$ard+' $ith the +'re of A)o++o"

&o$e%er( the taste for these t')ica+ and )ro6

)hetic H*ures $as so Hrm+' rooted that e%er' )rince(

e%er' statesman( e%er' )o)e( e%er' founder of an

order( had a++e*ories or a++usions ta<en from the

&o+' Scri)tures a))+ied to him" Satire and atter'

ri%a++ed each other in dra$in* from this source"

When Po)e Innocent III" made a +ood' crusade

a*ainst the court of Tou+ouse( he $as to+d( #Inno6

cens eris a ma+edictione"# When the order of the

0inimes $as esta+ished( it a))eared that their

founder had een foreto+d in enesis- #0inimus



cum )atre nostro#

The )reacher $ho )reached efore .ohn of Aus6

tria after the ce+erated att+e of Le)anto( too< for

his te=t( #Fuit homo missus a Deo( cui nomen erat

.ohannes# A man sent from od( $hose name

$as .ohn and this a++usion $as %er' Hne( if a++ the

rest $ere ridicu+ous" It is said to ha%e een re)eated

for .ohn Soies<i( after the de+i%erance of Vienna

ut this +atter )reacher $as nothin* more than a

)+a*iarist"

In short( so constant has een this custom that

no )reacher of the )resent da' has e%er fai+ed to

ta<e an a++e*or' for his te=t" One of the most

ha))' instances is the te=t of the funera+ oration

o%er the du<e of Canda+e( de+i%ered efore his sister(

$ho $as considered a )attern of %irtue - #Die( uia

soror mea es( ut mihi ene e%eniat )ro)ter te"#

Dictionar'" ?@

#Sa'( I )ra' thee( that thou art m' sister( that it ma'

e $e++ $ith me for th' sa<e"J#



It is not to e $ondered at that the Corde+iers

carried these H*ures rather too far in fa%or of St"

Francis of Assisi( in the famous ut +itt+e6<no$n

oo<( entit+ed( #Conformities of St" Francis of Assisi

$ith .esus Christ"# We Hnd in it si=t'6four )re6

dictions of the comin* of St" Francis( some in the

O+d Testament( others in the Ne$ and each )re6

diction contains three H*ures( $hich si*nif' the

foundin* of the Corde+iers" So that these fathers

Hnd themse+%es foreto+d in the !i+e a hundred

and ninet'6t$o times"

From Adam do$n to St" Pau+( e%er'thin* )re6

H*ured the +essed Francis of Assisi" The Scri)6

tures $ere *i%en to announce to the uni%erse the

sermons of Francis to the uadru)eds( the Hshes( and

the irds( the s)ort he had $ith a $oman of sno$(

his fro+ics $ith the de%i+( his ad%entures $ith

rother E+ias and rother PaciHcus"

These )ious re%eries( $hich amounted e%en to

+as)hem'( ha%e een condemned" !ut the Order

of St" Francis has not suBered ' them( ha%in* re6

nounced these e=tra%a*ancies so common to the ar6

arous a*es"



FINAL CA/SES"

SECTION I"

VIRIL sa's #Eneid(# oo< %i" ?>? -

0ens a*itat mo+em et ma*no se cor)ore miscet"

This acti%e mind infused( throu*h a++ the s)ace

/nites and min*+es $ith the mi*ht' mass" DR3DEN"

G; Phi+oso)hica+

Vir*i+ said $e++ - and !enedict S)ino1a( $ho has

not the ri++ianc' of Vir*i+( nor his merit( is com6

)e++ed to ac<no$+ed*e an inte++i*ence )residin* o%er

a++" &ad he denied this( I shou+d ha%e sai9 to him -

!enedict( 'ou are a foo+ 'ou )ossess inte++i*ence(

and 'ou den' it( and to $hom do 'ou den' it

In the 'ear 8??:( there a))eared a man( in some

res)ects far su)erior to S)ino1a( as e+ouent as the

.e$ish &o++ander is dr'( +ess methodica+( ut inH6



nite+' more )ers)icuous )erha)s eua+ to him in

mathematica+ science ut $ithout the ridicu+ous

aBectation of a))+'in* mathematica+ reasonin*s to

meta)h'sica+ and mora+ suGects" The man I mean is

the author of the #S'stem of Nature"# &e as6

sumed the name of 0iraaud( the secretar' of the

French Academ'" A+as the $orth' secretar' $as

inca)a+e of $ritin* a sin*+e )a*e of the oo< of

our formida+e o))onent" I $ou+d recommend a++

'ou $ho are dis)osed to a%ai+ 'ourse+%es of 'our

reason and acuire instruction( to read the fo++o$in*

e+ouent thou*h dan*erous )assa*e from the #S's6

tem of Nature"# Part II" %" 8@"

It is contended that anima+s furnish us $ith a

con%incin* e%idence that there is some )o$erfu+

cause of their e=istence the admira+e ada)tation

of their diBerent )arts( mutua++' recei%in* and con6

ferrin* aid to$ards accom)+ishin* their functions(

and maintainin* in hea+th and %i*or the entire

ein*( announce to us an artiHcer unitin* )o$er to

$isdom" Of the )o$er of nature( it is im)ossi+e

Dictionar'" ??



for us to dout she )roduces a++ the anima+s that

$e see ' the he+) of cominations of that matter(

$hich is in incessant action the ada)tation of the

)arts of these anima+s is the resu+t of the necessar'

+a$s of their nature( and of their comination"

When the ada)tation ceases( the anima+ is neces6

sari+' destro'ed" What then ecomes of the $is6

dom( the inte++i*ence( or the *oodness of that a++e*ed

cause( to $hich $as ascried a++ the honor of this

oasted ada)tation Those anima+s of so $onder6

fu+ a structure as to e )ronounced the $or<s of an

immuta+e od( do not the' under*o incessant

chan*es and do not the' end in deca' and destruc6

tion Where is the $isdom( the *oodness( the fore6

si*ht( the immutai+it' of an artiHcer( $hose so+e o6

Gect a))ears to e to deran*e and destro' the s)rin*s

of those machines $hich are )roc+aimed to e

master)ieces of his )o$er and s<i++ If this od

cannot act other$ise than thus( he is neither free nor

omni)otent" If his $i++ chan*es( he is not immut6

a+e" If he )ermits machines( $hich he has endo$ed

$ith sensii+it'( to e=)erience )ain( he is deHcient

in *oodness" If he has een una+e to render his

)roductions so+id and dura+e( he is deHcient in s<i++"

Percei%in* as $e do the deca' and ruin not on+'



of a++ anima+s( ut of a++ the other $or<s of deit'(

$e cannot ut ine%ita+' conc+ude( either that e%er'6

thin* )erformed in the course of nature is aso6

+ute+' necessar' the una%oida+e resu+t of its im6

)erati%e and insu)era+e +a$s( or that the artiHcer

?2 Phi+oso)hica+

$ho im)e+s her %arious o)erations is destitute of

)+an( of )o$er( of constanc'( of s<i++( and of *ood6

ness"

#0an( $ho considers himse+f the master6$or<

of the Di%init'( su))+ies us more readi+' and com6

)+ete+' than an' other )roduction( $ith e%idence of

the inca)acit' or ma+i*nit' of his )retended author"

In this ein*( )ossessed of fee+in*( 6intuition( and

reason( $hich considers itse+f as the )er)etua+ oGect

of di%ine )artia+it'( and forms its od on the

mode+ of itse+f( $e see a machine more chan*ea+e(

more frai+( more +ia+e to deran*ement from its

e=traordinar' com)+ication( than that of the coarsest

and *rossest ein*s" !easts( $hich are destitute

of our menta+ )o$ers and acuirements )+ants(



$hich mere+' %e*etate stones( $hich are un6

endo$ed $ith sensation( are( in man' res)ects(

ein*s far more fa%ored than man" The' are(

at +east( e=em)t from distress of mind( from

the tortures of thou*ht( and corrosions of care(

to $hich the +atter is a %ictim" Who $ou+d not

)refer ein* a mere uninte++i*ent anima+( or a sense6

+ess stone( $hen his thou*hts re%ert to the irre)6

ara+e +oss of an oGect dear+' e+o%ed Wou+d it

not e inHnite+' more desira+e to e an inanimate

mass( than the *+oom' %otar' and %ictim of su)er6

stition( trem+in* under the )resent 'o<e of his

diao+ica+ deit'( and antici)atin* inHnite torments

in a future e=istence !ein*s destitute of sensa6

NAT/RE 8; NOT A

Dictionar'" ?9

tion( +ife( memor'( and thou*ht e=)erience no

aUiction from the idea of $hat is )ast( )resent( or

to come the' do not e+ie%e there is an' dan*er



of incurrin* eterna+ torture for inaccurate reason6

in* $hich is e+ie%ed( ho$e%er( ' man' of those

fa%ored ein*s $ho maintain that the *reat architect

of the $or+d has created the uni%erse for them6

se+%es"

#Let us not e to+d that $e ha%e no idea of a

$or< $ithout ha%in* that of the artiHcer dis6

tin*uished from the $or<" Nature is not a $or<"

She has a+$a's e=isted of herse+f" E%er' )rocess

ta<es )+ace in her osom" She is an immense manu6

factor'( )ro%ided $ith materia+s( and she forms the

instruments ' $hich she acts a++ her $or<s are

eBects of her o$n ener*'( and of a*ents or causes

$hich she frames( contains( and im)e+s" Eterna+(

uncreated e+ements e+ements indestructi+e( e%er

in motion( and cominin* in e=uisite and end+ess

di%ersit'( ori*inate a++ the ein*s and a++ the )he6

nomena that $e eho+d a++ the eBects( *ood or e%i+(

that $e fee+ the order or disorder $hich $e dis6

tin*uish( mere+' ' diBerent modes in $hich the'

aBect ourse+%es and( in a $ord( a++ those $onders

$hich e=cite our meditation and confound our

reasonin*" These e+ements( in order to eBect oGects

thus com)rehensi%e and im)ortant( reuire nothin*

e'ond their o$n )ro)erties( indi%idua+ or comined(



and the motion essentia+ to their %er' e=istence

2o Phi+oso)hica+

and thus )rec+ude the necessit' of recurrin* to an

un<no$n artiHcer( in order to arran*e( mou+d( com6

ine( )reser%e( and disso+%e them"

#!ut( e%en admittin* for a moment( that it is im6

)ossi+e to concei%e of the uni%erse $ithout an

artiHcer $ho formed it( and $ho )reser%es and

$atches o%er his $or<( $here sha++ $e )+ace that

artiHcer Sha++ he e $ithin or $ithout the uni6

%erse Is he matter or motion Or is he mere

s)ace( nothin*ness( %acuit' In each of these cases(

he $i++ either e nothin*( or he $i++ e com)re6

hended in nature( and suGected to her +a$s" If he

is in nature( I thin< I see in her on+' matter in

motion( and cannot ut thence conc+ude that the

a*ent im)e++in* her is cor)orea+ and materia+( and

that he is conseuent+' +ia+e to disso+ution" If this

a*ent is out of nature( then I ha%e no idea of $hat

)+ace he can occu)'( nor of an immateria+ ein*(

nor of the manner in $hich a s)irit( $ithout e=6



tension( can o)erate u)on the matter from $hich it

is se)arated" Those un<no$n tracts of s)ace $hich

irrfa*ination has )+aced e'ond the %isi+e $or+d

ma' e considered as ha%in* no e=istence for a

ein* $ho can scarce+' see to the distance of his

o$n f ee"t the idea+ )o$er $hich inhaits them can

ne%er e fe)resented to m' mind( un+ess $hen m'

ima*ination comines at random the fantastic co+ors

$hich it is a+$a's forced to em)+o' in the $or+d

on $hich I am" In this case( I sha++ mere+' re)ro6

duce in idea $hat m' senses ha%e )re%ious+' actua++'

Dictionar'" 2 8

)ercei%ed and that od( $hich I( as it $ere( com6

)e+ m'se+f to distin*uish from nature( and to )+ace

e'ond her circuit( $i++ e%er( in o))osition to a++

m' eBorts( necessari+' $ithdra$ $ithin it"

#It $i++ e oser%ed and insisted u)on ' some

that if a statue or a $atch $ere sho$n to a sa%a*e

$ho had ne%er seen them( he $ou+d ine%ita+' ac6

<no$+ed*e that the' $ere the )roductions of some

inte++i*ent a*ent( more )o$erfu+ and in*enious than



himse+f and hence it $i++ e inferred that $e are

eua++' ound to ac<no$+ed*e that the machine of

the uni%erse( that man( that the )henomena of

nature( are the )roductions of an a*ent( $Kose in6

te++i*ence and )o$er are far su)erior to our o$n"

#I ans$er( in the Hrst )+ace( that $e cannot )os6

si+' dout either the *reat )o$er or the *reat s<i++

of nature $e admire her s<i++ as often as $e are

sur)rised ' the e=tended( %aried and com)+icated

eBects $hich $e Hnd in those of her $or<s that

$e ta<e the )ains to in%esti*ate she is not( ho$6

e%er( either more or +ess s<i+fu+ in an' one of her

$or<s than in the rest" We no more com)rehend

ho$ she cou+d )roduce a stone or a )iece of meta+

than ho$ she cou+d )roduce a head or*ani1ed +i<e

that of Ne$ton" We ca++ that man s<i+fu+ $ho can

)erform thin*s $hich $e are una+e to )erform

ourse+%es" Nature can )erform e%er'thin* and

$hen an'thin* e=ists( it is a )roof that she $as

a+e to ma<e it" Thus( it is on+' in re+ation to our6

se+%es that $e e%er Gud*e nature to e s<i+fu+ $e

Vo+"



2> Phi+oso)hica+

com)are it in those cases $ith ourse+%es and( as

$e )ossess a ua+it' $hich $e ca++ inte++i*ence( '

the aid of $hich $e )roduce $or<s( in $hich $e

dis)+a' our s<i++( $e thence conc+ude that the $or<s

of nature( $hich must e=cite our astonishment and

admiration( are not in fact hers( ut the )roductions

of an artiHcer( inte++i*ent +i<e ourse+%es( and $hose

inte++i*ence $e )ro)ortion( in our minds( to the de6

*ree of astonishment e=cited in us ' his $or<s

that is( in fact( to our o$n $ea<ness and i*noranceJ

See the re)+' to these ar*uments under the ar6

tic+es on #Atheism# and #od(# and in the fo++o$in*

section( $ritten +on* efore the #S'stem of Nature"#

SECTION II"

If a c+oc< is not made in order to te++ the time

of the da'( I $i++ then admit that Hna+ causes are

nothin* ut chimeras( and e content to *o ' the

name of a Hna+6cause6Hnder in )+ain +an*ua*e(

foo+ to the end of m' +ife"

A++ the )arts( ho$e%er( of that *reat machine(

the $or+d( seem made for one another" Some )hi6



+oso)hers aBect to deride Hna+ causes( $hich $ere

reGected( the' te++ us( ' E)icurus and Lucretius"

!ut it seems to me that E)icurus and Lucretius

rather merit the derision" The' te++ 'ou that the

e'e is not made to see ut that( since it $as found

out that e'es $ere ca)a+e of ein* used for that

)ur)ose( to that )ur)ose the' ha%e een a))+ied"

Accordin* to them( the mouth is not formed to

Dictionar'" 2

s)ea< and eat( nor the stomach to di*est( nor the

heart to recei%e the +ood from the %eins and im)e+

it throu*h the arteries( nor the feet to $a+<( nor the

ears to hear" 3et( at the same time( these %er'

shre$d and consistent )ersons admitted that tai+ors

made *arments to c+othe them( and masons ui+t

houses to +od*e them and thus %entured to den'

nature the *reat e=istence( the uni%ersa+ inte++i6

*ence $hat the' conceded to the most insi*niHcant

artiHcers em)+o'ed ' themse+%es"

The doctrine of Hna+ causes ou*ht certain+' to

e )reser%ed from ein* aused" We ha%e a+read'



remar<ed that 0" +e Prieur( in the #S)ectator of

Nature(# contends in %ain that the tides $ere at6

tached to the ocean to ena+e shi)s to enter more

easi+' into their )orts( and to )reser%e the $ater

from corru)tion he mi*ht Gust as )roa+' and

successfu++' ha%e ur*ed that +e*s $ere made to $ear

oots( and noses to ear s)ectac+es"

In order to satisf' ourse+%es of the truth of a

Hna+ cause( in an' )articu+ar instance( it is necessar'

that the eBect )roduced shou+d e uniform and in6

%aria+' in time and )+ace" Shi)s ha%e not e=isted

in a++ times and u)on a++ seas accordin*+'( it can6

not e said that the ocean $as made for shi)s" It is

im)ossi+e not to )ercei%e ho$ ridicu+ous it $ou+d

e to maintain that nature had toi+ed on from the

%er' e*innin* of time to adGust herse+f to the in6

%entions of our fortuitous and aritrar' arts( a++ of

$hich are of so +ate a date in their disco%er' ut it

2Q Phi+oso)hica+

is )erfect+' c+ear that if noses $ere not made for

s)ectac+es( the' $ere made for sme++in*( and there



ha%e een noses e%er since there $ere men" In the

same manner( hands( instead of ein* esto$ed for

the sa<e of *+o%es( are %isi+' destined for a++ those

uses to $hich the metacar)us( the )ha+an*es of the

Hn*ers( and the mo%ements of the circu+ar musc+e

of the $rist( render them a))+ica+e ' us" Cicero(

$ho douted e%er'thin* e+se( had no dout aout

Hna+ causes"

It a))ears )articu+ar+' diMcu+t to su))ose that

those )arts of the human frame ' $hich the )er6

)etuation of the s)ecies is conducted shou+d not( in

fact( ha%e een intended and destined for that )ur6

)ose( from their mechanism so tru+' admira+e( and

the sensation $hich nature has connected $ith it

more admira+e sti++" E)icurus $ou+d e at +east

o+i*ed to admit that )+easure is di%ine( and that

that )+easure is a Hna+ cause( in conseuence of

$hich ein*s( endo$ed $ith sensii+it'( ut $ho

cou+d ne%er ha%e communicated it to themse+%es(

ha%e een incessant+' introduced into the $or+d as

others ha%e )assed a$a' from it"

This )hi+oso)her( E)icurus( $as a *reat man for

the a*e in $hich he +i%ed" &e sa$ that Descartes

denied $hat assendi aMrmed and $hat Ne$ton



demonstrated that motion cannot e=ist $ithout a

%acuum" &e concei%ed the necessit' of atoms to

ser%e as constituent )arts of in%aria+e s)ecies"

These are )hi+oso)hica+ ideas" Nothin*( ho$e%er(

Dictionar'" 2@

$as more res)ecta+e than the mora+it' of *enuine

E)icureans it consisted in seuestration from )u6

+ic aBairs( $hich are incom)ati+e $ith $isdom( and

in friendshi)( $ithout $hich +ife is ut a urden"

!ut as to the rest of the )hi+oso)h' of E)icurus(

it a))ears not to e more admissi+e than the

*roo%ed or tuu+ar matter of Descartes" It is( as

it a))ears to me( $i+fu++' to shut the e'es and the

understandin*( and to maintain that there is no de6

si*n in nature and if there is desi*n( there is an

inte++i*ent cause there e=ists a od"

Some )oint us to the irre*u+arities of our *+oe(

the %o+canoes( the )+ains of mo%in* sand( some sma++

mountains s$a++o$ed u) in the ocean( others raised

' earthua<es( etc" !ut does it fo++o$ from the

na%es of 'our chariot $hee+ ta<in* Hre( that 'our



chariot $as not made e=)ress+' for the )ur)ose of

con%e'in* 'ou from one )+ace to another

The chains of mountains $hich cro$n oth

hemis)heres( and more than si= hundred ri%ers

$hich o$ from the foot of these roc<s to$ards the

sea the %arious streams that s$e++ these ri%ers in

their courses( after ferti+i1in* the He+ds throu*h

$hich the' )ass the innumera+e fountains $hich

s)rin* from the same source( $hich su))+' neces6

sar' refreshment( and *ro$th( and eaut' to anima+

and %e*eta+e +ife a++ this a))ears no more to re6

su+t from a fortuitous concourse and an o+iuit'

of atoms( than the retina $hich recei%es the ra's of

+i*ht( or the cr'sta++ine humor $hich refracts it( or

2; Phi+oso)hica+

the drum of the ear $hich admits sound( or the

circu+ation of the +ood in our %eins( the s'sto+e and

diasto+e of the heart( the re*u+atin* )rinci)+e of the

machine of +ife"

SECTION III"





is that e%er'thin* is the resu+t( nearer or more re6

mote( of a *enera+ Hna+ cause that e%er'thin* is the

Dictionar'" 2?

conseuence of eterna+ +a$s" When the eBects are

in%aria+' the same in a++ times and )+aces( and

$hen these uniform eBects are inde)endent of the

ein*s to $hich the' attach( then there is %isi+' a

Hna+ cause"

A++ anima+s ha%e e'es and see a++ ha%e ears

and hear a++ ha%e mouths $ith $hich the' eat

stomachs( or somethin* simi+ar( ' $hich the'

di*est their food a++ ha%e suita+e means for e=6

)e++in* the faeces a++ ha%e the or*ans reuisite

for the continuation of their s)ecies and these

natura+ *ifts )erform their re*u+ar course and

)rocess $ithout an' a))+ication or intermi=ture of

art" &ere are Hna+ causes c+ear+' esta+ished and

to den' a truth so uni%ersa+ $ou+d e a )er%ersion

of the facu+t' of reason"

!ut stones( in a++ times and )+aces( do not con6



stitute the materia+s of ui+din*s" A++ noses do not

ear s)ectac+es a++ Hn*ers do not carr' a rin*

a++ +e*s are not co%ered $ith si+< stoc<in*s" A

si+<$orm( therefore( is not made to co%er m' +e*s(

e=act+' as 'our mouth is made for eatin*( and

another )art of 'our )erson for the #*arderoe"#

There are( therefore( $e see( immediate eBects )ro6

duced from Hna+ causes( and eBects of a %er'

numerous descri)tion( $hich are remote )roduc6

tions from those causes"

E%er'thin* e+on*in* to nature is uniform( im6

muta+e( and the immediate $or< of its author" It

is he $ho has esta+ished the +a$s ' $hich the

22 Phi+oso)hica+

moon contriutes three6fourths to the cause of the

u= and reu= of the ocean( and the sun the re6

mainin* fourth" It is he $ho has *i%en a rotator'

motion to the sun( in conseuence of $hich that or

communicates its ra's of +i*ht in the short s)ace of

se%en minutes and a ha+f to the e'es of men( croco6

di+es( and cats"



!ut if( after a course of a*es( $e started the in6

%entions of shears and s)its( to c+i) the $oo+ of

shee) $ith the one( and $ith the other to roast in

order to eat them( $hat e+se can e inferred from

such circumstances( ut that od formed us in such

a manner that( at some time or other( $e cou+d not

a%oid ecomin* in*enious and carni%orous

Shee)( undouted+'( $ere not made e=)ress+' to

e roasted and eaten( since man' nations astain

from such food $ith horror" 0an<ind are not

created essentia++' to massacre one another( since

the !rahmins( and the res)ecta+e )rimiti%es ca++ed

5ua<ers( <i++ no one" !ut the c+a' out of $hich $e

are <neaded freuent+' )roduces massacres( as it

)roduces ca+umnies( %anities( )ersecutions( and im6

)ertinences" It is not )recise+' that the formation

of man is the Hna+ cause of our madnesses and

fo++ies( for a Hna+ cause is uni%ersa+( and in%aria+e

in e%er' a*e and )+ace ut the horrors and a6

surdities of the human race are not at a++ the +ess

inc+uded in the eterna+ order of thin*s" When $e

thresh our corn( the ai+ is the Hna+ cause of the

se)aration of the *rain" !ut if that ai+( $hi+e



Dictionar'" 29

threshin* m' *rain( crushes to death a thousand in6

sects( that occurs not ' an e=)ress and deter6

minate act of m' $i++( nor( on the other hand( is it

' mere chance the insects $ere( on this occasion(

actua++' under m' ai+( and cou+d not ut e there"

It is a conseuence of the nature of thin*s that

a man shou+d e amitious that he shou+d enro++

and disci)+ine a numer of other men that he

shou+d e a conueror( or that he shou+d e de6

feated ut it can ne%er e said that the man $as

created ' od to e <i++ed in $ar"

The or*ans $ith $hich nature has su))+ied us

cannot a+$a's e Hna+ causes in action" The e'es

$hich are esto$ed for seein* are not constant+'

o)en" E%er' sense has its season for re)ose" There

are some senses that are e%en made no use of" An

imeci+e and $retched fema+e( for e=am)+e( shut

u) in a c+oister at the a*e of fourteen 'ears( mars

one of the Hna+ causes of her e=istence ut the

cause( ne%erthe+ess( eua++' e=ists( and $hene%er it



is free it $i++ o)erate"

FINESSE( FINENESS( ETC"

Of the DiBerent Si*niHcations of the Word"

FINENESS either in its )ro)er or its H*urati%e

sense does not si*nif' either +i*ht( s+ender( Hne( or

of a rare thin te=ture this $ord e=)resses some6

thin* de+icate and Hnished" Li*ht c+oth( soft +inen(

thin +ace( or s+ender *a++oon( are not a+$a's Hne"

This $ord has a re+ation to the %er #to Hnish(#

9: Phi+oso)hica+

$hence come the Hnishin*s of art thus( $e sa'(

the Hnishin*s of Vander$erB Js )enci+ or of 0ieris

$e sa'( a Hne horse( Hne *o+d( a Hne diamond" A

Hne horse is o))osed to a c+ums' one the Hne dia6

mond to a fa+se one Hne or reHned *o+d to *o+d

mi=ed $ith a++o'"

Fineness is *enera++' a))+ied to de+icate thin*s



and +i*htness of manufacture" A+thou*h $e sa' a

Hne horse( $e se+dom sa'( #the Hneness of a horse"#

We s)ea< of the Hneness of hair( +ace( or stuB"

When ' this $ord $e shou+d e=)ress the fau+t or

$ron* use of an'thin*( $e add the ad%er #too#

as This thread is ro<en( it $as too Hne this stuB

is too Hne for the season"

Fineness or Hnesse( in a H*urati%e sense( a))+ies

to conduct( s)eech( and $or<s of mind" In con6

duct( Hnesse a+$a's e=)resses( as in the arts( some6

thin* de+icate or suti+e it ma' sometimes e=ist

$ithout ai+it'( ut it is %er' rare+' unaccom)anied

' a +itt+e dece)tion )o+itics admit it( and societ'

re)ro%es it"

Finesse is not e=act+' sut+et' $e dra$ a )er6

son into a snare $ith Hnesse $e esca)e from it

$ith sut+et'" We act $ith Hnesse( and $e )+a' a

sut+e tric<" Distrust is ins)ired ' an uns)arin*

use of Hnesse 'et $e a+most a+$a's decei%e our6

se+%es if $e too *enera++' sus)ect it"

Finesse( in $or<s of $it( as in con%ersation( con6

sists in the art of not e=)ressin* a thou*ht c+ear+'(

ut +ea%in* it so as to e easi+' )ercei%ed" It is an



Dictionar'" * i

eni*ma to $hich )eo)+e of sense readi+' Hnd the

so+ution"

A chance++or one da' oBerin* his )rotection to

)ar+iament( the Hrst )resident turnin* to$ards the

assem+'( said- #ent+emen( than< the chance++or

he has *i%en us more than $e demanded of him#

a %er' $itt' re)roof"

Finesse( in con%ersation and $ritin*( diBers

from de+icac' the Hrst a))+ies eua++' to )iuant

and a*reea+e thin*s( e%en to +ame and )raise and

sti++ more to indecencies( o%er $hich a %ei+ is dra$n(

throu*h $hich $e cannot )enetrate $ithout a +ush"

!o+d thin*s ma' e said $ith Hnesse"

De+icac' e=)resses soft and a*reea+e sentiments

and in*enious )raise thus Hnesse e+on*s more to

e)i*ram( and de+icac' to madri*a+" It is de+icac'

$hich enters into a +o%erJs Gea+ousies( and not Hnesse"



The )raises *i%en to Louis 7IV" ' Des)reau=

are not a+$a's eua++' de+icate satires are not

a+$a's suMcient+' in*enious in the $a' of Hnesse"

When I)hi*enia( in Racine( has recei%ed from her

father the order ne%er to see Achi++es more( she

cries - #Dieu= )+us dou=( %ous ria%ie1 demande uc

ma %ie# #0ore *ent+e *ods( 'ou on+' as< m'

+ife# The true character of this )arta<es rather

of de+icac' than of Hnesse"

9> Phi+oso)hica+

FIRE"

SECTION I"

Is FIRE an'thin* more than an e+ement $hich

+i*hts( $arms( and urns us Is not +i*ht a+$a's

Hre( thou*h Hre is not a+$a's +i*ht And is not

!oerhaa%e in the ri*ht

Is not the )urest Hre e=tracted from our com6

usti+es( a+$a's *ross( and )arta<in* of the odies

consumed( and %er' diBerent from e+ementar' Hre



&o$ is Hre distriuted throu*hout nature( of $hich

it is the sou+

I*nis uiue +atet( naturam am)+ectitur omnem(

Cuncta )arit( reno%at( di%idit( unit( a+it"

Wh' did Ne$ton( in s)ea<in* of ra's of +i*ht(

a+$a's sa'( #De natura radiorum +ucis( utrum

cor)ora sint necne non dis)utamus# $ithout e=6

aminin* $hether the' $ere odies or not

Did he on+' s)ea< *eometrica++' In that case(

this dout $as use+ess" It is e%ident that he douted

of the nature of e+ementar' Hre( and douted $ith

reason"

Is e+ementar' Hre a od' +i<e others( as earth and

$ater If it $as a od' of this <ind( $ou+d it not

*ra%itate +i<e a++ other matter Wou+d it esca)e

from the +uminous od' in the ri*ht +ine Wou+d

it ha%e a uniform )ro*ression And $h' does

+i*ht ne%er mo%e out of a ri*ht +ine $hen it is un6

im)eded in its ra)id course

0a' not e+ementar' Hre ha%e )ro)erties of mat6

ter +itt+e <no$n to us( and )ro)erties of sustance



Dictionar'" 9

entire+' so 0a' it not e a medium et$een mat6

ter and sustances of another <ind And $ho can

sa' that there are not a mi++ion of these sustances

I do not sa' that there are( ut I sa' it is not )ro%ed

that there ma' not e"

It $as %er' diMcu+t to e+ie%e aout a hundred

'ears a*o that odies acted u)on one another( not

on+' $ithout touchin*( and $ithout emission( ut at

*reat distances it is( ho$e%er( found to e true(

and is no +on*er douted" At )resent( it is diMcu+t

to e+ie%e that the ra's of the sun are )enetra+e

' each other( ut $ho <no$s $hat ma' ha))en to

)ro%e it

&o$e%er that ma' e( I $ish( for the no%e+t' of

the thin*( that this incom)rehensi+e )enetrai+it'

cou+d e admitted" Li*ht has somethin* so di%ine

that $e shou+d endea%or to ma<e it a ste) to the

disco%er' of sustances sti++ more )ure"



Come to m' aid( Em)edoc+es and Democritus

come and admire the $onders of e+ectricit' see if

the s)ar<s $hich tra%erse a thousand odies in the

t$in<+in* of an e'e are of ordinar' matter Gud*e

if e+ementar' Hre does not contract the heart( and

communicate that $armth $hich *i%es +ife .ud*e

if this e+ement is not the source of a++ sensation(

and if sensation is not the ori*in of thou*ht thou*h

i*norant and inso+ent )edants ha%e condemned the

)ro)osition( as one $hich shou+d e )ersecuted"

Te++ me( if the Su)reme !ein*( $ho )resides o%er

a++ nature( cannot fore%er )reser%e these e+ementar'

9Q Phi+oso)hica+

atoms $hich he has so rare+' endo$ed #I*neus

est o++is %i*or et cce+estis ori*o"#

The ce+erated Le Cat ca++s this %i%if'in* uid

#an am)hiious ein*( endo$ed ' its author $ith

a su)erior reHnement $hich +in<s it to immateria+

ein*s( and there' enno+es and e+e%ates it into

that medium nature $hich $e reco*ni1e( and $hich



is the source of a++ its )ro)erties"#

3ou are of the o)inion of Le Cat I $ou+d e

so too i(f I cou+d ut there are so man' foo+s and

%i++ains that I dare not" I can on+' thin< uiet+' in

m' o$n $a' at 0ount Kra)a<" Let others thin<

as $e++ as the' are a++o$ed to thin<( $hether at

Sa+amanca or !er*amo"

SECTION II"

What is /nderstood ' Fire /sed Fi*urati%e+'"

Fire( )articu+ar+' in )oetr'( often si*niHes +o%e(

and is em)+o'ed more e+e*ant+' in the )+ura+ than

in the sin*u+ar" Cornei++e often sa's #un eau feu#

for a %irtuous and no+e +o%e" A man has Hre in

his con%ersation that does not mean that he has

ri++iant and en+i*htened ideas( ut +i%e+' e=)res6

sions animated ' action"

Fire in $ritin* does not necessari+' im)+' +i*ht6

ness and eaut'( ut %i%acit'( mu+ti)+ied H*ures(

and s)ontaneous ideas" Fire is a merit in s)eech

and $ritin* on+' $hen it is $e++ mana*ed" It is

said that )oets are animated $ith a di%ine Hre $hen



the' are su+ime *enius cannot e=ist $ithout Hre(

ut Hre ma' e )ossessed $ithout *enius"

Dictionar'" 9@

FIR0NESS"

FIR0NESS comes from Hrm( and has a dif6

ferent si*niHcation from so+idit' and hardness a

suee1ed c+oth( a eaten ne*ro( ha%e Hrmness $ith6

out ein* hard or so+id"

It must a+$a's e rememered that modiHcations

of the sou+ can on+' e e=)ressed ' )h'sica+

ima*es $e sa' Hrmness of sou+( and of mind(

$hich does not si*nif' that the' are harder or more

so+id than usua+"

Firmness is the e=ercise of menta+ coura*e it

means a decided reso+ution $hi+e ostinac'( on the

contrar'( si*niHes +indness" Those $ho )raise the

Hrmness of Tacitus are not so much in the $ron* as

P" !ouhours )retends it is an accidenta+ i++6chosen

term( $hich e=)resses ener*' and stren*th of



thou*ht and of st'+e" It ma' e said that La !ru6

'ere has a Hrm st'+e( and that man' other $riters

ha%e on+' a hard one"

FLATTER3"

I FIND not one monument of atter' in remote

antiuit' there is no atter' in &esiod none in

&omer" Their stories are not addressed to a ree<(

e+e%ated to some di*nit'( nor to his +ad' as each

canto of ThomsonJs #Seasons# is dedicated to some

)erson of ran<( or as so man' for*otten e)ist+es in

%erse ha%e een dedicated( in En*+and( to *ent+e6

9; Phi+oso)hica+

men or +adies of ua+it'( $ith a rief eu+o*'( and the

arms of the )atron or )atroness )+aced at the head

of the $or<"

Nor is there an' atter' in Demosthenes" This

$a' of as<in* a+ms harmonious+' e*an( if I mis6

ta<e not( $ith Pindar" No hand can e stretched out

more em)hatica++'"



It a))ears to me that amon* the Romans *reat

atter' is to e dated from the time of Au*ustus"

.u+ius Caesar had scarce+' time to e attered"

There is not( e=tant( an' dedicator' e)ist+e to Su++a(

0arius( or Caro( nor to their $i%es( or their mis6

tresses" I can $e++ e+ie%e that %er' ad %erses $ere

)resented to Lucu++us and Pom)e' ut( than< od(

$e do not ha%e them"

It is a *reat s)ectac+e to eho+d Cicero eua+ in

di*nit' to Caesar( s)ea<in* efore him as ad%ocate

for a <in* of !ith'nia and Lesser Armenia( named

Deiotarus( accused of +a'in* amuscades for him(

and e%en desi*nin* to assassinate him" Cicero e6

*ins $ith ac<no$+ed*in* that he is disconcerted in

his )resence" &e ca++s him the %anuisher of the

$or+d #%ictorem oris terrarum"# &e atters him

ut this adu+ation does not 'et amount to aseness

some sense of shame sti++ remains"

!ut $ith Au*ustus there are no +on*er an'

ounds the senate decrees his a)otheosis durin*

his +ifetime" /nder the succeedin* em)erors this

atter' ecomes the ordinar' triute( and is no

+on*er an'thin* more than a st'+e" It is im)ossi+e



Dictionar'" 9?

to atter an' one( $hen the most e=tra%a*ant adu6

+ation has ecome the ordinar' currenc'"

In Euro)e( $e ha%e had no *reat monuments of

atter' efore Louis 7IV" &is father( Louis 7III"(

had %er' +itt+e incense oBered him" We Hnd no

mention of him( e=ce)t in one or t$o of 0a+hereJs

odes" There( indeed( accordin* to custom( he is

ca++ed #thou *reatest of <in*s# as the S)anish

)oets sa' to the <in* of S)ain( and the En*+ish

)oets +aureate to the <in* of En*+and ut the

etter )art of the )oetJs )raises is esto$ed on Car6

dina+ Riche+ieu( $hose sou+ is *reat and fear+ess

$ho )ractises so $e++ the hea+in* art of *o%ernment(

and $ho <no$s ho$ to cure a++ our e%i+s-

Dont rdme toute *rande est une me hardie(

5ui )ratiue si ien IJart de nous secourir(

5ue()our%u ui+ soit cru( nous nJa%ons ma+adie(

5ui+ne sache *uerir"



/)on Louis 7IV" atter' came in a de+u*e" !ut

he $as not +i<e the man said to ha%e een smothered

' the rose +ea%es hea)ed u)on him on the con6

trar'( he thri%ed the more"

F+atter'( $hen it has some )+ausi+e )rete=t( ma'

not e so )ernicious as it has een thou*ht it

sometimes encoura*es to *reat acts ut its e=cess

is %icious( +i<e the e=cess of satire" La Fontaine

sa's( and )retends to sa' it after

On ne Heut tra) +ouer trots sortes de )ersonnes

Les dieu=( so" maitresse( et son roi"

so)e +e disait f' souscrts uant a mot

Ces sont ma=imes touGours onnes"

Vo+" 9 ?

92 Phi+oso)hica+

3our atter' to three sorts of fo+<s a))+'-

3ou cannot sa' too ci%i+ thin*s

To *ods( to mistresses( and <in*s



So honest 'Eso) said and so sa' I"

&onest so) said no such thin* nor do $e Hnd

that he attered an' <in*( or an' concuine" It

must not e thou*ht that <in*s are in rea+it' at6

tered ' a++ the atteries that are hea)ed u)on them

for the *reater numer ne%er reach them"

One common fo++' of orators is that of e=haust6

in* themse+%es in )raisin* some )rince $ho $i++

ne%er hear of their )raises" !ut $hat is most

+amenta+e of a++ is that O%id shou+d ha%e )raised

Au*ustus e%en $hi+e he $as datin* #de Ponto"#

The )erfection of the ridicu+ous mi*ht e found

in the com)+iments $hich )reachers address to <in*s(

$hen the' ha%e the ha))iness of e=hiitin* efore

their maGesties" #To the re%erend Father ai++ard(

)reacher to the <in*"# Ah most re%erend father(

do 'ou )reach on+' for the <in* Are 'ou +i<e the

mon<e' at the fair( $hich +ea)s #on+' for the <in*#

FORCE P&3SICAL"



W&AT is #force# Where does it reside

Whence does it come Does it )erish Or is it

e%er the same

It has )+eased us to denominate #force# that

$ei*ht $hich one od' e=ercises u)on another"

&ere is a a++ of t$o hundred )oundsJ $ei*ht on

this oor it )resses the oor( 'ou sa'( $ith a

force of t$o hundred )ounds" And this 'ou ca++ a

Dictionar'" 99

#dead force"# !ut are not these $ords #dead# and

#forceJ# a +itt+e contradictor' 0i*ht $e not as $e++

sa' #dead a+i%e# 'es and no at once

This a++ #$ei*hs"# Whence comes this

#$ei*ht # and is this $ei*ht a #force # If the a++

$ere not im)eded( $ou+d it *o direct+' to the centre

of the earth Whence has it this incom)rehensi+e

)ro)ert'

It is su))orted ' m' oor and 'ou free+' *i%e

to m' oor the #%is inertia# #inertiae# si*nif'in*



#inacti%it'(# #im)otence"# No$ is it not sin*u+ar

that #im)otence# shou+d e denominated #force#

What is the +i%in* force $hich acts in 'our arm

and 'our +e* What is the source of it &o$ can

it e su))osed that this force e=ists $hen 'ou are

dead Does it *o and ta<e u) its aode e+se$here(

as a man *oes to another house $hen his o$n is in

ruins

&o$ can it ha%e een said that there is a+$a's

the same force in nature There must( then( ha%e

een a+$a's the same numer of men( or of acti%e

ein*s eui%a+ent to men" Wh' does a od' in mo6

tion communicate its force to another od' $ith

$hich it comes in contact

These are uestions $hich neither *eometr'( nor

mechanics( nor meta)h'sics can ans$er" Wou+d

'ou arri%e at the Hrst )rinci)+e of the force of

odies( and of motion( 'ou must ascend to a sti++

su)erior )rinci)+e" Wh' is there #an'thin*#

ioo Phi+oso)hica+



FORCE STRENT&"

T&ESE $ords ha%e een trans)+anted from sim)+e

to H*urati%e s)eech" The' are a))+ied to a++ the

)arts of the od' that are in motion( in action the

force of the heart( $hich some ha%e made four

hundred )ounds( and some three ounces the force of

the %iscera( the +un*s( the %oice the force of the arm"

The meta)hor $hich has trans)orted these $ords

into mora+s has made them e=)ress a cardina+

%irtue" Stren*th( in this sense( is the coura*e to

su))ort ad%ersit'( and to underta<e %irtuous and

diMcu+t actions it is the #animi fortitude" #

The stren*th of the mind is )enetration and

de)th #in*enii %is"# Nature *i%es it as she *i%es

that of the od' moderate +aor increases and e=6

cessi%e +aor diminishes it"

The force of an ar*ument consists in a c+ear e=6

)osition of c+ear+'6e=hiited )roofs( and a Gust con6

c+usion - $ith mathematica+ theorems it has nothin*

to do ecause the e%idence of a demonstration can

e made neither more nor +ess on+' it ma' e ar6







FRANC&ISE"

A WORD $hich a+$a's *i%es an idea of +iert' in

$hate%er sense it is ta<en a $ord deri%ed from the

Fran<s( $ho $ere a+$a's free" It is so ancient( that

$hen the Cid esie*ed and too< To+edo( in the e+e%6

enth centur'( franchies or franchises $ere *i%en to

a++ the French $ho $ent on this e=)edition( and $ho

esta+ished themse+%es at To+edo" A++ $a++ed cities

had franchises( +ierties( and )ri%i+e*es( e%en in the

*reatest anarch' of feuda+ )o$er" In a++ countries

)ossessin* assem+ies or states( the so%erei*n s$ore(

on his accession( to *uard their +ierties"

This name( $hich has een *i%en *enera++' to the

ri*hts of the )eo)+e( to immunities( and to sanctua6

ries or as'+ums( has een more )articu+ar+' a))+ied

to the uarters of the amassadors of the court of

Rome" It $as a )+ot of *round around their )a+aces(

$hich $as +ar*er or sma++er accordin* to the $i++ of

the amassador" The *round $as an as'+um for

crimina+s( $ho cou+d not e there )ursued" This

franchise $as restricted( under Innocent 7L to the

inside of their )a+aces" Churches and con%ents had

the same )ri%i+e*es in Ita+'( ut not in other states"

There are in Paris se%era+ )+aces of sanctuar'( in



$hich detors cannot e sei1ed for their dets '

common Gustice( and $here mechanics can )ursue

their trades $ithout ein* freemen" 0echanics

ha%e this )ri%i+e*e in the Fauour* St" Antoine( ut

it is not an as'+um +i<e the Tem)+e"

Dictionar'" 8:

The $ord #franchise(# $hich usua++' e=)resses

the +ierties of a nation( cit'( or )erson( is sometimes

used to si*nif' +iert' of s)eech( of counse+( or of a

+a$ )roceedin* ut there is a *reat diBerence e6

t$een s)ea<in* $ith fran<ness and s)ea<in* $ith

+iert'" In a s)eech to a su)erior( +iert' is a stud6

ied or e=cessi%e o+dness fran<ness outste))in* its

Gust ounds" To s)ea< $ith +iert' is to s)ea<

$ithout fear to s)ea< $ith fran<ness is to conduct

'ourse+f o)en+' and no+'" To s)ea< $ith too much

+iert' is to ecome audacious to s)ea< $ith too

much fran<ness is to e too o)en6hearted"

FRANCIS 7AVIER"

IT WO/LD not e amiss to <no$ somethin* true



concernin* the ce+erated Francis 7a%ero( $hom $e

ca++ 7a%ier( surnamed the A)ost+e of the Indies"

0an' )eo)+e sti++ ima*ine that he esta+ished Chris6

tiant' a+on* the $ho+e southern coast of India( in

a score of is+ands( and ao%e a++ in .a)an" !ut

thirt' 'ears a*o( e%en a dout on the suGect $as

hard+' to e to+erated in Euro)e" The .esuits ha%e

not hesitated to com)are him to St" Pau+" &is tra%6

e+s and mirac+es had een $ritten in )art ' Tur6

se++inus and Or+andini( ' Le%ena( and ' Parto+i(

a++ .esuits( ut %er' +itt+e <no$n in France and

the +ess )eo)+e $ere acuainted $ith the detai+s the

*reater $as his re)utation"

When the .esuit !ouhours com)osed his histor'(

IOQ Phi+oso)hica+

he !ouhours $as considered as a man of %er'

en+i*htened mind( and $as +i%in* in the est com6

)an' in Paris I do not mean the com)an' of

.esus( ut that of men of the $or+d the most dis6

tin*uished for inte++ect and <no$+ed*e" No one

$rote in a )urer or more unaBected st'+e it $as



e%en )ro)osed in the French Academ' that it shou+d

tres)ass a*ainst the ru+es of its institution( ' re6

cei%in* Father !ouhours into its od'" &e had

another *reat ad%anta*e in the inuence of his or6

der( $hich then( ' an a+most inconcei%a+e i++usion(

*o%erned a++ Catho+ic )rinces"

Sound criticism $as( it is true( e*innin* to rear

its head ut its )ro*ress $as s+o$- men $ere( in

*enera+( more an=ious to $rite a+' than to $rite

$hat $as true"

!ouhours $rote the +i%es of St" I*natius and St"

Francis 7a%ier a+most $ithout encounterin* a sin6

*+e oGection" E%en his com)arison of St" I*natius

to Csesar( and 7a%ier to A+e=ander( )assed $ithout

animad%ersion it $as to+erated as a o$er of

rhetoric"

I ha%e seen in the .esuitJs co++e*e( Rue St" .acues(

a )icture t$e+%e feet +on* and t$e+%e hi*h( re)re6

sentin* I*natius and 7a%ier ascendin* to hea%en(

each in a ma*niHcent chariot dra$n ' four mi+<6

$hite horses and ao%e( the Eterna+ Father( adorned

$ith a Hne $hite eard descendin* to &is $aist(

$ith .esus and the Vir*in eside him the &o+'



host eneath them( in the form of a do%e and

Dictionar'" 8:@

an*e+s Goinin* their hands( and endin* do$n to

recei%e Father I*natius and Father 7a%ier"

&ad an'one )u+ic+' made a Gest of this )icture(

the re%erend Father La Chaise( confessor to the

<in*( $ou+d infa++i+' ha%e had the sacri+e*ious scof6

fer honored $ith a +ettre de cachet(

It cannot e denied that Francis 7a%ier is com6

)ara+e to A+e=ander( inasmuch as the' oth $ent

to India so is I*natius to Caesar( oth ha%in* een

in au+" !ut 7a%ier( the %anuisher of the de%i+(

$ent far e'ond A+e=ander( the conueror of Da6

rius" &o$ *ratif'in* it is to see him *oin*( in the

ca)acit' of a %o+unteer con%erter( from S)ain into

France( from France to Rome( from Rome to Lis6

on( and from Lison to 0o1amiue( after ma<6

in* the tour of Africa" &e sta's a +on* time at 0o6

1amiue( $here he recei%es from od the *ift of

)ro)hec'- he then )roceeds to 0e+inda( $here he



dis)utes on the Koran $ith the 0ahometans( $ho

dout+ess understand his re+i*ion as $e++ as he

understands theirs( and $here he e%en Hnds ca6

ciues( a+thou*h the' are to e found no$here

ut in America" The Portu*uese %esse+ arri%es

at the is+and of 4ocotora( $hich is unuestion6

a+' that of the Ama1ons- there he con%erts

a++ the is+anders( and ui+ds a church" Thence

he reaches oa( $here he Hnds a )i++ar on $hich St"

Thomas had en*ra%ed( that one da' St" 7a%ier

shou+d come and re6esta+ish the Christian re+i*ion(

$hich had ourished of o+d in India" 7a%ier has

8:; Phi+oso)hica+

no diMcu+t' $hate%er in )erusin* the ancient char6

acters( $hether Indian or &ere$( in $hich this

)ro)hec' is e=)ressed" &e forth$ith ta<es u) a

hand6e++( assem+es a++ the +itt+e o's around him(

e=)+ains to them the creed( and a)ti1es them

ut his *reat de+i*ht $as to marr' the Indians to

their mistresses"

From oa he s)eeds to Ca)e Comorin( to the



Hshin* coast( to the <in*dom of Tra%ancore" &is

*reatest an=iet'( on arri%in* in an' countr'( is to

uit it" &e emar<s in the Hrst Portu*uese shi) he

Hnds( $hithersoe%er it is ound( it matters not to

7a%ier )ro%ided on+' that he is tra%e++in* some6

$here( he is content" &e is recei%ed throu*h char6

it'( and returns t$o or three times to oa( to Co6

chin( to Cori( to Ne*a)atam( to 0e+ia)our" A %es6

se+ is de)artin* for 0a+acca( and 7a%ier accordin*+'

ta<es his )assa*e for 0a+acca( in *reat des)air that

he has not 'et had an o))ortunit' of seein* Siam(

Pe*u( and Tonuin" We Hnd him in the is+and of

Sumatra( at !orneo( at 0acassar( in the 0o+uccas(

and es)ecia++' at Ternate and Amo'na" The <in*

of Ternate had( in his immense sera*+io( a hundred

$omen in the ca)acit' of $i%es( and se%en or ei*ht

hundred in that of concuines" The Hrst thin*

7a%ier does is to turn them a++ out" P+ease to o6

ser%e that the is+and of Ternate is t$o +ea*ues

across"

Thence Hndin* another Portu*ese %esse+ ound

for Ce'+on( he returns to Ce'+on( $here he ma<es



Dictionar'" IO?

%arious e=cursions to oa and to Cochin" The Por6

tu*uese $ere a+read' tradin* to .a)an" A shi) sai+s

for that countr'- 7a%ier ta<es care to emar< in

it( and %isits a++ the .a)an is+ands" In short sa's

the .esuit !ouhours( the $ho+e +en*th of 7a%ierJs

routes( Goined to*ether( $ou+d reach se%era+ times

around the *+oe"

!e it oser%ed( that he set out on his tra%e+s in

8@Q>( and died in 8@@>" If he had time to +earn the

+an*ua*es of a++ the nations he %isited( it $as no tri6

in* mirac+e - if he had the *ift of ton*ues( it $as

a *reater mirac+e sti++" !ut unfortunate+'( in se%6

era+ of his +etters( he sa's that he is o+i*ed to em6

)+o' an inter)reter and in others he ac<no$+ed*es

that he Hnds e=treme diMcu+t' in +earnin* the .a)6

anese +an*ua*e( $hich he cannot )ronounce"

The .esuit !ouhours( in *i%in* some of his +et6

ters( has no dout that #St" Francis 7a%ier had the

*ift of ton*ues# ut he ac<no$+ed*es that #he had

it not a+$a's"# #&e had it(# sa's he( #on se%era+

occasions for( $ithout ha%in* +earned the Chinese

ton*ue( he )reached to the Chinese e%er' mornin*



at Aman*uchi( $hich is the ca)ita+ of a )ro%ince in

.a)an"#

&e must ha%e een )erfect+' acuainted $ith a++

the +an*ua*es of the East for he made son*s in

them of the Paternoster( A%e60aria( and Credo( for

the instruction of the +itt+e o's and *ir+s"

!ut the est of a++ is( that this man( $ho had

occasion for a dra*oman( s)o<e e%er' ton*ue at

io2 Phi+oso)hica+

once( +i<e the a)ost+es and $hen he s)o<e Por6

tu*uese( in $hich +an*ua*e !ouhours ac<no$+6

ed*es that the saint e=)+ained himse+f %er' i++( the

Indians( the Chinese( the .a)anese( the inhaitants

of Ce'+on and of Sumatra( a++ understood him )er6

fect+'"

One da' in )articu+ar( $hen he $as )reachin* on

the immateria+it' of the sou+( the motion of the )+an6

ets( the ec+i)ses of the sun and moon( the raino$(

sin and *race( )aradise and )ur*ator'( he made him6



se+f understood to t$ent' )ersons of diBerent na6

tions"

Is it as<ed ho$ such a man cou+d ma<e so man'

con%erts in .a)an The sim)+e ans$er is that he did

not ma<e an' ut other .esuits( $ho staid a +on*

time in the countr'( ' fa%or of the treaties et$een

the <in*s of Portu*a+ and the em)erors of .a)an(

con%erted so man' )eo)+e( that a ci%i+ $ar ensued(

$hich is said to ha%e cost the +i%es of near+' four

hundred thousand men" This is the most noted

)rodi*' that the missionaries ha%e $or<ed in .a)an"

!ut those of Francis 7a%ier are not $ithout their

merit" Amon* his host of mirac+es( $e Hnd no fe$er

than ei*ht chi+dren raised from the dead" #7a%ierJs

*reatest mirac+e(# sa's the .esuit !ouhours( #$as

not his raisin* so man' of the dead to +ife( ut

his not himse+f d'in* of fati*ue"#

!ut the )+easantest of his mirac+es is( that ha%in*

dro))ed his cruciH= into the sea( near the is+and of

Dictionar'" 8:9



!aranura( $hich I am inc+ined to thin< $as the

is+and of !arataria( a cra came( four6and6t$ent'

hours after( rin*in* the cane et$een its c+a$s"

The most ri++iant of a++( and after $hich no other

deser%es to e re+ated( is that in a storm $hich +asted

three da's( he $as constant+' in t$o shi)s( a hun6

dred and Hft' +ea*ues a)art( and ser%ed one of them

as a )i+ot" The truth of this mirac+e $as attested

' a++ the )assen*ers( $ho cou+d neither decei%e nor

e decei%ed"

3et a++ this $as $ritten serious+' and $ith suc6

cess in the a*e of Louis 7IV"( in the a*e of the #Pro6

%incia+ Letters(# of RacineJs tra*edies( of #!a'+eJs

Dictionar'(# and of so man' other +earned $or<s"

It $ou+d a))ear to e a sort of mirac+e that a man

of sense( +i<e !ouhours( shou+d ha%e committed such

a mass of e=tra%a*ance to the )ress( if $e did not

<no$ to $hat e=cesses men can e carried ' the

cor)orate s)irit in *enera+( and the monacha+ s)irit

in )articu+ar" We ha%e more than t$o hundred %o+6

umes entire+' in this taste( com)i+ed ' mon<s ut

$hat is most to e +amented is( that the enemies of



the mon<s a+so com)i+e" The' com)i+e more a*ree6

a+'( and are read" It is most de)+ora+e that( in

nineteen6t$entieths of Euro)e( there is no +on*er

that )rofound res)ect and Gust %eneration for the

mon<s $hich is sti++ fe+t for them in some of the

%i++a*es of Ara*on and Ca+aria"

The mirac+es of St" Francis 7a%ier( the achie%e6

i io Phi+oso)hica+

ments of Don 5ui=ote( the Comic Romance( and the

con%u+sionaries of St" 0edard( ha%e an eua+ c+aim

on our admiration and re%erence"

After s)ea<in* of Francis 7a%ier it $ou+d e use6

+ess to discuss the histor' of the other Francises"

If 'ou $ou+d e instructed thorou*h+'( consu+t the

conformities of St" Francis of Assisi"

Since the Hne histor' of St" Francis 7a%ier '

the .esuit !ouhours( $e ha%e had the histor' of

St" Francis Re*is ' the .esuit Dauenton( con6

fessor to Phi+i) V" of S)ain - ut this is sma++6eer



after rand'" In the histor' of the +essed Re*is(

there is not e%en a sin*+e resuscitation"

FRANKS FRANCE FRENC&

ITAL3 has a+$a's )reser%ed its name( not$ith6

standin* the )retended esta+ishment of Eneas(

$hich shou+d ha%e +eft some traces of the +an6

*ua*e( characters( and manners of Phr'*ia( if he

e%er came $ith Achates and so man' others( into

the )ro%ince of Rome( then a+most a desert" The

oths( Lomards( Fran<s( A++emani or ermans(

$ho ha%e ' turns in%aded Ita+'( ha%e at +east +eft

it its name"

The T'rians( Africans( Romans( Vanda+s( Visi6

*oths( and Saracens( ha%e( one after the other( een

masters of S)ain( 'et the name of S)ain e=ists"

erman' has a+so a+$a's )reser%ed its o$n name

it has mere+' Goined that of A++ema*ne to it( $hich

a))e++ation it did not recei%e from an' conueror"

Dictionar'" &I



The au+s are a+most the on+' )eo)+e in the $est

$ho ha%e +ost their name" This name $as ori*i6

na++' Wa+ch or We+sh the Romans a+$a's susti6

tuted a for the W( $hich is ararous - of #We+sh#

the' made a++i( a++ia" The' distin*uished the

Ce+tic( the !e+*ic( and the Auitanic au+( each of

$hich s)o<e a diBerent Gar*on"

Who $ere( and $hence came these Fran<s( $ho

in such sma++ numers and +itt+e time )ossessed

themse+%es of a++ the au+s( $hich in ten 'ears

Caesar cou+d not entire+' reduce I am readin* an

author $ho commences ' these $ords- #The

Fran<s from $hom $e descend"# """" &a m'

friend( $ho has to+d 'ou that 'ou descend in a

ri*ht +ine from a Fran< C+o%odic( $hom $e ca++

C+o%is( )roa+' had not more than t$ent' thousand

men( ad+' c+othed and armed( $hen he suGu*ated

aout ei*ht or ten mi++ions of We+sh or au+s( he+d

in ser%itude ' three or four Roman +e*ions" We

ha%e not a sin*+e fami+' in France $hich can fur6

nish( I do not sa' the +east )roof( ut the +east )ro6

ai+it'( that it had its ori*in from a Fran<"

When the )irates of the !a+tic Sea came( to the

numer of se%en or ei*ht thousand( to *i%e Nor6



mand' in Hef( and !rittan' in arriere Hef( did the'(

+ea%e an' archi%es ' $hich it ma' e seen $hether

the' $ere the fathers of a++ the Normans of the

)resent da'

It has een a +on* time e+ie%ed that the Fran<s

came from the TroGans" Ammianus 0arce++inus(

88> Phi+oso)hica+

$ho +i%ed in the fourth centur'( sa's - #Accordin*

to se%era+ ancient $riters( troo)s of fu*iti%e TroGans

esta+ished themse+%es on the orders of the Rhine(

then a desert"# As to 'Eneas( he mi*ht easi+' ha%e

sou*ht an as'+um at the e=tremit' of the 0editer6

ranean( ut Francus( the son of &ector( had too far

to tra%e+ to *o to$ards Diisse+dorf( Worms( So+m(

Ehrenreitstein"

Frede*arius douts not that the Fran<s at Hrst

retired into 0acedonia( and carried arms under A+6

e=ander( after ha%in* fou*ht under Priam on

$hich a++e*ed facts the mon< Otfried com)+iments

the em)eror( Louis the erman"



The *eo*ra)her of Ra%enna( +ess fau+ous( as6

si*ns the Hrst haitation of the horde of Fran<s

amon* the Cimrians( e'ond the E+e( to$ards the

!a+tic Sea" These Fran<s mi*ht $e++ e some re6

mains of these ararian Cimri defeated ' 0a6

rius and the +earned Leinit1 is of this o)inion"

It is %er' certain that( in the time of Constantine(

e'ond the Rhine( there $ere hordes of Fran<s or

Sicamri( $ho +i%ed ' )i++a*e" The' assem+ed

under andit ca)tains( chiefs $hom historians ha%e

had the fo++' to ca++ <in*s" Constantine himse+f

)ursued them to their haunts( caused se%era+ to e

han*ed( and others to e de+i%ered to $i+d easts(

in the am)hitheatre of Trier( for his amusement"

T$o of their )retended <in*s )erished in this man6

ner( at $hich the )ane*'rists of Constantine are in

ecstasies"

Dictionar'" 88

The Sa+ic +a$( $ritten( it is said( ' these ar6

arians( is one of the asurd chimeras $ith $hich



$e ha%e a+$a's een )estered" It $ou+d e %er'

stran*e if the Fran<s had $ritten such a consider6

a+e code in their marshes( and the French had not

an' $ritten usa*es unti+ the c+ose of the rei*n of

Char+es VII" It mi*ht as $e++ e said that the A+6

*onuins and Chicachas had $ritten +a$s" 0en

are ne%er *o%erned ' authentic +a$s( consi*ned to

)u+ic records( unti+ the' ha%e een assem+ed into

cities( and ha%e a re*u+ar )o+ice( archi%es( and a++

that characteri1es a ci%i+i1ed nation" When 'ou Hnd

a code in a nation $hich $as ararous at the time

it $as $ritten( $ho +i%ed u)on ra)ine and )i++a*e(

and $hich had not a $a++ed to$n( 'ou ma' e sure

that this code is a )retended one( $hich has een

made in much +ater times" Fa++acies and su))osi6

tions ne%er o+iterate this truth from the minds of

the $ise"

What is more ridicu+ous sti++( this Sa+ic +a$ has

een *i%en to us in Latin as if sa%a*es( $anderin*

e'ond the Rhine( had +earnt the Latin +an*ua*e"

It is su))osed to ha%e een Hrst di*ested ' C+o%is(

and it ran thus - #Whi+e the i++ustrious nation of the

Fran<s $as sti++ considered ararous( the heads of

this nation dictated the Sa+ic +a$" The' chose amon*

themse+%es four chiefs( Viso*ast( !odo*ast( So+o6



*ast( Vindo*ast# ta<in*( accordin* to La Fon6

taineJs fa+e( the names of )+aces for those of men -

Notre ma*ot )rit )our ce cou)

Le nom d un )ort )our un nom dJhomme"

Vo+" 9 s

88Q Phi+oso)hica+

These names are those of some Fran< cantons in

the )ro%ince of Worms" Whate%er ma' e the

e)och in $hich the customs denominated the Sa+ic

+a$ $ere constructed on an ancient tradition( it is

%er' c+ear that the Fran<s $ere not *reat +e*is+ators"

What is the ori*ina+ meanin* of the $ord

#Fran<# That is a uestion of $hich $e <no$

nothin*( and $hich ao%e a hundred authors ha%e

endea%ored to Hnd out" What is the meanin* of

&un( A+an( oth( We+sh( Picard And $hat do

these $ords si*nif'

Were the armies of C+o%is a++ com)osed of

Fran<s It does not a))ear so" Chi+deric the Fran<



had made inroads as far as Tourna'" It is said that

C+o%is $as the son of Chi+deric( and 5ueen !a1ine(

the $ife of Kin* !a1in" No$ !a1in and !a1ine

are assured+' not erman names( and $e ha%e ne%er

seen the +east )roof that C+o%is $as their son" A++

the erman cantons e+ected their chiefs( and the

)ro%ince of Fran<s had no dout e+ected C+o%is as

the' had done his father" &e made his e=)edition

a*ainst the au+s( as a++ the other ararians had

underta<en theirs a*ainst the Roman Em)ire"

Do 'ou rea++' and tru+' e+ie%e that the &eru+ian

Odo( surnamed Acer ' the Romans( and <no$n to

us ' the name of Odoacer( had on+' &eru+ians in

his train( and that enseric conducted Vanda+s a+one

into Africa A++ the $retches $ithout ta+ent or )ro6

fession( $ho ha%e nothin* to +ose( do the' not a+6

Dictionar'" 88@

$a's Goin the Hrst ca)tain of roers $ho raises

the standard of destruction

As soon as C+o%is had the +east success( his troo)s



$ere no dout Goined ' a++ the !e+*ians $ho )anted

for oot' and this arm' is ne%erthe+ess ca++ed the

arm' of Fran<s" The e=)edition is %er' eas'" The

Visi*oths had a+read' in%aded one6third of au+(

and the !ur*undians another" The rest sumitted

to C+o%is" The Fran<s di%ided the +and of the %an6

uished( and the We+sh cu+ti%ated it"

The $ord #Fran<# ori*ina++' si*niHed a free

)ossessor( $hi+e the others $ere s+a%es" &ence

come the $ords #franchise(# and #to enfranchise#

#I ma<e 'ou a Fran<(# #I render 'ou a free man"#

&ence( franca+enus( ho+din* free+' fran< a+eu(

fran< dad( fran< chamen( and so man' other terms

ha+f Latin and ha+f ararian( $hich ha%e so" +on*

com)osed the misera+e )atois s)o<en in France"

&ence( a+so( a franc in *o+d or si+%er to e=)ress

the mone' of the <in* of the Fran<s( $hich did not

a))ear unti+ a +on* time after( ut $hich reminds us

of the ori*in of the monarch'" We sti++ sa' t$ent'

francs( t$ent' +i%res( $hich si*niHes nothin* in it6

se+f it *i%es no idea of the $ei*ht or %a+ue of the

mone'( ein* on+' a %a*ue e=)ression( ' $hich i*6

norant )eo)+e ha%e een continua++' decei%ed( not

<no$in* rea++' ho$ much the' recei%e or ho$ much





Their <in* $as not em)eror unti+ after he had een

cro$ned ' the )o)e """" a++ that the em)eror

)ossessed he he+d from us" And as 4acharius *a%e

the ree< Em)ire to the ermans( $e can *i%e that

of the ermans to the ree<s"#

&o$e%er( France ha%in* een di%ided into east6

ern and $estern( and the eastern ein* Austrasia(

this name of France )re%ai+ed so far( that e%en in

the time of the Sa=on em)erors( the court of Con6

stantino)+e a+$a's ca++ed them )retended Fran< em6

)erors( as ma' e seen in the +etters of !isho) Luit6

)rand( sent from Rome to Constantino)+e"

Dictionar'" 88?

Of the French Nation"

When the Fran<s esta+ished themse+%es in the

countr' of the Hrst We+sh( $hich the Romans ca++ed

a++ia( the nation $as com)osed of ancient Ce+ts

or au+s( suGu*ated ' Caesar( Roman fami+ies

$ho $ere esta+ished there( ermans $ho had a+6

read' emi*rated there( and Hna++' of the Fran<s(



$ho had rendered themse+%es masters of the countr'

under their chief C+o%is" Whi+e the monarch' e=6

isted( $hich united au+ and erman'( a++ the

)eo)+e( from the source of the Weser to the seas

of au+( ore the name of Fran<s" !ut $hen at

the con*ress of Verdun( in 2Q( under Char+es the

!a+d( erman' and au+ $ere se)arated( the name

of Fran<s remained to the )eo)+e of $estern France(

$hich a+one retained the name of France"

The name of French $as scarce+' <no$n unti+

to$ards the tenth centur'" The foundation of the

nation is of a++ic fami+ies( and traces of the char6

acter of the ancient au+s ha%e a+$a's e=isted"

Indeed( e%er' )eo)+e has its character( as $e++ as

e%er' man and this character is *enera++' formed

of a++ the resem+ances caused ' nature and custom

amon* the inhaitants of the %arieties $hich dis6

tin*uish them" Thus French character( *enius( and

$it( resu+t from that $hich has een common to the

diBerent )ro%inces in the <in*dom" The )eo)+e of

uienne and those of Normand' diBer much

there is( ho$e%er( found in them the French *enius(

$hich forms a nation of these diBerent )ro%inces(



8 8 2 Phi+oso)hica+

and distin*uishes them from the Indians and er6

mans" C+imate and soi+ e%ident+' im)rint unchan*e6

a+e mar<s on men( as $e++ as on anima+s and )+ants"

Those $hich de)end on *o%ernment( re+i*ion( and

education are diBerent" That is the <not $hich e=6

)+ains ho$ )eo)+e ha%e +ost one )art of their ancient

character and )reser%ed the other" A )eo)+e $ho

former+' conuered ha+f the $or+d are no +on*er

reco*ni1ed under sacerdota+ *o%ernment( ut the

seeds of their ancient *reatness of sou+ sti++ e=ist(

thou*h hidden eneath $ea<ness"

In the same manner the ararous *o%ernment

of the Tur<s has ener%ated the E*')tians and the

ree<s( $ithout ha%in* een a+e to destro' the

ori*ina+ character or tem)er of their minds"

The )resent character of the French is the same

as Caesar ascried to the au+s )rom)t to reso+%e(

ardent to comat( im)etuous in attac<( and easi+' dis6

coura*ed" Caesar( A*atius( and others sa'( that of

a++ the ararians the au+s $ere the most )o+ished"



The' are sti++ in the most ci%i+i1ed times the mode+

of )o+iteness to a++ their nei*hors( thou*h the' oc6

casiona++' disco%er the remains of their +e%it'( )et6

u+ance( and ararit'"

The inhaitants of the coasts of France $ere a+6

$a's *ood seamen the )eo)+e of uienne a+$a's

com)ose the est infantr' #those $ho inhait the

)ro%inces of !+ois and Tours are not(# sa's Tasso(

#roust and indefati*a+e( ut +and and *ent+e( +i<e

the +and $hich the' inhait"#

Dictionar'" 889

"""" ente rousta( efaticosa(

La terra mo++e( e +ieta( e di+ettosa

Simi+i a se *+i aitator( )roduce"

!ut ho$ can $e reconci+e the character of the

Parisians of our da' $ith that $hich the Em)eror

.u+ian( the Hrst of )rinces and men after 0arcus

Aure+ius( *a%e to the Parisians of his time #I +o%e

this )eo)+e(# sa's he in his #0iso)o*on(# #ecause

the' are serious and se%ere +i<e m'se+f"# This se6



riousness( $hich seems at )resent anished from an

immense cit' ecome the centre of )+easure( then

rei*ned in a +itt+e to$n destitute of amusements - in

this res)ect the s)irit of the Parisians has chan*ed

not$ithstandin* the c+imate"

The aUuence( o)u+ence( and id+eness of the )eo6

)+e $ho ma' occu)' themse+%es $ith )+easures and

the arts( and not $ith the *o%ernment( ha%e *i%en

a ne$ turn of mind to a $ho+e nation"

Further( ho$ is it to e e=)+ained ' $hat de6

*rees this )eo)+e ha%e )assed from the Herceness

$hich characteri1ed them in the time of Kin* .ohn(

Char+es VI"( Char+es I7"( &enr' III"( and &enr'

IV"( to the soft faci+it' of manners for $hich the'

are no$ the admiration of Euro)e It is that the

storms of *o%ernment and re+i*ion forced constitu6

tiona+ %i%acit' into )aro='sms of faction and fanat6

icism and that this same %i%acit'( $hich a+$a's

$i++ e=ist( has at )resent no oGect ut the )+easures

of societ'" The Parisian is im)etuous in his )+eas6

ures as he former+' $as in his Herceness" The ori*6

ina+ character $hich is caused ' the c+imate is a+6





French $as more restricted" /nder &u*h Ca)et(

&enr'( and Phi+i)( the )eo)+e on this side the Loire

on+'( $ere ca++ed French" There $as then seen a

*reat di%ersit' of manners and of +a$s in the )ro%6

inces he+d from the cro$n of France" The )articu6

+ar +ords $ho ecame the masters of these )ro%6

inces introduced ne$ customs into their ne$ states"

A !reton and a F+emin* ha%e at )resent some con6

formit'( not$ithstandin* the diBerence of their

Dictionar'" 8 > 8

character( $hich the' ho+d from the sun and the

c+imate( ut ori*ina++' there $as not the +east simi+6

itude et$een them"

It is on+' since the time of Francis I" that there

has een an' uniformit' in manners and customs"

The court( at this time( Hrst e*an to ser%e for a

mode+ to the /nited Pro%inces ut in *enera+( im6

)etuosit' in $ar( and a +a= disci)+ine( a+$a's formed

the )redominant character of the nation"

a++antr' and )o+iteness e*an to distin*uish the



French under Francis I" 0anners ecame odious

after the death of Francis II" &o$e%er( in the midst

of their horrors( there $as a+$a's a )o+iteness at

court $hich the ermans and En*+ish endea%ored to

imitate" The rest of Euro)e( in aimin* to resem+e

the French( $ere a+read' Gea+ous of them" A char6

acter in one of Sha<es)eareJs comedies sa's that it

is diMcu+t to e )o+ite $ithout ha%in* een at the

court of France"

Thou*h the nation has een ta=ed $ith fri%o+it'

' Caesar( and ' a++ nei*horin* nations( 'et this

<in*dom( so +on* dismemered( and so often read'

to sin<( is united and sustained )rinci)a++' ' the

$isdom of its ne*otiations( address( and )atience

ut ao%e a++( ' the di%isions of erman' and En*6

+and" !rittan' a+one has een united to the <in*6

dom ' a marria*e !ur*und' ' ri*ht of fee( and

' the ai+it' of Louis 7L Dau)hin' ' a dona6

tion( $hich $as the fruit of )o+ic' the count'

of Tou+ouse ' a *rant( maintained ' an arm'

8>> Phi+oso)hica+



Pro%ence ' mone'" One treat' of )eace has *i%en

A+sace( another Lorraine" The En*+ish ha%e een

dri%en from France( not$ithstandin* the most si*6

na+ %ictories( ecause the <in*s of France ha%e

<no$n ho$ to tem)ori1e( and )roHt on a++ fa%ora+e

occasions a++ $hich )ro%es( that if the French

'outh are fri%o+ous( the men of ri)er a*e( $ho *o%6

ern it( ha%e a+$a's een $ise" E%en at )resent the

ma*istrac' are se%ere in manners( as in the time of

the Em)eror .u+ian" If the Hrst successes in Ita+'(

in the time of Char+es VIII"( $ere o$in* to the $ar6

+i<e im)etuosit' of the nation( the dis*races $hich

fo++o$ed them $ere caused ' the +indness of a

court $hich $as com)osed of 'oun* men a+one"

Francis I" $as on+' unfortunate in his 'outh( $hen

a++ $as *o%erned ' fa%orites of his o$n a*e( and

he rendered his <in*dom more ourishin* at a more

ad%anced a*e"

The French ha%e a+$a's used the same arms as

their nei*hors( and ha%e near+' the same disci)+ine

in $ar( ut $ere the Hrst $ho discarded the +ance

and )i<e" The att+e of I%r' discoura*ed the use

of +ances( $hich $ere soon ao+ished( and under

Louis 7IV" )i<es $ere a+so discontinued" The'

$ore tunics and roes unti+ the si=teenth centur'"



/nder Louis the 3oun* the' +eft oB the custom of

+ettin* the eards *ro$( and retoo< to it under

Francis I" On+' under Louis 7IV" did the' e*in

to sha%e the entire face" Their dress is continua++'

chan*in*( and at the end of each centur' the French

Dictionar'" 8 >

mi*ht ta<e the )ortraits of their *randfathers for

those of forei*ners"

FRA/D"

Whether )ious Frauds shou+d e )ractised u)on the

Peo)+e"

ONCE u)on a time the fa<ir !amaef met one

of the disci)+es of Confut1ee $hom $e ca++ Confu6

cius( and this disci)+e $as named Whan*" !am6

aef maintained that the )eo)+e reuire to e de6

cei%ed( and Whan* asserted that $e shou+d ne%er

decei%e an' one" &ere is a s<etch of their dis)ute -

!A0!A!EF" We must imitate the Su)reme



!ein*( $ho does not sho$ us thin*s as the' are" &e

ma<es us see the sun $ith a diameter of t$o or three

feet( a+thou*h it is a mi++ion of times +ar*er than the

earth" &e ma<es us see the moon and the stars af6

H=ed to one and the same +ue surface( $hi+e the'

are at diBerent e+e%ations he chooses that a suare

to$er shou+d a))ear round to us at a distance he

chooses that Hre shou+d a))ear to us to e hot( a+6

thou*h it is neither hot nor co+d in short( he sur6

rounds us $ith errors( suita+e to our nature"

W&AN" What 'ou ca++ error is not so" The

sun( such as it is( )+aced at mi++ions of mi++ions of

+is from our *+oe( is not that $hich $e see( that

$hich $e rea++' )ercei%e - $e )ercei%e on+' the sun

$hich is )ainted on our retina( at a determinate

an*+e" Our e'es $ere not *i%en us to <no$ si1es

8 >Q Phi+oso)hica+

and distances - to <no$ these( other aids and other

o)erations are necessar'"

!amaef seemed much astonished at this )osi6



tion" Whan*( ein* %er' )atient( e=)+ained to him

the theor' of o)tics and !amaef( ha%in* some

conce)tion( $as con%inced ' the demonstrations of

the disci)+e of Confucius" &e then resumed in these

terms -

!A0!A!EF" If od does not( as I thou*ht( de6

cei%e us ' the ministr' of our senses( 'ou $i++ at

+east ac<no$+ed*e that our )h'sicians are constant+'

decei%in* chi+dren for their *ood" The' te++ them

that the' are *i%in* them su*ar( $hen in rea+it' the'

are *i%in* them rhuar" I( a fa<ir( ma' then de6

cei%e the )eo)+e( $ho are as i*norant as chi+dren"

W&AN" I ha%e t$o sons I ha%e ne%er de6

cei%ed them" When the' ha%e een sic<( I ha%e said

to them - #&ere is a nauseous medicine 'ou must

ha%e the coura*e to ta<e it if it $ere )+easant( it

$ou+d inGure 'ou"# I ha%e ne%er suBered their

nurses and tutors to ma<e them afraid of *hosts(

*o+ins( and $itches" I ha%e there' made them

$ise and coura*eous citi1ens"

!A0!A!EF" The )eo)+e are not orn so ha))i+'

as 'our fami+'"



W&AN" 0en a++ near+' resem+e one another

the' are orn $ith the same dis)ositions" Their

nature ou*ht not to e corru)ted"

!A0!A!EF" We teach them errors( I o$n ut

it is for their *ood" We ma<e them e+ie%e that if

Dictionar'" 8>@

the' do not u' our +essed nai+s( if the' do not e=6

)iate their sins ' *i%in* us mone'( the' $i++( in

another +ife( ecome )ost6horses( do*s( or +i1ards"

This intimidates them( and the' ecome *ood )eo)+e"

W&AN" Do 'ou not see that 'ou are )er%ert6

in* these )oor fo+<s There are amon* them man'

more than 'ou thin< there are $ho reason( $ho

ma<e a Gest of 'our mirac+es and 'our su)erstitions

$ho see %er' c+ear+' that the' $i++ not e turned

into +i1ards( nor into )ost6horses" What is the con6

seuence The' ha%e *ood sense enou*h to )er6

cei%e that 'ou ta+< to them %er' im)ertinent+' ut

the' ha%e not enou*h to e+e%ate themse+%es to a re6

+i*ion )ure and untramme++ed ' su)erstition +i<e



ours" Their )assions ma<e them thin< there is no

re+i*ion( ecause the on+' one that is tau*ht them is

ridicu+ous - thus 'ou ecome *ui+t' of a++ the %ices

into $hich the' )+un*e"

!A0!A!EF" Not at a++( for $e teach them none

ut *ood mora+s"

W&AN" The )eo)+e $ou+d stone 'ou if 'ou

tau*ht im)ure mora+s" 0en are so constituted that

the' +i<e %er' $e++ to do e%i+( ut the' $i++ not ha%e

it )reached to them" !ut a $ise mora+it' shou+d not

e mi=ed u) $ith asurd fa+es - for ' these im6

)ostures( $hich 'ou mi*ht do $ithout( 'ou $ea<en

that mora+it' $hich 'ou are forced to teach"

!A0!A!EF" What do 'ou thin< that truth can

e tau*ht to the )eo)+e $ithout the aid of fa+es

W&AN" I Hrm+' e+ie%e it" Our +iterati are

8>; Phi+oso)hica+

made of the same stuB as our tai+ors( our $ea%ers(



and our +aorers" The' $orshi) a creatin*( re6

$ardin*( and a%en*in* od" The' do not su++' their

$orshi) ' asurd s'stems( nor ' e=tra%a*ant cer6

emonies" There are much fe$er crimes amon* the

+ettered than amon* the )eo)+e $h' shou+d $e not

condescend to instruct our $or<in* c+asses as $e do

our +iterati

!A0!A!EF" That $ou+d e *reat fo++' as $e++

mi*ht 'ou $ish them to ha%e the same )o+iteness(

or to e a++ Gurisconsu+ts" It is neither )ossi+e nor

desira+e" There must e $hite read for the mas6

ter( and ro$n for the ser%ant"

W&AN" I o$n that men shou+d not a++ ha%e the

same science ut there are thin*s necessar' to a++"

It is necessar' that each one shou+d e Gust and the

surest $a' of ins)irin* a++ men $ith Gustice is to

ins)ire them $ith re+i*ion $ithout su)erstition"

!A0!A!EF" That is a Hne )roGect( ut it is im6

)ractica+e" Do 'ou thin< it is suMcient for men to

e+ie%e in a ein* that re$ards and )unishes 3ou

ha%e to+d me that the more acute amon* the )eo)+e

often re%o+t a*ainst fa+es" The' $i++( in +i<e man6

ner( re%o+t a*ainst truth" The' $i++ sa' - Who sha++



assure me that od re$ards and )unishes Where

is the )roof What mission ha%e 'ou What mir6

ac+e ha%e 'ou $or<ed that I shou+d e+ie%e in 'ou

The' $i++ +au*h at 'ou much more than at me"

W&AN" 3our error is this - 3ou ima*ine that

men $i++ s)urn an idea that is honest( +i<e+'( and use6

Dictionar'" 8 >?

fu+ to e%er' one an idea $hich accords $ith hu6

man reason( ecause the' reGect thin*s $hich are

dishonest( asurd( use+ess( dan*erous( and shoc<in*

to *ood sense"

The )eo)+e are much dis)osed to e+ie%e their

ma*istrates and $hen their ma*istrates )ro)ose to

them on+' a rationa+ e+ief( the' emrace it $i++in*+'"

There is no need of )rodi*ies to e+ie%e in a Gust

od( $ho reads the heart of man- this is an idea

too natura+( too necessar'( to e comated" It is

not necessar' to <no$ )recise+' ho$ od re$ards

and )unishes- to e+ie%e in &is Gustice is enou*h"

I assure 'ou that I ha%e seen $ho+e to$ns $ith



scarce+' an' other tenet and that in them I ha%e

seen the most %irtue"

!A0!A!EF" Ta<e heed $hat 'ou sa'" 3ou $i++

Hnd )hi+oso)hers in these times( $ho $i++ den' oth

)ains and re$ards"

W&AN" !ut 'ou $i++ ac<no$+ed*e that these

)hi+oso)hers $i++ much more stron*+' den' 'our

in%entions so 'ou $i++ *ain nothin* ' that" Su)6

)osin* that there are )hi+oso)hers $ho do not a*ree

$ith m' )rinci)+es( the' are not the +ess honest

men the' do not the +ess cu+ti%ate %irtue( $hich

shou+d e emraced throu*h +o%e( and not throu*h

fear" 0oreo%er( I maintain that no )hi+oso)her can

e%er e assured that Pro%idence does not reser%e

)ains for the $ic<ed( and re$ards for the *ood"

For( if the' as< me $ho has to+d me that od

)unishes( I sha++ as< them $ho has to+d them that

8>2 Phi+oso)hica+

od does not )unish" In short( I maintain that the

)hi+oso)hers( far from contradictin*( $i++ aid me"



Wi++ 'ou e a )hi+oso)her

!A0!A!EF" With a++ m' heart" !ut do not te++

the fa<irs" And +et us( ao%e a++( rememer that

if a )hi+oso)her $ou+d e of ser%ice to human

societ'( he must announce a od"

FREE6WILL"

FRO0 the commencement of the time in $hich

men e*an to reason( )hi+oso)hers ha%e a*itated

this uestion( $hich theo+o*ians ha%e rendered un6

inte++i*i+e ' their asurd sut+eties u)on *race"

Loc<e is )erha)s the Hrst $ho( $ithout ha%in* the

arro*ance of announcin* a *enera+ )rinci)+e( has

e=amined human nature ' ana+'sis" It has een

dis)uted for three thousand 'ears( $hether the $i++

is free or not Loc<e sho$s that the uestion is

asurd( and that +iert' cannot e+on* to the $i++

an' more than co+or and motion"

What is meant ' the e=)ression to e free It

si*niHes )o$er( or rather it has no sense at a++" To

sa' that the $i++ can( is in itse+f as ridicu+ous as

if $e said that it is 'e++o$( or +ue( round( or suare"



Wi++ is $i++( and +iert' is )o$er" Let us *radu6

a++' e=amine the chain of $hat )asses $ithin us(

$ithout confusin* our minds $ith an' scho+astic

terms( or antecedent )rinci)+e"

It is )ro)osed to 'ou to ride on horseac< it is

Dictionar'" 8>9

aso+ute+' necessar' for 'ou to ma<e a choice( for

it is %er' c+ear that 'ou must either *o or not

there is no medium( 'ou must aso+ute+' do the

one or the other" So far it is demonstrated that

the $i++ is not free" 3ou $i++ *et on horseac<

$h' !ecause I $i++ to do so( an i*noramus $i++

sa'" This re)+' is an asurdit' nothin* can e

done $ithout reason or cause" 3our $i++ then is

caused ' $hat The a*reea+e idea $hich is )re6

sented to 'our rain the )redominant( or de6

termined idea ut( 'ou $i++ sa'( cannot I resist

an idea $hich )redominates o%er me No( for

$hat $ou+d e the cause of 'our resistance An

idea ' $hich 'our $i++ is s$a'ed sti++ more des6

)otica++'"



3ou recei%e 'our ideas( and( therefore( recei%e

'our $i++" 3ou $i++ then necessari+' conseuent+'(

the $ord #+iert'# e+on*s not to $i++ in an' sense"

3ou as< me ho$ thou*ht and $i++ are formed

$ithin 'ou I ans$er that I <no$ nothin* aout it"

I no more <no$ ho$ ideas are created than I <no$

ho$ the $or+d $as formed" We are on+' a++o$ed to

*ro)e in the dar< in reference to a++ that ins)ires our

incom)rehensi+e machine"

Wi++( then( is not a facu+t' $hich can e ca++ed

free" #Free6$i++# is a $ord aso+ute+' de%oid of

sense( and that $hich scho+ars ha%e ca++ed #in6

diBerence(# that is to sa'( $i++ $ithout cause( is a

chimera un$orth' to e comated"

In $hat then consists +iert' In the )o$er of

Vo+" 9 9

8: Phi+oso)hica+



doin* $hat $e $i++ I $ou+d *o into m' cainet

the door is o)en( I am free to enter" !ut( sa' 'ou(

if the door is shut and I remain $here I am( I re6

main free+'" Let us e=)+ain ourse+%es 'ou then

e=ercise the )o$er that 'ou )ossess of remainin*

'ou )ossess this )o$er( ut not the )o$er of *oin*

out"

Liert'( then( on $hich so man' %o+umes ha%e

een $ritten( reduced to its )ro)er sense( is on+'

the )o$er of actin*"

In $hat sense must the e=)ression #this man

is free# e s)o<en In the same sense in $hich $e

use the $ords #hea+th(# #stren*th(# and #ha))i6

ness"# 0an is not a+$a's stron*( hea+th'( or ha))'"

A *reat )assion( a *reat ostac+e( ma' de)ri%e him

of his +iert'( or )o$er of action"

The $ords #+iert'# and #free6$i++# are( then(

astractions( *enera+ terms( +i<e eaut'( *oodness(

Gustice" These terms do not si*nif' that a++ men

are a+$a's handsome( *ood( and Gust( neither are

the' a+$a's free"

Further( +iert' ein* on+' the )o$er of actin*(



$hat is this )o$er It is the eBect of the constitu6

tion( and the actua+ state of our or*ans" Leinit1

$ou+d so+%e a )ro+em of *eometr'( ut fa++s into

an a)o)+e=' he certain+' has not the +iert' to

so+%e his )ro+em" A %i*orous 'oun* man( )as6

sionate+' in +o%e( $ho ho+ds his $i++in* mistress in

his arms( is he free to sudue his )assion Dout6

+ess not" &e has the )o$er of enGo'in*( and has

Dictionar'" 88

not the )o$er to astain" Loc<e then is %er' ri*ht

in ca++in* +iert'( )o$er" When can this 'oun*

man astain( not$ithstandin* the %io+ence of his

)assion When a stron*er idea sha++ determine the

s)rin*s of his sou+ and od' to the contrar'"

!ut ho$ &a%e other anima+s the same +iert'(

the same )o$er Wh' not The' ha%e sense(

memor'( sentiment( and )erce)tions +i<e ourse+%es

the' act s)ontaneous+' as $e do" The' must( a+so(

+i<e us( ha%e the )o$er of actin* ' %irtue of their

)erce)tion( and of the )+a' of their or*ans"



We e=c+aim- If it e thus( a++ thin*s are ma6

chines mere+' e%er'thin* in the uni%erse is su6

Gected to the eterna+ +a$s" We++( $ou+d 'ou ha%e

e%er'thin* rendered suGect to a mi++ion of +ind

ca)rices Either a++ is the conseuence of the nature

of thin*s( or a++ is the eBect of the eterna+ order

of an aso+ute master in oth cases( $e are on+'

$hee+s to the machine of the $or+d"

It is a foo+ish( common6)+ace e=)ression that

$ithout this )retended freedom of $i++( re$ards

and )unishments are use+ess" Reason( and 'ou $i++

conc+ude uite the contrar'"

If( $hen a roer is e=ecuted( his accom)+ice(

$ho sees him suBer( has the +iert' of not ein*

fri*htened at the )unishment if his $i++ deter6

mines of itse+f( he $i++ *o from the foot of the

scaBo+d to assassinate on the hi*h road if struc<

$ith horror( he e=)eriences an insurmounta+e ter6

ror( he $i++ no +on*er thie%e" The )unishment of

8> Phi+oso)hica+



his com)anion $i++ ecome usefu+ to him( and more6

o%er )ro%e to societ' that his $i++ is not free"

Liert'( then( is not and cannot e an'thin* ut

the )o$er of doin* $hat $e $i++" That is $hat

)hi+oso)h' teaches us" !ut( if $e consider +iert'

in the theo+o*ica+ sense( it is so su+ime a matter

that )rofane e'es ma' not e raised so hi*h"

FRENC& LAN/AE"

T&E French +an*ua*e did not e*in to assume

a re*u+ar form unti+ the tenth centur' it s)ran*

from the remains of the Latin and the Ce+tic( mi=ed

$ith a fe$ Teutonic $ords" This +an*ua*e $as( in

the Hrst instance( the )ro%incia+ Roman( and the

Teutonic $as the +an*ua*e of the courts( unti+ the

time of Char+es the !a+d" The Teutonic remained

the on+' +an*ua*e in erman'( after the *rand

e)och of the di%ision in Q" The rustic Roman

)re%ai+ed in Western France the inhaitants of

the Pa's de Vaud( of the Va+ois( of the %a++e' of

En*adine( and some other cantons( sti++ )reser%e

some manifest %esti*es of this idiom"

At the commencement of the e+e%enth centur'(



French e*an to e $ritten ut this French re6

tained more of Romance or rustic Roman than of

the +an*ua*e of the )resent da'" The romance of

Phi+omena( $ritten in the tenth centur'( is not %er'

diBerent in +an*ua*e from that of the +a$s of the

Normans" We cannot 'et trace the ori*ina+ Ce+tic(

Latin( and erman" The $ords $hich si*nif' the

Dictionar'" 8

memers of the human od'( or thin*s in dai+' use(

$hich ha%e no re+ation to the Latin or erman( are

of ancient a++ic or Ce+tic( as tete( Game( sare(

)oint( oi+er( )ar+er( ecouter( re*arder( crier( cotume(

ensem+e( and man' more of the same <ind" The

*reater numer of the $ar+i<e )hrases $ere French

or erman( as marche( ha+te( marecha+( i%ouac(

+ansuenet" A+most a++ the rest are Latin( and the

Latin $ords ha%e een a++ arid*ed( accordin* to

the usa*e and *enius of the nations of the north"

In the t$e+fth centur'( some terms $ere or6

ro$ed from the )hi+oso)h' of Aristot+e and to6

$ard the si=teenth centur'( ree< names $ere found



for the )arts of the human od'( and for its ma+adies

and their remedies" A+thou*h the +an*ua*e $as

then enriched $ith ree<( and aided from the time

of Char+es VIII" $ith considera+e accessions from

the Ita+ian( a+read' arri%ed at )erfection( it did not

acuire a re*u+ar form" Francis I" ao+ished the

custom of )+eadin* and of Gud*in* in Latin( $hich

)ro%ed the ararism of a +an*ua*e $hich cou+d not

e used in )u+ic )roceedin*s a )ernicious custom

to the nati%es( $hose fortunes $ere re*u+ated in a

+an*ua*e $hich the' cou+d not understand" It then

ecame necessar' to cu+ti%ate the French( ut the

+an*ua*e $as neither no+e nor re*u+ar( and its

s'nta= $as a+to*ether ca)ricious" The *enius of

its con%ersation ein* turned to$ards )+easantr'(

the +an*ua*e ecame ferti+e in smart and +i%e+' e=6

)ressions( ut e=ceedin*+' arren in di*niHed and

8Q Phi+osoDhica+

harmonious )hrases $hence it arises that in the

dictionaries of rh'mes( t$ent' suita+e $ords are

found for comic )oetr' for one of )oetr' of a more

e+e%ated nature" This $as the cause that 0arot





this )hrase in Latin( #Res Casaris( P+ancus di+i6

*enter cura%it(# ma' e arran*ed in a hundred and

Dictionar'" 8@

t$ent' diBerent forms $ithout inGurin* the sense or

ru+es of the +an*ua*e" The au=i+iar' %ers( $hich

+en*then and $ea<en )hrases in the modern ton*ues(

render that of France sti++ +ess ada)ted to the +a)i6

dar' st'+e" Its au=i+iar' %ers( its )ronouns( its

artic+es( its deHcienc' of dec+ina+e )artici)+es( and(

+ast+'( its uniformit' of )osition( )rec+ude the e=6

hiition of much enthusiasm in )oetr' it )ossesses

fe$er ca)ai+ities of this nature than the Ita+ian and

the En*+ish ut this constraint and s+a%er' render

it more )ro)er for tra*ed' and comed' than an'

+an*ua*e in Euro)e" The natura+ order in $hich

the French )eo)+e are o+i*ed to e=)ress their

thou*hts and construct their )hrases( infuses into

their s)eech a faci+it' and amenit' $hich )+ease

e%er'od' and the *enius of the nation suitin*

$ith the *enius of the +an*ua*e( has )roduced a

*reater numer of oo<s a*reea+' $ritten than are

to e found amon* an' other )eo)+e"



Socia+ freedom and )o+iteness ha%in* een for a

+on* -ime esta+ished in France( the +an*ua*e has

acuired a de+icac' of e=)ression( and a natura+ re6

Hnement $hich are se+dom to e found out of it"

This reHnement has occasiona++' een carried too

far ut men of taste ha%e a+$a's <no$n ho$ to

reduce it $ithin due ounds"

0an' )ersons ha%e maintained that the French

+an*ua*e has een im)o%erished since the da's of

0ontai*ne and Am'ot( ecause e=)ressions aound

in these authors $hich are no +on*er em)+o'ed

8; Phi+oso)hica+

ut these are for the most )art terms for $hich

eui%a+ents ha%e een found" It has een enriched

$ith a numer of no+e and ener*etic e=)ressions(

and( $ithout ad%ertin* to the e+ouence of matter(

has certain+' that of s)eech" It $as durin* the

rei*n of Louis 7IV"( as a+read' oser%ed( that the

+an*ua*e $as H=ed" Whate%er chan*es time and

ca)rice ma' ha%e in store( the *ood authors of the



se%enteenth and ei*hteenth centuries $i++ a+$a's

ser%e for mode+s"

Circumstances created no ri*ht to e=)ect that

France $ou+d e distin*uished in )hi+oso)h'" A

othic *o%ernment e=tin*uished a++ <ind of i++umi6

nation durin* more than t$e+%e centuries and )ro6

fessors of error( )aid for ruta+i1in* human nature(

more increased the dar<ness" Ne%erthe+ess( there

is more )hi+oso)h' in Paris than in an' to$n on

earth( and )ossi+' than in a++ the to$ns )ut to6

*ether( e=ce)tin* London" The s)irit of reason has

e%en )enetrated into the )ro%inces" In a $ord( the

French *enius is )roa+' at )resent eua+ to that

of En*+and in )hi+oso)h' $hi+e for the +ast four6

score 'ears France has een su)erior to a++ other

nations in +iterature and has undenia+' ta<en the

+ead in the courtesies of societ'( and in that eas'

and natura+ )o+iteness( $hich is im)ro)er+' termed

uranit'"

FRIENDS&IP"

T&E tem)+e of friendshi) has +on* een <no$n

' name( ut it is $e++ <no$n that it has een %er'



Dictionar'" 8?

+itt+e freuented as the fo++o$in* %erses )+eas6

ant+' oser%e( Orestes( P'+ades( Pirithous( Achates(

and the tender Nisus( $ere a++ *enuine friends and

*reat heroes ut( a+as( e=istent on+' in fa+e -

En %ieu= +an*a*e on %oit sur +a facade(

Les noms sacres dJOreste et de P'+ade

Le mtdai++on du an Pirithous(

Du sa*e Achate et du tendre Nisus

Tous *rands he#ros( tous amis %erita+es

Ces noms sont eau= mats /s sont dans +es fa+es"

Friendshi) commands more than +o%e and esteem"

Lo%e 'our nei*hor si*niHes assist 'our nei*hor(

ut not enGo' his con%ersation $ith )+easure( if

he e tiresome conHde to him 'our secrets( if he

e a tatt+er or +end him 'our mone'( if he e a

s)endthrift"

Friendshi) is the marria*e of the sou+( and this



marria*e is +ia+e to di%orce" It is a tacit contract

et$een t$o sensi+e and %irtuous )ersons" I sa'

sensi+e( for a mon< or a hermit cannot e so( $ho

+i%es $ithout <no$in* friendshi)" I sa' %irtuous(

for the $ic<ed on+' ha%e accom)+ices the %o+u)tu6

ous( com)anions the interested( associates )o+i6

ticians assem+e factions the *enera+it' of id+e men

ha%e connections )rinces( courtiers" Virtuous men

a+one )ossess friends"

Cethe*us $as the accom)+ice of Cati+ine( and

0aecenas the courtier of Octa%ius ut Cicero $as

the friend of Atticus"

What is caused ' this contract et$een t$o

tender( honest minds Its o+i*ations are stron*er

82 Phi+oso)hica+

or $ea<er accordin* to the de*rees of sensii+it'(

and the numer of ser%ices rendered"

The enthusiasm of friendshi) has een stron*er

amon* the ree<s and Aras than amon* us" The



ta+es that these )eo)+e ha%e ima*ined on the suGect

of friendshi) are admira+e $e ha%e none to com6

)are to them" We are rather dr' and reser%ed in

e%er'thin*" I see no *reat trait of friendshi) in our

histories( romances( or theatre"

The on+' friendshi) s)o<en of amon* the .e$s(

$as that $hich e=isted et$een .onathan and Da%id"

It is said that Da%id +o%ed him $ith a +o%e stron*er

than that of $omen ut it is a+so said that Da%id(

after the death of his friend( dis)ossessed 0e)hi6

osheth( his son( and caused him to e )ut to death"

Friendshi) $as a )oint of re+i*ion and +e*is+a6

tion amon* the ree<s" The Theans had a re*i6

ment of +o%ers a Hne re*iment some ha%e ta<en

it for a re*iment of nonconformists" The' are de6

cei%ed it is ta<in* a shamefu+ accident for a no+e

)rinci)+e" Friendshi)( amon* the ree<s( $as )re6

scried ' the +a$s and re+i*ion" 0anners counte6

nanced auses( ut the +a$s did not"

FRIVOLIT3"

W&AT )ersuades me sti++ more of the e=istence

of Pro%idence( said the )rofound author of #!acha



!i++eouet# is that to conso+e us for our innumer6

a+e miseries( nature has made us fri%o+ous" We

are sometimes ruminatin* o=en( o%ercome ' the

Dictionar'" 89

$ei*ht of our 'o<e sometimes dis)ersed do%es(

trem+in*+' endea%orin* to a%oid the c+a$s of the

%u+ture( stained $ith the +ood of our com)anions

fo=es( )ursued ' do*s and ti*ers( $ho de%our one

another" Then $e sudden+' ecome utteries and

for*et( in our %o+ati+e $inno$in*s( a++ the horrors

that $e ha%e e=)erienced"

If $e $ere not fri%o+ous( $hat man $ithout shud6

derin*( cou+d +i%e in a to$n in $hich the $ife of a

marsha+ of France( a +ad' of honor to the ueen(

$as urned( under the )rete=t that she had <i++ed

a $hite coc< ' moon+i*ht or in the same to$n in

$hich 0arsha+ 0ari++ac $as assassinated accordin*

to form( )ursuant to a sentence )assed ' Gudicia+

murderers a))ointed ' a )riest in his o$n countr'

house( in $hich he emraced 0arion de Lorme

$hi+e these roed $retches e=ecuted his san*uinar'



$ishes

Cou+d a man sa' to himse+f( $ithout trem+in*

in e%er' ner%e( and ha%in* his heart fro1en $ith

horror - #&ere I am( in the %er' )+ace $hich( it is

said( $as stre$ed $ith the dead and d'in* odies

of t$o thousand 'oun* *ent+emen( murdered near

the Fauour* St" Antoine( ecause one man in a

red cassoc< dis)+eased some others in +ac< ones,J

Who cou+d )ass the Rue de +a Feronerie $ith6

out sheddin* tears and fa++in* into )aro='sms of

ra*e a*ainst the ho+' and aomina+e )rinci)+es

$hich )+un*ed the s$ord into the heart of the est

of men( and of the *reatest of <in*s

8Q: Phi+oso)hica+

We cou+d not $a+< a ste) in the streets of Paris

on St" !artho+ome$Js da'( $ithout sa'in*- #It $as

here that one of m' ancestors $as murdered for the

+o%e of od it $as here that one of m' motherJs

fami+' $as dra**ed +eedin* and man*+ed it $as

here that one6ha+f of m' countr'men murdered the



other"#

&a))i+'( men are so +i*ht( so fri%o+ous( so struc<

$ith the )resent and so insensi+e to the )ast( that

in ten thousand there are not ao%e t$o or three

$ho ma<e these reections"

&o$ man' oon com)anions ha%e I seen( $ho(

after the +oss of chi+dren( $i%es( mistresses( fortune(

and e%en hea+th itse+f( ha%e ea*er+' resorted to a

)art' to retai+ a )iece of scanda+( or to a su))er to

te++ humorous stories" So+idit' consists chie' in

a uniformit' of ideas" It has een said that a man

of sense shou+d in%aria+' thin< in the same $a'

reduced to such an a+ternati%e( it $ou+d e etter

not to ha%e een orn" The ancients ne%er in%ented

a Hner fa+e than that $hich esto$ed a cu) of the

$ater of Lethe on a++ $ho entered the E+'sian He+ds"

If 'ou $ou+d to+erate +ife( morta+s( for*et 'our6

se+%es( and enGo' it"

ALLANT"

T&IS $ord is deri%ed from #*a+(# the ori*ina+

si*niHcation of $hich $as *a'et' and reGoicin*( as



ma' e seen in A+ain Chartier( and in Froissart"

E%en in the #Romance of the Rose# $e meet $ith

Dictionar'" 8Q8

the $ord #*a+ande# in the sense of ornamented(

adorned"

La e++e fut ien attorne

Et dJun H+et dJor *a+andee"

It is )roa+e that the *a+a of the Ita+ians( and

the *a+an of the S)aniards( are deri%ed from the

$ord #*a+# $hich seems to e ori*ina++' Ce+tic

hence( $as insensi+' formed *a++ant( $hich si*niHes

a man for$ard( or ea*er to )+ease" The term re6

cei%ed an im)ro%ed and more no+e si*niHcation in

the times of chi%a+r'( $hen the desire to )+ease

manifested itse+f in feats of arms( and )ersona+ con6

ict" To conduct himse+f *a++ant+'( to e=tricate

himse+f from an aBair *a++ant+'( im)+ies( e%en at

)resent( a manJs conductin* himse+f conforma+'

to )rinci)+e and honor" A *a++ant man amon* the

En*+ish( si*niHes a man of coura*e in France it



means more a man of no+e *enera+ demeanor" A

*a++ant un homme *a+ant is tota++' diBerent from

a *a++ant man un *a+ant homme the +atter means

a man of res)ecta+e and honora+e fee+in* the

former( somethin* nearer the character of a )etit

maitre( a man successfu++' addicted to intri*ue"

!ein* *a++ant etre *a+ant in *enera+ im)+ies an

assiduit' to )+ease ' studious attentions( and at6

terin* deference" #&e $as e=ceedin*+' *a++ant to

those +adies(# means mere+'( he eha%ed more than

)o+ite+' to them ut ein* the *a++ant of a +ad'

is an e=)ression of stron*er meanin* it si*niHes

ein* her +o%er the $ord is scarce+' an' +on*er

8Q> Phi+oso)hica+

in use in this sense( e=ce)t in +o$ or fami+iar )oetr'"

A *a++ant is not mere+' a man de%oted to and suc6

cessfu+ in intri*ue( ut the term im)+ies( moreo%er(

some$hat of im)udence and eBronter'( in $hich

sense Fontaine uses it in the fo++o$in*- #0ais un

J*a+ant(J chercheur des )uce+a*es"#

Thus are %arious meanin*s attached to the same



$ord" The case is simi+ar $ith the term #*a+6

+antr'(# $hich sometimes si*niHes a dis)osition to

couetr'( and a hait of atter' sometimes a

)resent of some e+e*ant to'( or )iece of Ge$e+r'

sometimes intri*ue( $ith one $oman or $ith man'

and( +atter+'( it has e%en een a))+ied to si*nif'

ironica++' the fa%ors of Venus thus( to ta+< *a+6

+antries( to *i%e *a++antries( to ha%e *a++antries( to

contract a *a++antr'( e=)ress %er' diBerent mean6

in*s" Near+' a++ the terms $hich occur freuent+'

in con%ersation acuire( in the same manner( %arious

shades of meanin*( $hich it is diMcu+t to discrimi6

nate the meanin* of terms of art is more )recise

and +ess aritrar'"

ARANT/A"

IF e%er a re)utation $as H=ed on a so+id asis(

it is that of ar*antua" 3et in the )resent a*e of

)hi+oso)h' and criticism( some rash and darin*

minds ha%e started for$ard( $ho ha%e %entured to

den' the )rodi*ies e+ie%ed res)ectin* this e=traor6

dinar' man )ersons $ho ha%e carried their s<e)ti6

cism so far as e%en to dout his %er' e=istence"



Dictionar'"

&o$ is it )ossi+e( the' as<( that there shou+d

ha%e e=isted in the si=teenth centur' a distin*uished

hero( ne%er mentioned ' a sin*+e contem)orar'(

' St" I*natius( Cardina+ Ca)itan( a+i+eo( or uic6

ciardini( and res)ectin* $hom the re*isters of the

Soronne do not contain the s+i*htest notice

In%esti*ate the histories of France( of erman'(

of En*+and( S)ain( and other countries( and 'ou Hnd

not a sin*+e $ord aout ar*antua" &is $ho+e

+ife( from his irth to his death( is a tissue of in6

concei%a+e )rodi*ies"

&is mother( ar*ame++e( $as de+i%ered of him

from the +eft ear" A+most at the instant of his irth

he ca++ed out for a drin<( $ith a %oice that $as

heard e%en in the districts of !eauce and Vi%arais"

Si=teen e++s of c+oth $ere reuired to ma<e him

reeches( and a hundred hides of ro$n co$s $ere

used in his shoes" &e had not attained the a*e of

t$e+%e 'ears efore he *ained a *reat att+e( and

founded the ae' of The+eme" 0adame !adeec

$as *i%en to him in marria*e( and !adeec is



)ro%ed to e a S'rian name"

&e is re)resented to ha%e de%oured si= )i+*rims

in a mere sa+ad( and the ri%er Seine is stated to ha%e

o$ed entire+' from his )erson( so that the Parisians

are indeted for their eautifu+ ri%er to him a+one"

A++ this is considered contrar' to nature ' our

car)in* )hi+oso)hers( $ho scru)+e to admit e%en

$hat is )roa+e( un+ess it is $e++ su))orted '

e%idence"

8QQ Phi+oso)hica+

The' oser%e( that if the Parisians ha%e a+$a's

e+ie%ed in ar*antua( that is no reason $h' other

nations shou+d e+ie%e in him that if ar*antua

had rea++' )erformed one sin*+e )rodi*' out of the

man' attriuted to him( the $ho+e $or+d $ou+d ha%e

resounded $ith it( a++ records $ou+d ha%e noticed

it( and a hundred monuments $ou+d ha%e attested it"

In short( the' %er' unceremonious+' treat the Paris6

ians $ho e+ie%e in ar*antua as i*norant sim)+e6

tons and su)erstitious idiots( $ith $hom are inter6



mi=ed a fe$ h')ocrites( $ho )retend to e+ie%e in

ar*antua( in order to otain some con%enient )rior6

shi) in the ae' of The+eme"

The re%erend Father Viret( a Corde+ier of fu++6

s+ee%ed di*nit'( a confessor of +adies( and a )reacher

to the <in*( has re)+ied to our P'rrhonean )hi+oso6

)hers in a manner decisi%e and in%inci+e" &e %er'

+earned+' )ro%es that if no $riter( $ith the e=6

ce)tion of Rae+ais( has mentioned the )rodi*ies

of ar*antua( at +east( no historian has contra6

dicted them that the sa*e de Thou( $ho $as a e6

+ie%er in $itchcraft( di%ination( and astro+o*'( ne%er

denied the mirac+es of ar*antua" The' $ere not

e%en ca++ed in uestion ' La 0othe +e Va'er"

0e1era' treated them $ith such res)ect as not to

sa' a $ord a*ainst them( or indeed aout them"

These )rodi*ies $ere )erformed efore the e'es of

a++ the $or+d" Rae+ais $as a $itness of them"

It $as im)ossi+e that he cou+d e decei%ed( or that

he $ou+d decei%e" &ad he de%iated e%en in the

Dictionar'" 8Q@



sma++est de*ree from fhe truth( a++ the nations of

Euro)e $ou+d ha%e een roused a*ainst him in in6

di*nation a++ the *a1etteers and Gourna+ists of the

da' $ou+d ha%e e=c+aimed $ith one %oice a*ainst the

fraud and im)osture"

In %ain do the )hi+oso)hers re)+' for the' re)+'

to e%er'thin* that( at the )eriod in uestion(

*a1ettes and Gourna+s $ere not in e=istence" It is

said in return that there e=isted $hat $as eui%a6

+ent to them( and that is suMcient" E%er'thin* is

im)ossi+e in the histor' of ar*antua( and from

this circumstance itse+f ma' e inferred its incon6

testa+e truth" For if it $ere not true( no )erson

cou+d )ossi+' ha%e %entured to ima*ine it( and its

incredii+it' constitutes the *reat )roof that it ou*ht

to e e+ie%ed"

O)en a++ the #0ercuries(# a++ the #.ourna+s de

Tre%ou=# those immorta+ $or<s $hich teem $ith

instruction to the race of man( and 'ou $i++ not Hnd

a sin*+e +ine $hich thro$s a dout on the histor'

of ar*antua" It $as reser%ed for our o$n un6

fortunate a*e to )roduce monsters( $ho $ou+d es6

ta+ish a fri*htfu+ P'rrhonism( under the )retence

of reuirin* e%idence as near+' a))roachin* to



mathematica+ as the case $i++ admit( and of a de6

%otion to reason( truth( and Gustice" What a )it'

Oh( for a sin*+e ar*ument to confound them

ar*antua founded the ae' of The+eme" The

tit+e deeds( it is true( $ere ne%er found it ne%er

had an' ut it e=ists( and )roduces an income of

Vo+" 9 8:

8Q; Phi+oso)hica+

ten thousand )ieces of *o+d a 'ear" The ri%er Seine

e=ists( and is an eterna+ monument of the )rodi*ious

fountain from $hich ar*antua su))+ied so no+e

a stream" 0oreo%er( $hat $i++ it cost 'ou to e6

+ie%e in him Shou+d 'ou not ta<e the safest side

ar*antua can )rocure for 'ou $ea+th( honors( and

inuence" Phi+oso)h' can on+' esto$ on 'ou in6

terna+ tranui++it' and satisfaction( $hich 'ou $i++

of course estimate as a trie" !e+ie%e( then( I a*ain

re)eat( in ar*antua if 'ou )ossess the s+i*htest

)ortion of a%arice( amition( or <na%er'( it is the

$isest )art 'ou can ado)t"



A4ETTE"

A NARRATIVE of )u+ic aBairs" It $as at the

e*innin* of the se%enteenth centur' that this usefu+

)ractice $as su**ested and esta+ished at Venice(

at the time $hen Ita+' sti++ continued the centre of

Euro)ean ne*otiations( and Venice $as the unfai+6

in* as'+um of +iert'" The +ea%es or sheets con6

tainin* this narrati%e( $hich $ere )u+ished once a

$ee<( $ere ca++ed #a1ettes(# from the $ord

#*a1etta(# the name of a sma++ coin( amountin*

near+' to one of our demi6sous( then current at

Venice" The e=am)+e $as after$ards fo++o$ed in

a++ the *reat cities of Euro)e"

.ourna+s of this descri)tion ha%e een esta+ished

in China from time immemoria+" The #Im)eria+

a1ette# is )u+ished there e%er' da' ' order of

the court" Admittin* this *a1ette to e true( $e

Dictionar'" 8Q?

ma' easi+' e+ie%e it does not contain a++ that is



true neither in fact shou+d it do so"

Theo)hraste Renaudot( a )h'sician( )u+ished

the Hrst *a1ettes in France in 8;:8( and he had an

e=c+usi%e )ri%i+e*e for the )u+ication( $hich con6

tinued for a +on* time a )atrimon' to his fami+'"

The +i<e )ri%i+e*e ecame an oGect of im)ortance

at Amsterdam( and the *reater )art of the *a1ettes

of the /nited Pro%inces are sti++ a source of re%enue

to man' of the fami+ies of ma*istrates( $ho )a'

$riters for furnishin* materia+s for them" The cit'

of London a+one )u+ishes more than t$e+%e *a1ettes

in the course of a $ee<" The' can e )rinted on+'

u)on stam)ed )a)er( and )roduce no inconsidera+e

income to the State"

The *a1ettes of China re+ate so+e+' to that em6

)ire those of the diBerent states of Euro)e em6

race the aBairs of a++ countries" A+thou*h the'

freuent+' aound in fa+se inte++i*ence( the' ma'

ne%erthe+ess e considered as su))+'in* *ood ma6

teria+ for histor' ecause( in *enera+( the errors

of each )articu+ar *a1ette are corrected ' suse6

uent ones( and ecause the' contain authentic

co)ies of a+most a++ state )a)ers( $hich indeed are

)u+ished in them ' order of the so%erei*ns or





corru)tin* the +an*ua*e" One of the *reatest fau+ts

$hich has found a $a' into them arises from the

authors ha%in* conc+uded that the ancient forms of

e=)ression used in )u+ic )roc+amations and in Gudi6

cia+ and )o+itica+ )roceedin*s and documents in

France( and $ith $hich the' $ere )articu+ar+' con6

%ersant( $ere ana+o*ous to the re*u+ar s'nta= of our

+an*ua*e( and from their ha%in* accordin*+' imi6

tated that st'+e in their narrati%e" This is +i<e a

Roman historianJs usin* the st'+e of the +a$ of the

t$e+%e ta+es"

In imitation of the )o+itica+ *a1ettes( +iterar' ones

e*an to e )u+ished in France in 8;;@ for the

Hrst Gourna+s $ere( in fact( sim)+' ad%ertisements

of the $or<s recent+' )rinted in Euro)e to this

Dictionar'" 8Q9

mere announcement of )u+ication $as soon added

a critica+ e=amination or re%ie$" 0an' authors

$ere oBended at it( not$ithstandin* its *reat

moderation"



We sha++ here s)ea< on+' of those +iterar' *a1ettes

$ith $hich the )u+ic( $ho $ere )re%ious+' in )os6

session of %arious Gourna+s from e%er' countr' in

Euro)e in $hich the sciences $ere cu+ti%ated( $ere

com)+ete+' o%er$he+med" These *a1ettes a))eared

at Paris aout the 'ear 8?>( under man' diBerent

names( as #The Parnassian Inte++i*encer(# #Oser%a6

tions on Ne$ !oo<s(# etc" The *reater numer of

them $ere $ritten for the sin*+e )ur)ose of ma<in*

mone' and as mone' is not to e made ' )raisin*

authors( these )roductions consisted *enera++' of

satire and ause" The' often contained the most

odious )ersona+ities( and for a time so+d in )ro)or6

tion to the %iru+ence of their ma+i*nit' ut reason

and *ood taste( $hich are a+$a's sure to )re%ai+ at

+ast( consi*ned them e%entua++' to contem)t and

o+i%ion"

ENEALO3"

SECTION I"

0AN3 %o+umes ha%e een $ritten ' +earned

di%ines in order to reconci+e St" 0atthe$ $ith St"

Lu<e on the suGect of the *enea+o*' of .esus

Christ" The former enumerates on+' t$ent'6se%en



*enerations from Da%id throu*h So+omon( $hi+e

Lu<e *i%es fort'6t$o( and traces the descent

8 @: Phi+oso)hica+

throu*h Nathan" The fo++o$in* is the method in

$hich the +earned Ca+met so+%es a diMcu+t' re+atin*

to 0e+chi1ede< - The Orienta+s and the ree<s( e%er

aoundin* in fa+e and in%ention( faricated a

*enea+o*' for him( in $hich the' *i%e us the names

of his ancestors" !ut( adds this Gudicious !ene6

dictine( as fa+sehood a+$a's etra's itse+f( some state

his *enea+o*' accordin* to one series( and others

accordin* to another" There are some $ho main6

tain that he descended from a race oscure and de6

*raded( and there are some $ho are dis)osed to re)6

resent him as i++e*itimate"

This )assa*e natura++' a))+ies to .esus( of $hom(

accordin* to the a)ost+e( 0e+chi1ede< $as the t')e

or H*ure" In fact( the *os)e+ of Nicomedes e=6

)ress+' states that the .e$s( in the )resence of

Pi+ate( re)roached .esus $ith ein* orn of forni6

cation u)on $hich the +earned Faricius remar<s(



that it does not a))ear from an' c+ear and credi+e

testimon' that the .e$s directed to .esus Christ

durin* &is +ife( or e%en to &is a)ost+es( that ca+umn'

res)ectin* &is irth $hich the' so assiduous+' and

%iru+ent+' circu+ated after$ards" The Acts of the

A)ost+es( ho$e%er( inform us that the .e$s of An6

tioch o))osed themse+%es( +as)hemin* a*ainst $hat

Pau+ s)o<e to them concernin* .esus and Ori*en

maintains that the )assa*e in St" .ohnJs *os)e+

#We are not orn of fornication( $e ha%e ne%er

een in suGection unto an' man# $as an indirect

re)roach thro$n out ' the .e$s a*ainst .esus on

Dictionar'" 8@8

the suGect of &is irth" For( as this father in6

forms us( the' )retended that .esus $as ori*ina++'

from a sma++ ham+et of .udaea( and &is mother

nothin* more than a )oor %i++a*er susistin* '

her +aor( $ho( ha%in* een found *ui+t' of adu+ter'

$ith a so+dier of the name of Panther( $as turned

a$a' ' her husand( $hose occu)ation $as that

of a car)enter that( after this dis*racefu+ e=)u+6

sion( she $andered aout misera+' from one )+ace



to another( and $as )ri%ate+' de+i%ered of .esus(

$ho( )ressed ' the necessit' of &is circumstances(

$as com)e++ed to *o and hire &imse+f as a ser%ant

in E*')t( $here &e acuired some of those secrets

$hich the E*')tians turn to so *ood an account(

and then returned to &is o$n countr'( in $hich( fu++

of the mirac+es &e $as ena+ed to )erform( &e )ro6

c+aimed &imse+f to e od"

Accordin* to a %er' o+d tradition( the name of

Panther( $hich *a%e occasion to the mista<e of the

.e$s( $as( as $e are informed ' St" E)i)hanius(

the surname of .ose)hJs father( or rather( as is

asserted ' St" .ohn Damascene( the )ro)er name of

0ar'Js *randfather"

As to the situation of ser%ant( $ith $hich .esus

$as re)roached( &e dec+ares &imse+f that &e came

not to e ser%ed( ut to ser%e" 4oroaster( accordin*

to the Araians( had in +i<e manner een the ser%ant

of Esdras" E)ictetus $as e%en orn in ser%itude"

Accordin*+'( St" C'ri+ of .erusa+em Gust+' oser%ed

that it is no dis*race to an' man"



8@> Phi+oso)hica+

On the suGect of the mirac+es( $e +earn indeed

from P+in' that the E*')tians had the secret of

d'ein* $ith diBerent co+ors( stuBs $hich $ere

di))ed in the %er' same furnace( and this is one of the

mirac+es $hich the *os)e+ of the Infanc' attriutes

to .esus" !ut( accordin* to St" Chr'sostom( .esus

)erformed no mirac+e efore &is a)tism( and

those stated to ha%e een $rou*ht ' &im efore

are aso+ute farications" The reason assi*ned '

this father for such an arran*ement is( that the

$isdom of od determined a*ainst ChristJs )er6

formin* an' mirac+es in &is chi+dhood( +est the'

shou+d ha%e een re*arded as im)ostures"

E)i)hanius in %ain a++e*es that to den' the

mirac+es ascried ' some to .esus durin* &is in6

fanc'( $ou+d furnish heretics $ith a s)ecious )re6

te=t for sa'in* that &e ecame Son of od on+'

in conseuence of the eBusion of the &o+' S)irit(

$hich descended u)on &im at &is a)tism $e

are contendin* here( not a*ainst heretics( ut a*ainst

.e$s"

0r" Wa*ensei+ has )resented us $ith a Latin



trans+ation of a .e$ish $or< entit+ed #To+dos

.eschu(# in $hich it is re+ated that .eschu( ein* at

!eth+ehem in .udah( the )+ace of his irth( cried

out a+oud( #Who are the $ic<ed men that )retend

I am a astard( and s)rin* from an im)ure ori*in

The' are themse+%es astards( themse+%es e=ceed6

in*+' im)ure Was I not orn of a %ir*in mother

And I entered throu*h the cro$n of her head #

Dictionar'" 8 @

This testimon' a))eared of such im)ortance to

0" !er*ier( that that +earned di%ine fe+t no scru)+e

aout em)+o'in* it $ithout uotin* his authorit'"

The fo++o$in* are his $ords( in the t$ent'6third

)a*e of the #Certaint' of the Proofs of Chris6

tianit'# - #.esus $as orn of a %ir*in ' the o)era6

tion of the &o+' S)irit" .esus &imse+f freuent+'

assured us of this $ith &is o$n mouth and to the

same )ur)ose is the recita+ of the a)ost+es"# It is

certain that these $ords are on+' to e found in

the #To+dos .eschu# and the certaint' of that

)roof( amon* those adduced ' 0" !er*ier( susists(

a+thou*h St" 0atthe$ a))+ies to .esus the )assa*e



of #Isaiah# - #&e sha++ not dis)ute( he sha++ not cr'

a+oud( and no one sha++ hear his %oice in the streets"#

Accordin* to St" .erome( there $as in +i<e man6

ner an ancient tradition amon* the 'mnoso)hists

of India( that !uddha( the author of their creed(

$as orn of a %ir*in( $ho $as de+i%ered of him

from her side" In the same manner $as orn .u+ius

Caesar( Sci)io Africanus( 0an+ius( Ed$ard VI" of

En*+and( and others( ' means of an o)eration

ca++ed ' sur*eons the Caesarian o)eration( ecause

it consists in astractin* the chi+d from the $om

' an incision in the adomen of the mother"

Simon( surnamed the 0a*ician( and 0anes oth

)retended to ha%e een orn of %ir*ins" This

mi*ht( ho$e%er( mere+' mean( that their mothers

$ere %ir*ins at the time of concei%in* them" !ut

in order to e con%inced of the uncertaint' attend6

8 @Q Phi+oso)hica+

in* the mar<s and e%idences of %ir*init'( it $i++ e

)erfect+' suMcient to read the commentar' of 0" de

Pom)i*nan( the ce+erated isho) of Pu' en Ve+ai(



on the fo++o$in* )assa*e in the !oo< of Pro%ers -

#There are three thin*s $hich are too $onderfu+

for me( 'ea( four $hich I <no$ not" The $a' of an

ea*+e in the air( the $a' of a ser)ent u)on a roc<(

the $a' of a shi) in the midst of the sea( and the

$a' of a man in his 'outh"# In order to *i%e a

+itera+ trans+ation of the )assa*e( accordin* to this

)re+ate in the third cha)ter of the second )art of

his $or< entit+ed #InHde+it' Con%inced ' the

Pro)hecies#( it $ou+d ha%e een necessar' to sa'(

Viam %iri in %ir*ine ado+escentu+a# The $a' of

a man $ith a maid" The trans+ation of our Vu+6

*ate( sa's he( sustitutes another meanin*( e=act

indeed and true( ut +ess conforma+e to the ori*ina+

te=t" In short( he corroorates his curious inter6

)retation ' the ana+o*' et$een this %erse and the

fo++o$in* one - #Such is the +ife of the adu+terous

$oman( $ho( after ha%in* eaten( $i)eth her mouth

and saith( I ha%e done no $ic<edness"#

&o$e%er this ma' e( the %ir*init' of 0ar' $as

not *enera++' admitted( e%en at the e*innin* of the

third centur'" #0an' ha%e entertained the o)inion

and do sti++(# said St" C+ement of A+e=andria( #that

0ar' $as de+i%ered of a son $ithout that de+i%er'

)roducin* an' chan*e in her )erson for some sa'



that a mid$ife $ho %isited her after the irth found

her to retain a++ the mar<s of %ir*init'"# It is c+ear

Dictionar'" 8@@

that St" C+ement refers here to the *os)e+ of the con6

ce)tion of 0ar'( in $hich the an*e+ arie+ sa's to

her( #Without intercourse $ith man( thou( a %ir*in(

sha+t concei%e( thou( a %ir*in( sha+t e de+i%ered

of a chi+d( thou( a %ir*in( sha+t *i%e suc<# and

a+so to the Hrst *os)e+ of .ames( in $hich the

mid$ife e=c+aims( #What an unheard6of $onder

0ar' has Gust rou*ht a son into the $or+d( and 'et

retains a++ the e%idences of %ir*init'"# These t$o

*os)e+s $ere( ne%erthe+ess( suseuent+' reGected as

a)ocr')ha+( a+thou*h on this )oint the' $ere con6

forma+e to the o)inion ado)ted ' the church the

scaBo+din* $as remo%ed after the ui+din* $as

com)+eted"

What is added ' .eschu #I entered ' the

cro$n of the head# $as +i<e$ise the o)inion he+d

' the church" The !re%iar' of the 0aronites re)6

resents the $ord of the Father as ha%in* entered



' the ear of the +essed $oman" St" Au*ustine

and Po)e Fe+i= sa' e=)ress+' that the %ir*in e6

came )re*nant throu*h the ear" St" E)hrem sa's

the same in a h'mn( and Voisin( his trans+ator(

oser%es that the idea came ori*ina++' from re*or'

of Neocaesarea( surnamed Thaumatur*es" A*oar

re+ates that in his time the church san* in the time

of )u+ic ser%ice - #The Word entered throu*h the

ear of the %ir*in( and came out at the *o+den *ate"#

Eut'chius s)ea<s a+so of E+ian( $ho attended at

the Counci+ of Nice( and $ho said that the Word

entered ' the ear of the %ir*in( and came out in

8@; Phi+oso)hica+

the $a' of chi+dirth" This E+ian $as a rura+

isho)( $hose name occurs in Se+denJs )u+ished

Araic List of Fathers $ho attended the Counci+

of Nice"

It is $e++ <no$n that the .esuit Sanche1 *ra%e+'

discussed the uestion $hether the Vir*in 0ar'

contriuted semina++' in the incarnation of Christ(

and that( +i<e other di%ines efore him( he con6



c+uded in the aMrmati%e" !ut these e=tra%a*ances

of a )rurient and de)ra%ed ima*ination shou+d e

c+assed $ith the o)inion of Aretin( $ho introduces

the &o+' S)irit on this occasion eBectin* his )ur6

)ose under the H*ure of a do%e as m'tho+o*' de6

scries .u)iter to ha%e succeeded $ith Leda in the

form of a s$an( or as the most eminent authors of

the church St" Austin( Athena*oras( Tertu++ian(

St" C+ement of A+e=andria( St" C')rian( Lactantius(

St" Amrose and others e+ie%ed( after Phi+o and

.ose)hus( the historian( $ho $ere .e$s( that an*e+s

had associated $ith the dau*hters of men( and en6

*a*ed in se=ua+ connection $ith them" St" Au6

*ustine *oes so far as to char*e the 0anichaeans

$ith teachin*( as a )art of their re+i*ious )ersuasion(

that eautifu+ 'oun* )ersons a))eared in a state of

nature efore the )rinces of dar<ness( or e%i+ an*e+s(

and de)ri%ed them of the %ita+ sustance $hich that

father ca++s the nature of od" &erodius is sti++

more e=)+icit( and sa's that the di%ine maGest'

esca)ed throu*h the )roducti%e or*ans of demons"

It is true that a++ these fathers e+ie%ed an*e+s



Dictionar'" 8@?

to e cor)orea+" !ut( after the $or<s of P+ato had

esta+ished the idea of their s)iritua+it'( the ancient

o)inion of a cor)orea+ union et$een an*e+s and

$omen $as e=)+ained ' the su))osition that the

same an*e+ $ho( in a $omanJs form( had recei%ed

the emraces of a man( in turn he+d communication

$ith a $oman( in the character of a man" Di%ines(

' the terms #incuus# and #succuus(# desi*nate

the diBerent )arts thus )erformed ' an*e+s" Those

$ho are curious on the suGect of these oBensi%e

and re%o+tin* re%eries ma' see further detai+s in

#Various Readin*s of the !oo< of enesis(# '

Otho ua+ter #0a*ica+ Disuisitions(# ' De+%is(

and the #Discourses on Witchcraft(# ' &enr'

!o*uet"

SECTION II"

No *enea+o*'( e%en a+thou*h re)rinted in 0oreri(

a))roaches that of 0ahomet or 0ahommed( the

son of Ada++ah( the son of AdJa++ 0onta+e( the

son of Ashem $hich 0ahomet $as( in his

'oun*er da's( *room of the $ido$ KhadiGah( then

her factor( then her husand( then a )ro)het of



od( then condemned to e han*ed( then conueror

and <in* of Araia and $ho Hna++' died an en6

%ia+e death( satiated $ith *+or' and $ith +o%e"

The erman arons do not trace ac< their

ori*in e'ond Witi<ind and our modern French

maruises can scarce+' an' of them sho$ deeds and

)atents of an ear+ier date than Char+ema*ne" !ut

the race of 0ahomet( or 0ohammed( $hich sti++

8@2 Phi+oso)hica+

e=ists( has a+$a's e=hiited a *enea+o*ica+ tree( of

$hich the trun< is Adam( and of $hich the ranches

reach from Ishmae+ do$n to the noi+it' and *entr'

$ho at the )resent da' ear the hi*h tit+e of cousins

of 0ahomet"

There is no diMcu+t' aout this *enea+o*'( no

dis)ute amon* the +earned( no fa+se ca+cu+ations to

e rectiHed( no contradictions to )a++iate( no im6

)ossii+ities to e made )ossi+e"

3our )ride ca%i+s a*ainst the authenticit' of these



tit+es" 3ou te++ me that 'ou are descended from

Adam as $e++ as the *reatest )ro)het( if Adam $as

the common father of our race ut that this same

Adam $as ne%er <no$n ' an' )erson( not e%en

' the ancient Aras themse+%es that the name

has ne%er een cited e=ce)t in the oo<s of the

.e$s and that( conseuent+'( 'ou ta<e the +iert'

of $ritin* do$n fa+se a*ainst the hi*h and no+e

c+aims of 0ahomet( or 0ohammed"

3ou add that( in an' case( if there has een a

Hrst man( $hate%er his name mi*ht e( 'ou are a

descendant from him as decided+' as KhadiGahJs

i++ustrious *room and that( if there has een no

Hrst man( if the human race a+$a's e=isted( as so

man' of the +earned )retend( then 'ou are c+ear+'

a *ent+eman from a++ eternit'"

In ans$er to this 'ou are to+d that 'ou are a

)+eeian roturier from a++ eternit'( un+ess 'ou

can )roduce a re*u+ar and com)+ete set of )arch6

ments"

Dictionar'" 8 @9



3ou re)+' that men are eua+ that one race

cannot e more ancient than another that )arch6

ments( $ith its of $a= dan*+in* to them( are a

recent in%ention that there is no reason that com6

)e+s 'ou to 'ie+d to the fami+' of 0ahomet( or to

that of Confucius or to that of the em)erors of

.a)an or to the ro'a+ secretaries of the *rand co+6

+e*e" Nor can I o))ose 'our o)inion ' ar*uments(

)h'sica+( meta)h'sica+( or mora+" 3ou thin< 'our6

se+f eua+ to the dairo of .a)an( and I entire+' a*ree

$ith 'ou" A++ that I $ou+d ad%ise 'ou is( that if

e%er 'ou meet $ith him( 'ou ta<e *ood care to e

the stron*er"

ENESIS"

T&E sacred $riter ha%in* conformed himse+f

to the ideas *enera++' recei%ed( and ein* indeed

o+i*ed not to de%iate from them( as $ithout such

condescension to the $ea<ness and i*norance of

those $hom he addressed( he $ou+d not ha%e

een understood( it on+' remains for us to ma<e

some oser%ations on the natura+ )hi+oso)h' )re6

%ai+in* in those ear+' )eriods for( $ith res)ect

to theo+o*'( $e re%erence it( $e e+ie%e in it( and



ne%er either dis)ute or discuss it"

#In the e*innin* od created the hea%en and

the earth"# Thus has the ori*ina+ )assa*e een

trans+ated( ut the trans+ation is not correct" There

is no one( ho$e%er s+i*ht+' informed u)on the su6

Gect( $ho is not a$are that the rea+ meanin* of the

8 ;: Phi+oso)hica+

$ord is( #In the e*innin* the *ods made Hrent

or Ht the hea%en and the earth"# This readin*(

moreo%er( )erfect+' corres)onds $ith the ancient

idea of the Phoenicians( $ho ima*ined that( in re6

ducin* the chaos chautere into order( od em6

)+o'ed the a*enc' of inferior deities"

The Phoenicians had een +on* a )o$erfu+ )eo)+e(

ha%in* a theo*on' of their o$n( efore the &ere$s

ecame )ossessed of a fe$ cantons of +and near their

territor'" It is e=treme+' natura+ to su))ose that

$hen the &ere$s had at +en*th formed a sma++

esta+ishment near Phoenicia( the' e*an to acuire

its +an*ua*e" At that time their $riters mi*ht( and



)roa+' did( orro$ the ancient )hi+oso)h' of their

masters" Such is the re*u+ar march of the human

mind"

At the time in $hich 0oses is su))osed to ha%e

+i%ed( $ere the Phoenician )hi+oso)hers suMcient+'

en+i*htened to re*ard the earth as a mere )oint in

the com)ass $ith the inHnite ors )+aced ' od in

the immensit' of s)ace( common+' ca++ed hea%en

The idea so %er' ancient( and at the same time so

utter+' fa+se( that hea%en $as made for earth(

a+most a+$a's )re%ai+ed in the minds of the *reat

mass of the )eo)+e" It $ou+d certain+' e Gust as

correct and Gudicious for an' )erson to su))ose( if

to+d that od created a++ the mountains and a sin*+e

*rain of sand( that the mountains $ere created for

that *rain of sand" It is scarce+' )ossi+e that the

Phoenicians( $ho $ere such e=ce++ent na%i*ators(

Dictionar'" 8;8

shou+d not ha%e had some *ood astronomers ut

the o+d )reGudices *enera++' )re%ai+ed( and those

o+d )reGudices $ere %er' )ro)er+' s)ared and in6



du+*ed ' the author of the !oo< of enesis( $ho

$rote to instruct men in the $a's of od( and not

in natura+ )hi+oso)h'"

#The earth $as $ithout form tohu ohu and

%oid dar<ness rested u)on the face of the dee)( and

the s)irit of od mo%ed u)on the surface of the

$aters"#

Tohu ohu means )recise+' chaos( disorder" It

is one of those imitati%e $ords $hich are to e

found in a++ +an*ua*es as( for e=am)+e( in the

French $e ha%e sens dessus dessous( tintamarre(

trictrac( tonnerre( ome" The earth $as not as

'et formed in its )resent state the matter e=isted(

ut the di%ine )o$er had not 'et arran*ed it" The

s)irit of od means +itera++' the reath( the $ind(

$hich a*itated the $aters" The same idea occurs in

the #Fra*ments# of the Phoenician author Sanchoni6

athon" The Phoenicians( +i<e e%er' other )eo)+e(

e+ie%ed matter to e eterna+" There is not a sin*+e

author of antiuit' $ho e%er re)resented somethin*

to ha%e een )roduced from nothin*" E%en throu*h6

out the $ho+e !i+e( no )assa*e is to e found in

$hich matter is said to ha%e een created out of

nothin*" Not( ho$e%er( that $e mean to contro%ert



the truth of such creation" It $as( ne%erthe+ess( a

truth not <no$n ' the carna+ .e$s"

On the uestion of the eternit' of the $or+d(

Vo+" 9 ii

8 ;> Phi+oso)hica+

man<ind has a+$a's een di%ided( ut ne%er on that

of the eternit' of matter" From nothin*( nothin*

can )roceed( nor into nothin* can au*ht e=istent

return" #De nihi+o nihi+um( et in nihi+um ni+ )osse

*i*ni re%erti"# Persius( Sat" &i" Such $as the

o)inion of a++ antiuit'"

#od said +et there e +i*ht( and there $as +i*ht

and he sa$ that the +i*ht $as *ood( and he di%ided

the +i*ht from the dar<ness and he ca++ed the +i*ht

da'( and the dar<ness ni*ht and the e%enin* and

the mornin* $ere the Hrst da'" And od said a+so(

+et there e a Hrmament in the midst of the $aters(

and +et it di%ide the $aters from the $aters" And

od made the Hrmament( and di%ided the $aters

$hich $ere under the Hrmament from the $aters



$hich $ere ao%e the Hrmament" And od ca++ed

the Hrmament hea%en" And the e%enin* and the

mornin* $ere the second da' And he sa$

that it $as *ood"#

We e*in $ith e=aminin* $hether &uet( isho)

of A%ranches( Lec+erc(and some other commentators(

are not in the ri*ht in o))osin* the idea of those $ho

consider this )assa*e as e=hiitin* the most su+ime

e+ouence"

E+ouence is not aimed at in an' histor' $ritten

' the .e$s" The st'+e of the )assa*e in uestion(

+i<e that of a++ the rest of the $or<( )ossesses the

most )erfect sim)+icit'" If an orator( intendin* to

*i%e some idea of the )o$er of od( em)+o'ed for

that )ur)ose the short and sim)+e e=)ression $e

Dictionar'" 8;

are considerin*( #&e said( +et there e +i*ht( and

there $as +i*ht(# it $ou+d then e su+ime" E=act+'



simi+ar is the )assa*e in one of the Psa+ms( #Di=it(

et facta sunt# #&e s)a<e( and the' $ere madeJ

It is a trait $hich( ein* uniue in this )+ace( and

introduced )ur)ose+' in order to create a maGestic

ima*e( e+e%ates and trans)orts the mind" !ut( in

the instance under e=amination( the narrati%e is of

the most sim)+e character" The .e$ish $riter is

s)ea<in* of +i*ht Gust in the same unamitious man6

ner as of other oGects of creation he e=)resses

himse+f eua++' and re*u+ar+' after e%er' artic+e(

#and od sa$ that it $as *ood"# E%er'thin* is

su+ime in the course or act of creation( unuestion6

a+'( ut the creation of +i*ht is no more so than

that of the hers of the He+d the su+ime is some6

thin* $hich soars far from the rest( $hereas a++ is

eua+ throu*hout the cha)ter"

!ut further( it $as another %er' ancient o)inion

that +i*ht did not )roceed from the sun" It $as

seen diBused throu*hout the atmos)here( efore the

risin* and after the settin* of that star the sun

$as su))osed mere+' to *i%e it *reater stren*th and

c+earness accordin*+' the author of enesis ac6

commodates himse+f to this )o)u+ar error( and e%en

states the creation of the sun and moon not to ha%e

ta<en )+ace unti+ four da's after the e=istence of



+i*ht" It $as im)ossi+e that there cou+d e a morn6

in* and e%enin* efore the e=istence of a sun" The

ins)ired $riter dei*ned( in this instance( to conde,

8;Q Phi+oso)hica+

scend to the *ross and $i+d ideas of the nation"

The oGect of od $as not to teach the .e$s )hi6

+oso)h'" &e mi*ht ha%e raised their minds to the

truth( ut he )referred descendin* to their error"

This so+ution can ne%er e too freuent+' re)eated"

The se)aration of the +i*ht from the dar<ness is

a )art of the same s'stem of )hi+oso)h'" It $ou+d

seem that ni*ht and da' $ere mi=ed u) to*ether(

as *rains of diBerent s)ecies $hich are easi+' se)6

ara+e from each other" It is suMcient+' <no$n

that dar<ness is nothin* ut the asence of +i*ht(

and that there is in fact no +i*ht $hen our e'es re6

cei%e no sensation of it ut at that )eriod these

truths $ere far from ein* <no$n"

The idea of a Hrmament( a*ain( is of the %er'

hi*hest antiuit'" The hea%ens are ima*ined to e



a so+id mass( ecause the' a+$a's e=hiited the same

)henomena" The' ro++ed o%er our heads( the' $ere

therefore constituted of the most so+id materia+s"

Who cou+d su))ose that the e=ha+ations from the

+and and sea su))+ied the $ater descendin* from the

c+ouds( or com)ute their corres)ondin* uantities

No &a++e' then +i%ed to ma<e so curious a ca+cu+a6

tion" The hea%ens therefore $ere concei%ed to con6

tain reser%oirs" These reser%oirs cou+d e su))orted

on+' on a stron* arch( and as this arch of hea%en

$as actua++' trans)arent( it must necessari+' ha%e

een made of cr'sta+" In order that the $aters

ao%e mi*ht descend from it u)on the earth( s+uices(

cataracts( and ood*ates $ere necessar'( $hich

Dictionar'" 8;@

mi*ht e o)ened and shut as circumstances re6

uired" Such $as the astronom' of the da' and(

as the author $rote for .e$s( it $as incument u)on

him to ado)t their *ross ideas( orro$ed from other

)eo)+e some$hat +ess *ross than themse+%es"

#od a+so made t$o *reat +i*hts( one to ru+e the





)ossi+e to re)resent &im other$ise" We ma' in6

deed sa' that od is nothin* that $e are acuainted

8 ;; Phi+oso)hica+

$ith( ut $e can ha%e no idea of $hat &e is" The

.e$s in%aria+' concei%ed od to e cor)orea+( as

$e++ as e%er' other )eo)+e" A++ the Hrst fathers of

the Church( a+so( entertained the same e+ief ti++

the' had emraced the ideas of P+ato( or rather unti+

the +i*ht of Christianit' ecame more )ure"

#&e created them ma+e and fema+e"# If od( of

the secondar' or inferior *ods( created man<ind(

ma+e and fema+e( after their o$n +i<eness( it $ou+d

seem in that case( as if the .e$s e+ie%ed that od

and the *ods $ho so formed them $ere ma+e

and fema+e" It has een a suGect of discussion(

$hether the author means to sa' that man had

ori*ina++' t$o se=es( or mere+' that od made

Adam and E%e on the same da'" The most natura+

meanin* is that od formed Adam and E%e at the

same time ut this inter)retation in%o+%es an a6

so+ute contradiction to the statement of the $omanJs



ein* made out of the ri of man after the se%en

da's $ere conc+uded"

#And he rested on the se%enth da'"# The

Phoenicians( Cha+daeans( and Indians( re)resented

od as ha%in* made the $or+d in si= )eriods( $hich

the ancient 4oroaster ca++s the si= #ahanars(# so

ce+erated amon* the Persians"

It is e'ond a++ uestion that these nations )os6

sessed a theo+o*' efore the .e$s inhaited the

deserts of &ore and Sinai( and efore the' cou+d

)ossi+' ha%e had an' $riters" 0an' $riters ha%e

considered it )roa+e that the a++e*or' of si= da's

Dictionar'" 8;?

$as imitated from that of the si= )eriods" od ma'

ha%e )ermitted the idea to ha%e )re%ai+ed in +ar*e

and )o)u+ous em)ires efore he ins)ired the .e$ish

)eo)+e $ith it" &e had undouted+' )ermitted other

)eo)+e to in%ent the arts efore the .e$s $ere in

)ossession of an' one of them"



#From this )+easant )+ace a ri%er $ent out $hich

$atered the *arden( and thence it $as di%ided into

four ri%ers" One $as ca++ed Pison( $hich com6

)assed the $ho+e +and of &a%i+ah( $hence cometh

*o+d """" the second $as ca++ed ihon and

surrounds Ethio)ia """" the third is the Ti*ris(

and the fourth the Eu)hrates"#

Accordin* to this %ersion( the earth+' )aradise

$ou+d ha%e contained near+' a third )art of Asia

and of Africa" The sources of the Eu)hrates and

the Ti*ris are si=t' +ea*ues distant from each other(

in fri*htfu+ mountains( earin* no )ossi+e resem6

+ance to a *arden" The ri%er $hich orders Ethio6

)ia( and $hich can e no other than the Ni+e( com6

mences its course at the distance of more than a

thousand +ea*ues from the sources of the Ti*ris

and Eu)hrates and( if the Pison means the Phasis(

it is not a +itt+e sur)risin* that the source of a

Sc'thian ri%er and that of an African one shou+d

e situated on the same s)ot" We must therefore

+oo< for some other e=)+anation( and for other

ri%ers" E%er' commentator has *ot u) a )aradise

of his o$n"

It has een said that the arden of Eden re6



i;2 Phi+oso)hica+

sem+es the *ardens of Eden at Saana in Araia

Fe+i=( ce+erated throu*hout a++ antiuit' that the

&ere$s( a %er' recent )eo)+e( mi*ht e an Araian

horde( and assume to themse+%es the honor of the

most eautifu+ s)ot in the Hnest district of Araia

and that the' ha%e a+$a's con%erted to their o$n

)ur)oses the ancient traditions of the %ast and

)o$erfu+ nations in the midst of $hom the' $ere

in onda*e" The' $ere not( ho$e%er( on this ac6

count( the +ess under the di%ine )rotection and *uid6

ance"

#The Lord then too< the man and )ut him into

the arden of Eden that he mi*ht cu+ti%ate it"# It

is %er' res)ecta+e and )+easant for a man to #cu+ti6

%ate his *arden(# ut it must ha%e een some$hat

diMcu+t for Adam to ha%e dressed and <e)t in order

a *arden of a thousand +ea*ues in +en*th( e%en

a+thou*h he had een su))+ied $ith some assistants"

Commentators on this suGect( therefore( $e a*ain

oser%e( are com)+ete+' at a +oss( and must e con6



tent to e=ercise their in*enuit' in conGecture" Ac6

cordin*+'( these four ri%ers ha%e een descried as

o$in* throu*h numer+ess diBerent territories"

#Eat not of the fruit of the tree of <no$+ed*e

of *ood and e%i+"# It is not eas' to concei%e that

there e%er e=isted a tree $hich cou+d teach *ood and

e%i+( as there are trees that ear )ears and a)ricots"

And esides the uestion is as<ed( $h' is od un6

$i++in* that man shou+d <no$ *ood and e%i+ Wou+d

not his free access to this <no$+ed*e( on the contrar'(

T&E TE0PTATION OR ADA0

Dictionar'" 8;9

a))ear if $e ma' %enture to use such +an*ua*e

more $orth' of od( and far more necessar' to

man To our $ea< reason it $ou+d seem more

natura+ and )ro)er for od to command him to eat

+ar*e+' of such fruit ut $e must rin* our reason

under suGection( and acuiesce $ith humi+it' and



sim)+icit' in the conc+usion that od is to e oe'ed"

#If thou sha+t eat thereof( thou sha+t die"# Ne%er6

the+ess( Adam ate of it and did not die on the con6

trar'( he is stated to ha%e +i%ed on for nine hundred

and thirt' 'ears" 0an' of the fathers considered the

$ho+e matter as an a++e*or'" In fact( it mi*ht e

said that a++ other anima+s ha%e no <no$+ed*e that

the' sha++ die( ut that man( ' means of his reason(

has such <no$+ed*e" This reason is the tree of

<no$+ed*e $hich ena+es him to foresee his end"

This( )erha)s( is the most rationa+ inter)retation

that can e *i%en" We %enture not to decide )osi6

ti%e+'"

#The Lord said( a+so( it is not *ood for man to

e a+one +et us ma<e him a he+)meet for him"#

We natura++' e=)ect that the Lord is aout to e6

sto$ on him a $ife ut Hrst he conducts efore

him a++ the %arious tries of anima+s" Perha)s the

co)'ist ma' ha%e committed here an error of trans6

)osition"

#And the name $hich Adam *a%e to e%er' ani6

ma+ is its true name"# What $e shou+d natura++'

understand ' the true name of an anima+( $ou+d e



a name descriin* a++( or at +east( the )rinci)a+ )ro)6

8?: Phi+oso)hica+

erties of its s)ecies" !ut this is not the case in an'

+an*ua*e" In each there are some imitati%e $ords(

as #co# and #cocu# in the Ce+tic( $hich ear some

s+i*ht simi+arit' to the notes of the coc< and the

cuc<oo tintamarre( trictrac( in French a+a+i( in

ree< +u)us( in Latin( etc" !ut these imitati%e

$ords are e=ceedin*+' fe$" 0oreo%er( if Adam had

thus thorou*h+' <no$n the )ro)erties of %arious ani6

ma+s( he must either ha%e )re%ious+' eaten of the

fruit of the tree of <no$+ed*e( or it $ou+d a))arent+'

ha%e ans$ered no end for od to ha%e interdicted

him from it" &e must ha%e a+read' <no$n more

than the Ro'a+ Societ' of London( and the Academ'

of the Sciences"

It ma' e remar<ed that this is the Hrst time the

name of Adam occurs in the !oo< of enesis" The

Hrst man( accordin* to the ancient !rahmins( $ho

$ere )rodi*ious+' anterior to the .e$s( $as ca++ed

Adimo( a son of the earth( and his $ife( Procris( +ife"



This is recorded in the Vedas( in the histor' of the

second formation of the $or+d" Adam and E%e e=6

)ressed )erfect+' the same meanin*s in the Phoeni6

cian +an*ua*e a ne$ e%idence of the &o+' S)iritJs

conformin* &imse+f to common+' recei%ed ideas"

#When Adam $as as+ee) od too< one of his ris

and )ut esh instead thereof and of the ri $hich

he had ta<en from Adam he formed a $oman( and

he rou*ht the $oman to Adam"#

In the )re%ious cha)ter the Lord had a+read'

created the ma+e and the fema+e $h'( therefore(

Dictionar'" 8?8

remo%e a ri from the man to form out of it a

$oman $ho $as a+read' in ein* It is ans$ered

that the author are+' announces in the one case

$hat he e=)+ains in another" It is ans$ered further

that this a++e*or' )+aces the $ife in suGection to her

husand( and e=)resses their intimate union" 0an'

)ersons ha%e een +ed to ima*ine from this %erse

that men ha%e one ri +ess than $omen ut this is



a heres'( and anatom' informs us that a $ife hasJ

no more ris than her husand"

#!ut the ser)ent $as more sut+e than a++ anima+s

on the earth he said to the $oman(# etc" Throu*h6

out the $ho+e of this artic+e there is no mention made

of the de%i+" E%er'thin* in it re+ates to the usua+

course of nature" The ser)ent $as considered ' a++

orienta+ nations( not on+' as the most cunnin* of a++

anima+s( ut +i<e$ise as immorta+" The Cha+daeans

had a fa+e concernin* a uarre+ et$een od and

the ser)ent( and this fa+e had een )reser%ed '

Pherec'des" Ori*en cites it in his si=th oo< a*ainst

Ce+sus" A ser)ent $as orne in )rocession at the

feasts of !acchus" The E*')tians( accordin* to the

statement of Euseius in the Hrst oo< of the tenth

cha)ter of his #E%an*e+ica+ Pre)aration(# attached

a sort of di%init' to the ser)ent" In Araia( India(

and e%en China( the ser)ent $as re*arded as a s'm6

o+ of +ife and hence it $as that the em)erors of

China( +on* efore the time of 0oses( a+$a's ore

u)on their reast the ima*e of a ser)ent"

E%e e=)resses no astonishment at the ser)entJs



8 ?> Phi+oso)hica+

s)ea<in* to her" In a++ ancient histories( anima+s

ha%e s)o<en hence Pi+)a' and Lo<mah e=cited no

sur)rise ' their introduction of anima+s con%ersin*

and dis)utin*"

The $ho+e of this aBair a))ears so c+ear+' to

ha%e een su))osed in the natura+ course of e%ents(

and so unconnected $ith an'thin* a++e*orica+( that

the narrati%e assi*ns a reason $h' the ser)ent( from

that time( has mo%ed cree)in* on its e++'( $h' $e

a+$a's are ea*er to crush it under our feet( and $h'

it a+$a's attem)ts at +east accordin* to the )o)u6

+ar e+ief to ite and $ound us" Precise+' as( $ith

res)ect to )resumed chan*es aBectin* certain ani6

ma+s recorded in ancient fa+e( reasons $ere stated

$h' the cro$ $hich ori*ina++' had een $hite is at

the )resent da' +ac< $h' the o$+ uits his *+oom'

retreat on+' ' ni*ht $h' the $o+f is de%oted to

carna*e" The fathers( ho$e%er( e+ie%ed the aBair

to e an a++e*or' at once c+ear and %enera+e" The

safest $a' is to e+ie%e +i<e them"

#I $i++ mu+ti)+' th' sorro$ and th' conce)tion



in sorro$ sha+t thou rin* forth chi+dren" Thou

sha+t e under the )o$er of the man( and he sha++

ru+e o%er thee"# Wh'( it is as<ed( shou+d the mu+ti6

)+ication of conce)tion e a )unishment It $as(

on the contrar'( sa's the oGector( esteemed a su)e6

rior +essin*( )articu+ar+' amon* the .e$s" The

)ains of chi+dirth are inconsidera+e( in a++ e=ce)t

%er' $ea< or de+icate $omen" Those accustomed to

+aor are de+i%ered( )articu+ar+' in $arm c+imates(

Dictionar'" 8?

$ith *reat ease" !rutes freuent+' e=)erience

*reater suBerin* from this )rocess of nature - some

e%en die under it" And $ith res)ect to the su)erior6

it' or dominion of the man o%er the $oman( it is

mere+' in the natura+ course of e%ents it is the

eBect of stren*th of od'( and e%en of stren*th of

mind" 0en( *enera++' s)ea<in*( )ossess or*ans

more ca)a+e of continued attention than $omen(

and are etter Htted ' nature for +aors oth of the

head and arm" !ut $hen a $oman )ossesses oth

a hand and a mind more )o$erfu+ than her hus6

andJs( she e%er'$here )ossesses the dominion o%er



him it is then the husand that is under suGection

to the $ife" There is certain+' truth in these re6

mar<s ut it mi*ht( ne%erthe+ess( %er' easi+' e the

fact that( efore the commission of the ori*ina+ sin(

neither suGection nor sorro$ e=isted"

#The Lord made for them coats of s<ins"# This

)assa*e decided+' )ro%es that the .e$s e+ie%ed od

to e cor)orea+" A rai( of the name of E+ie1er(

stated in his $or<s that od c+othed Adam and E%e

$ith the s<in of the %er' ser)ent $ho had tem)ted

them and Ori*en maintains that this coat of s<ins

$as a ne$ esh( a ne$ od'( $hich od conferred

on man" It is far etter to adhere res)ectfu++' to

the +itera+ te=ts"

#And the Lord said Lo Adam is ecome +i<e

one of us"# It seems as if the .e$s admitted( ori*i6

na++'( man' *ods" It is some$hat more diMcu+t to

$hat the' meant ' thX W: rd #odJ

8 ?Q Phi+oso)hica+

E+ohJim" Some commentators ha%e contended that



the e=)ression #one of us# si*niHes the Trinit'"

!ut certain+' there is nothin* re+atin* to the Trinit'

throu*hout the !i+e" The Trinit' is not a com6

)ound of man' or se%era+ ods - it is one and the

same *od threefo+d and the .e$s ne%er heard the

s+i*htest mention of one *od in three )ersons" !'

the $ords #+i<e us(# or #as one of us(# it is )roa+e

that the .e$s understood the an*e+s( E+ohJim" It is

this )assa*e $hich has induced man' +earned men

%er' rash+' to conc+ude that this oo< $as not $rit6

ten unti+ that )eo)+e had ado)ted the e+ief of those

inferior *ods" !ut this o)inion has een con6

demned"

#The Lord sent him forth from the *arden of

Eden to cu+ti%ate the *round"# !ut(# it is remar<ed

' some( #the Lord had )+aced him in the *arden

of Eden to cu+ti%ate that *arden"# If Adam( in6

stead of ein* a *ardener( mere+' ecomes a +aorer(

his situation( the' oser%e( is not made %er' much

$orse ' the chan*e" A *ood +aorer is $e++ $orth

a *ood *ardener" These remar<s must e re*arded

as too +i*ht and fri%o+ous" It a))ears more Gudi6

cious to sa' that od )unished disoedience ' an6

ishin* the oBender from the )+ace of his nati%it'"



The $ho+e of this histor'( *enera++' s)ea<in*

accordin* to the o)inion of +iera+( not to sa' +icen6

tious( commentators )roceeds u)on the idea $hich

has )re%ai+ed in e%er' )ast a*e( and sti++ e=ists( that

the Hrst tiin"es $ere etter a"n"Q ha))ier than those"

Dictionar'" 8?@

$hich fo++o$ed" 0en ha%e a+$a's com)+ained of

the )resent and e=to++ed the )ast" Pressed do$n '

the +aors of +ife( the' ha%e ima*ined ha))iness to

consist in inacti%it'( not considerin* that the most

unha))' of a++ states is that of a man $ho has noth6

in* to do" The' fe+t themse+%es freuent+' miser6

a+e( and framed in their ima*inations an idea+

)eriod in $hich a++ the $or+d had een ha))' a+6

thou*h it mi*ht e Gust as natura++' and tru+' su)6

)osed that there had e=isted times in $hich no tree

deca'ed and )erished( in $hich no east $as $ea<(

diseased( or de%oured ' another( and in $hich

s)iders did not )re' u)on ies" &ence the idea of

the *o+den a*e of the e** )ierced ' Arimanes of

the ser)ent $ho sto+e from the ass the reci)e for

otainin* a ha))' and immorta+ +ife( $hich the man



had )+aced u)on his )ac<6sadd+e of the conict e6

t$een T')hon and Osiris( and et$een O)heneus

and the *ods of the famous o= of Pandora and

of a++ those ancient ta+es( of $hich some are in*en6

ious( ut none instructi%e" !ut $e are ound to

e+ie%e that the fa+es of other nations are imita6

tions of the &ere$ histor'( since $e )ossess the

ancient histor' of the &ere$s( and the ear+' oo<s

of other nations are near+' a++ destro'ed" !esides

the testimonies in fa%or of the !oo< of enesis are

irrefra*a+e"

#And &e )+aced efore the *arden of Eden a

cheru $ith a amin* s$ord( $hich turned a++ round

to *uard the $a' to the tree of +ife"# The $ord

iG; Phi+oso)hica+

#<eru# si*niHes o=" An o= armed $ith a amin*

s$ord is rather a sin*u+ar e=hiition( it is said( e6

fore a )orta+" !ut the .e$s after$ards re)resented

an*e+s under the form of o=en and ha$<s a+thou*h

the' $ere foridden to ma<e an' ima*es" The'

e%ident+' deri%ed these em+ems of o=en and ha$<s



from the E*')tians( $hom the' imitated in so man'

other thin*s" The E*')tians Hrst %enerated the o=

as the em+em of a*ricu+ture( and the ha$< as that

of the $inds ut the' ne%er con%erted the o= into

a sentine+" It is )roa+' an a++e*or' and the .e$s

' #<eru# understood nature" It $as a s'mo+

formed of the head of an o=( the head and od' of a

man( and the $in*s of a ha$<"

#And the Lord set a mar< u)on Cain"# What

Lord sa's the inHde+" &e acce)ts the oBerin* of

Ae+( and reGects that of his e+der rother( $ithout

the +east reason ein* assi*ned for the distinction"

!' this )roceedin* the Lord $as the cause of ani6

mosit' et$een the t$o rothers" We are )resented

in this )iece of histor'( it is true( $ith a mora+( ho$6

e%er humi+iatin*( +esson a +esson to e deri%ed from

a++ the fa+es of antiuit'( that scarce+' had the race

of man commenced the career of e=istence( efore

one rother assassinates another" !ut $hat the sa*ei

of this $or+d consider contrar' to e%er'thin* mora+(

to e%er'thin* Gust( to a++ the )rinci)+es of common

sense( is that od( $ho inicted eterna+ damnation

on the race of man( and use+ess cruciH=ion on &is

o$n son( on account mere+' of the eatin* of an a))+e(



Dictionar'" 8??

shou+d aso+ute+' )ardon a fratricide na'( that &e

shou+d more than )ardon( that &e shou+d ta<e the

oBender under &is )ecu+iar )rotection &e de6

c+ares that $hoe%er sha++ a%en*e the murder of Ae+

sha++ e=)erience se%enfo+d the )unishment that Cain

mi*ht ha%e suBered" &e )uts a mar< u)on him as

a safe*uard" &ere( continue these %i+e +as)hemers(

here is a fa+e as e=ecra+e as it is asurd" It is the

ra%in* of some $retched .e$( $ho $rote those in6

famous and re%o+tin* foo+eries( in imitation of the

ta+es so *reedi+' s$a++o$ed ' the nei*horin* )o)6

u+ation in S'ria" This sense+ess .e$ attriutes these

atrocious re%eries to 0oses( at a time $hen nothin*

$as so rare as oo<s" That fata+it'( $hich aBects

and dis)oses of e%er'thin*( has handed do$n this

contem)ti+e )roduction to our o$n times" Kna%es

ha%e e=to++ed it( and foo+s ha%e e+ie%ed it" Such

is the +an*ua*e of a trie of theists( $ho( $hi+e the'

adore a od( dare to condemn the od of Israe+

and $ho Gud*e of the conduct of the eterna+ Deit'

' the ru+es of our o$n im)erfect mora+it'( and er6

roneous Gustice" The' admit a od( to suGect &im



to our +a$s" Let us *uard a*ainst such rashness

and( once a*ain it must e re)eated( +et us re%ere

$hat $e cannot com)rehend" Let us cr' out( O

A+titudo O the hei*ht and de)th $ith a++ our

stren*th"

#The *ods E+ohim( seein* the dau*hters of men

that the' $ere fair( too< for $i%es those $hom the'

chose"# This ima*ination( a*ain( ma' e traced in

Vo+" 9 8>

iJ! Phi+oso)hica+

the histor' of e%er' )eo)+e" No nation has e%er

e=isted( un+ess )erha)s $e ma' e=ce)t China( in

$hich some *od is not descried as ha%in* had oB6

s)rin* from $omen" These cor)orea+ *ods fre6

uent+' descended to %isit their dominions u)on

earth the' sa$ the dau*hters of our race( and at6

tached themse+%es to those $ho $ere most interest6

in* and eautifu+- the issue of this connection e6

t$een *ods and morta+s must of course ha%e een

su)erior to other men accordin*+'( enesis informs



us that from the association it mentions( of the *ods

$ith $omen( s)ran* a race of *iants"

#I $i++ rin* a de+u*e of $aters u)on the earth"#

I $i++ mere+' oser%e here that St" Au*ustine( in his

#Cit' of od(# No" 2( sa's( #0a=imum i++ud di+u%6

ium raca nee Latina no%it historic(# neither

ree< nor Latin histor' <no$s an'thin* aout the

*reat de+u*e" In fact( none had e%er een <no$n

in reece ut those of Deuca+ion and O*'*es" The'

are re*arded as uni%ersa+ in the fa+es co++ected '

O%id( ut are $ho++' un<no$n in eastern Asia" St"

Au*ustine( therefore( is not mista<en( in sa'in* that

histor' ma<es no mention of this e%ent"

#od said to Noah( I $i++ ma<e a co%enant $ith

'ou( and $ith 'our seed after 'ou( and $ith a++ +i%6

in* creatures"# od ma<e a co%enant $ith easts

What sort of a co%enant Such is the outcr' of in6

Hde+s" !ut if &e ma<es a co%enant $ith man( $h'

not $ith the east It has fee+in*( and there is

somethin* as di%ine in fee+in* as in the most meta6

Dictionar'" 8?9



)h'sica+ meditation" !esides( easts fee+ more cor6

rect+' than the *reater )art of men thin<" It is

c+ear+' in %irtue of this treat' that Francis dJAssisi(

the founder of the Sera)hic order( said to the *rass6

ho))ers and the hares( #Pra' sin*( m' dear sister

*rassho))er )ra' ro$se( m' dear rother hare"#

!ut $hat $ere the conditions of the treat' That

a++ anima+s shou+d de%our one another that the'

shou+d feed u)on our esh( and $e u)on theirs

that( after ha%in* eaten them( $e shou+d )roceed

$ith $rath and fur' to the e=termination of our o$n

race nothin* ein* then $antin* to cro$n the

horrid series of utcher' and crue+t'( ut de%ourin*

our fe++o$6men( after ha%in* thus remorse+ess+' de6

stro'ed them" &ad there een actua++' such a treat'

as this it cou+d ha%e een entered into on+' $ith the

de%i+"

Proa+' the meanin* of the $ho+e )assa*e is

neither more nor +ess than that od is eua++' the

aso+ute master of e%er'thin* that reathes" This

)act can e nothin* more than an order( and the

$ord #co%enant# is used mere+' as more em)hatic

and im)ressi%e $e shou+d not therefore e start+ed

and oBended at the $ords( ut adore the s)irit( and



direct our minds ac< to the )eriod in $hich this

oo< $as $ritten a oo< of scanda+ to the $ea<(

ut of ediHcation to the stron*"

#And I $i++ )ut m' o$ in the c+ouds( and it sha++

e a si*n of m' co%enant"# Oser%e that the author

does not sa'( I ha%e )ut m' o$ in the c+ouds he

8 2: Phi+oso)hica+

sa's( I $i++ )ut - this c+ear+' im)+ies it to ha%e een

the )re%ai+in* o)inion that there had not a+$a's een

a raino$" This )henomenon is necessari+' )ro6

duced ' rain 'et in this )+ace it is re)resented as

somethin* su)ernatura+( e=hiited in order to an6

nounce and )ro%e that the earth shou+d no more e

inundated" It is sin*u+ar to choose the certain si*n

of rain( in order to assure men a*ainst their ein*

dro$ned" !ut it ma' a+so e re)+ied that in an'

dan*er of inundation( $e ha%e the cheerin* securit'

of the raino$"

#!ut the Lord came do$n to see the cit' and the

to$er $hich the sons of Adam had ui+t( and he



said( J!eho+d a )eo)+e $hich ha%e ut one +an*ua*e"

The' ha%e e*un to do this( and the' $i++ not desist

unti+ the' ha%e com)+eted it" Come( then( +et us *o

and confound their +an*ua*e( that no one ma' un6

derstand his nei*hor"J # Oser%e here( that the

sacred $riter a+$a's continues to conform to the

)o)u+ar o)inions" &e a+$a's s)ea<s of od as of a

man $ho endea%ors to inform himse+f of $hat is

)assin*( $ho is desirous of seein* $ith his o$n e'es

$hat is *oin* on in his dominions( $ho ca++s to*ether

his counci+ in order to de+ierate $ith them"

#And Araham ha%in* di%ided his men $ho

$ere three hundred and ei*hteen in numer fe++

u)on the H%e <in*s( and )ursued them unto &oa(

on the +eft hand of Damascus"# From the south

an< of the +a<e of Sodom to Damascus $as a dis6

tance of ei*ht' +ea*ues( not to mention crossin*

Dictionar'" 8 2 8

the mountains Lianus and Anti6Lianus" InHde+s

smi+e and trium)h at such e=a**eration" !ut as the

Lord fa%ored Araham( nothin* $as in fact e=a*6



*erated"

#And t$o an*e+s arri%ed at Sodom at e%en"#

The $ho+e histor' of these t$o an*e+s( $hom the

inhaitants of Sodom $ished to %io+ate( is )erha)s

the most e=traordinar' in the records of a++ antiuit'"

!ut it must e considered that a+most a++ Asia e6

+ie%ed in the e=istence of the demoniaca+ incuus

and succuus and moreo%er( that these t$o an*e+s

$ere creatures more )erfect than man<ind( and must

ha%e )ossessed more eaut' to stimu+ate their e=e6

cra+e tendencies" It is )ossi+e that the )assa*e

ma' e on+' meant as a rhetorica+ H*ure to e=)ress

the atrocious de)ra%it' of Sodom and omorrah"

It is not $ithout the *reatest diMdence that $e su*6

*est to the +earned this so+ution"

As to Lot( $ho )ro)oses to the )eo)+e of Sodom

the sustitution of his t$o dau*hters in the room of

the an*e+s and his $ife( $ho $as chan*ed into a

statue of sa+t( and a++ the rest of that histor'( $hat

sha++ $e %enture to sa' The o+d Araian ta+e of

Kin'ras and 0'rrha has some resem+ance to the

incest of Lot $ith his dau*hters and the ad%enture

of Phi+emon and !aucis is some$hat simi+ar to the

case of the t$o an*e+s $ho a))eared to Lot and his



$ife" With res)ect to the statue of sa+t( $e <no$

not $here to Hnd an' resem+ance )erha)s in the

histor' of Or)heus and Eur'dice"

8 2> Phi+oso)hica+

0an' in*enious men are of o)inion( $ith the

*reat Ne$ton and the +earned Lec+erc that the

Pentateuch $as $ritten ' Samue+ $hen the .e$s

had a +itt+e <no$+ed*e of readin* and $ritin*( and

that a++ these histories are imitations of S'rian

fa+es"

!ut it is enou*h that a++ this is in the &o+'

Scri)ture to induce us to re%erence it( $ithout at6

tem)tin* to Hnd out in this oo< an'thin* esides

$hat is $ritten ' the &o+' S)irit" Let us a+$a's

reco++ect that those times $ere not +i<e our times

and +et us not fai+ to re)eat( after so man' *reat men(

that the O+d Testament is a true histor' and that

a++ that has een $ritten diBerin* from it ' the rest

of the $or+d is fau+ous"

Some critics ha%e contended that a++ the incred6



i+e )assa*es in the canonica+ oo<s( $hich scanda6

+i1e $ea< minds( ou*ht to e su))ressed ut it has

een oser%ed in ans$er that those critics had ad

hearts( and ou*ht to e urned at the sta<e and

that it is im)ossi+e to e a *ood man $ithout e6

+ie%in* that the )eo)+e of Sodom $anted to %io+ate

t$o an*e+s" Such is the reasonin* of a s)ecies of

monsters $ho $ish to +ord it o%er the understand6

in*s of man<ind"

It is true that man' eminent fathers of the

Church ha%e had the )rudence to turn a++ these his6

tories into a++e*ories( after the e=am)+e of the .e$s(

and )articu+ar+' of Phi+o" The )o)es( more discreet(

ha%e endea%ored to )re%ent the trans+ation of these

Dictionar'" 8 2

oo<s into the %u+*ar ton*ue( +est some men shou+d

in conseuence e +ed to thin< and Gud*e( aout

$hat $as )ro)osed to them on+' to adore"

We are certain+' GustiHed in conc+udin* hence(

that those $ho thorou*h+' understand this oo<



shou+d to+erate those $ho do not understand it at a++

for if the +atter understand nothin* of it( it is not

their o$n fau+t - on the other hand( those $ho com6

)rehend nothin* that it contains shou+d to+erate

those $ho com)rehend e%er'thin* in it"

Learned and in*enious men( fu++ of their o$n

ta+ents and acuirements( ha%e maintained that it

is im)ossi+e that 0oses cou+d ha%e $ritten the !oo<

of enesis" One of their )rinci)a+ reasons is that in

the histor' of Araham that )atriarch is stated to

ha%e )aid for a ca%e $hich he )urchased for the

interment of his $ife( in si+%er coin( and the <in* of

erar is said to ha%e *i%en Sarah a thousand )ieces

of si+%er $hen he restored her( after ha%in* carried

her oB for her eaut' at the a*e of se%ent'6H%e"

The' inform us that the' ha%e consu+ted a++ the an6

cient authors( and that it a))ears %er' certain that

at the )eriod mentioned si+%er mone' $as not in

e=istence" !ut these are e%ident+' mere ca%i+s( as

the Church has a+$a's Hrm+' e+ie%ed 0oses to ha%e

een the author of the Pentateuch" The' stren*then

a++ the douts su**ested ' Aen6E1ra( and !a6

ruch S)ino1a" The )h'sician Astruc( father6in6+a$

of the com)tro++er6*enera+ Si+houette( in his oo<

no$ ecome %er' scarce ca++ed #ConGectures on the



8 2Q Phi+oso)hica+

!oo< of enesis(# adds some oGections( ine=)+i6

ca+e undouted+' to human +earnin*( ut not so

to a hum+e and sumissi%e )iet'" The +earned(

man' of them( contradict e%er' +ine( ut the de%out

consider e%er' +ine sacred" Let us dread fa++in* into

the misfortune of e+ie%in* and trustin* to our rea6

son ut +et us rin* ourse+%es into suGection in

understandin* as $e++ as in heart"

#And Araham said that Sarah $as his sister(

and the <in* of erar too< her for himse+f"# We

admit( as $e ha%e said under the artic+e on #Ara6

ham(# that Sarah $as at this time ninet' 'ears of a*e(

that she had een a+read' carried a$a' ' a <in* of

E*')t( and that a <in* of this same horrid $i+derness

of erar( +i<e$ise( man' 'ears after$ards( carried

a$a' the $ife of Isaac( ArahamJs son" We ha%e

a+so s)o<en of his ser%ant( &a*ar( $ho ore him a

son( and of the manner in $hich the )atriarch sent

her and her son a$a'" It is $e++ <no$n ho$ inHde+s

trium)h on the suGect of a++ these histories( $ith



$hat a disdainfu+ smi+e the' s)ea< of them( and that

the' )+ace the stor' of one Aime+ech fa++in* in +o%e

$ith Sarah $hom Araham had )assed oB as his

sister( and of another Aime+ech fa++in* in +o%e $ith

Reecca( $hom Isaac a+so )asses as his sister( e%en

eneath the thousand and one ni*hts of the Araian

fa+es" We cannot too often remar< that the *reat

error of a++ these +earned critics is their $ishin* to

tr' e%er'thin* ' the test of our fee+e reason( and to

Dictionar'" 82@

Gud*e of the ancient Aras as the' Gud*e of the

courts of France or of En*+and"

#And the sou+ of Shechem( Kin* &amorJs son(

$as ound u) $ith the sou+ of Dinah( and he soothed

her *rief ' his tender caresses( and he $ent to

&amor his father( and said to him( *i%e me that

$oman to e m' $ife"#

&ere our critics e=c+aim in terms of stron*er dis6

*ust than e%er" #What# sa' the' #the son of a

<in* is desirous to marr' a %a*aond *ir+ # the mar6



ria*e is ce+erated .aco the father( and Dinah the

dau*hter( are +oaded $ith )resents the <in* of

Shechem dei*ns to recei%e those $anderin* roers

ca++ed )atriarchs $ithin his cit' he has the incredi+e

)o+iteness or <indness to under*o( $ith his son( his

court( and his )eo)+e( the rite of circumcision( thus

condescendin* to the su)erstition of a )ett' horde

that cou+d not ca++ ha+f a +ea*ue of territor' their

o$n And in return for this astonishin* hos)ita+it'

and *oodness( ho$ do our ho+' )atriarchs act The'

$ait for the da' $hen the )rocess of circumcision

*enera++' induces fe%er( $hen Simeon and Le%i run

throu*h the $ho+e cit' $ith )oniards in their hands

and massacre the <in*( the )rince his son( and a++

the inhaitants" We are )rec+uded from the horror

a))ro)riate to this inferna+ counter)art of the tra*6

ed' of St" !artho+ome$( on+' ' a sense of its a6

so+ute im)ossii+it'" It is an aomina+e romance

ut it is e%ident+' a ridicu+ous romance" It is im)os6

8 2; Phi+oso)hica+

si+e that t$o men cou+d ha%e s+au*htered in uiet

the $ho+e )o)u+ation of a cit'" The )eo)+e mi*ht



suBer in a s+i*ht de*ree from the o)eration $hich

had )receded( ut not$ithstandin* this( the' $ou+d

ha%e risen in se+f6defence a*ainst t$o diao+ica+ mis6

creants the' $ou+d ha%e instant+' assem+ed( $ou+d

ha%e surrounded them( and destro'ed them $ith the

summar' and com)+ete %en*eance merited ' their

atrocit'"

!ut there is a sti++ more )a+)a+e im)ossii+it'"

It is( that accordin* to the accurate com)utation of

time( Dinah( this dau*hter of .aco( cou+d e on+'

three 'ears o+d and that( e%en ' forcin* u) chron6

o+o*' as far as )ossi+e in fa%or of the narrati%e( she

cou+d at the %er' most e on+' H%e" It is here( then(

that $e are assai+ed $ith ursts of indi*nant e=c+a6

mation #What# it is said( #$hat is it this oo<(

the oo< of a reGected and re)roate )eo)+e a oo<

so +on* un<no$n to a++ the $or+d a oo< in $hich

sound reason and decent manners are outra*ed in

e%er' )a*e( that is he+d u) to us as irrefra*a+e(

ho+'( and dictated ' od &imse+f Is it not e%en

im)ious to e+ie%e it or cou+d an'thin* +ess than

the fur' of cannia+s ur*e to the )ersecution of sen6

si+e and modest men for not e+ie%in* it #

To this $e re)+' - #The Church dec+ares its e+ief



in it" The co)'ists ma' ha%e mi=ed u) some re%o+t6

in* asurdities $ith res)ecta+e and *enuine his6

tories" It e+on*s to the ho+' church on+' to decide"

Dictionar'" 82?

The )rofane ou*ht to e *uided ' her" Those a6

surdities( those a++e*ed horrors do not aBect the su6

stance of our faith" &o$ +amenta+e $ou+d e the

fate of man<ind( if re+i*ion and %irtue de)ended

u)on $hat former+' ha))ened to Shechem and to

+itt+e Dinah #

#These are the <in*s $ho rei*ned in the +and of

Edom efore the chi+dren of Israe+ had a <in*"#

This is the ce+erated )assa*e $hich has )ro%ed

one of the *reat stum+in* stones" This it $as $hich

decided the *reat Ne$ton( the )ious and acute Sam6

ue+ C+ar<e( the )rofound and )hi+oso)hic !o+in*6

ro<e( the +earned Lec+erc( the in*enious Freret(

and a host of other en+i*htened men( to maintain

that it $as im)ossi+e 0oses cou+d ha%e een the

author of enesis"



We admit that in fact these $ords cou+d not ha%e

een $ritten unti+ after the time that the .e$s had

<in*s"

It is )rinci)a++' this %erse that determined Astruc

to *i%e u) the ins)ired authorit' of the $ho+e !oo<

of enesis( and su))ose the author had deri%ed

his materia+s from e=istin* memoirs and records"

&is $or< is in*enious and accurate( ut it is rash(

not to sa' audacious" E%en a counci+ $ou+d scarce+'

ha%e %entured on such an enter)rise" And to $hat

)ur)ose has it ser%ed AstrucJs than<+ess and dan6

*erous +aor to dou+e the dar<ness he $ished to

en+i*hten &ere is the fruit of the tree of <no$+6

8 2 2 Phi+oso)hica+

ed*e( of $hich $e are a++ so desirous of eatin*" Wh'

must it e( that the fruit of the tree of i*norance

shou+d e more nourishin* and more di*esti+e

!ut of $hat conseuence can it e to us( after a++(

$hether an' )articu+ar %erse or cha)ter $as $ritten

' 0oses( or Samue+( or the )riest sacriHcateur



$ho came to Samaria( or Esdras( or an' other )er6

son In $hat res)ect can our *o%ernment( our +a$s(

our fortunes( our mora+s( our $e++6ein*( e ound

u) $ith the un<no$n chiefs of a $retched and ar6

arous countr' ca++ed Edom or Idum*ea( a+$a's in6

haited ' roers A+as those )oor Aras( $ho

ha%e not shirts to their ac<s( neither <no$ nor care

$hether or not $e are in e=istence The' *o on

steadi+' )+underin* cara%ans( and eatin* ar+e'

read( $hi+e $e are )er)+e=in* and tormentin* our6

se+%es to <no$ $hether an' )ett' <in*s ourished

in a )articu+ar canton of Araia Petraea( efore the'

e=isted in a )articu+ar canton adGoinin* the $est of

the +a<e of Sodom

O miseras hominum curas O )ectora coeca

L/CRETI/S( ii" 8Q"

!+ind( $retched man in $hat dar< )aths of strife

Thou $a+<est the +itt+e Gourne' of th' +ife CREEC&"

ENII"

T&E doctrines of Gudicia+ astro+o*' and ma*ic

ha%e s)read a++ o%er the $or+d" Loo< ac< to the



ancient 4oroaster( and 'ou $i++ Hnd that of the *enii

+on* esta+ished" A++ antiuit' aounds in astro+6

o*ers and ma*icians such ideas $ere therefore %er'

Dictionar'" 829

natura+" At )resent( $e smi+e at the numer $ho

entertained them if $e $ere in their situation( if

+i<e them $e $ere on+' e*innin* to cu+ti%ate the

sciences( $e shou+d )erha)s e+ie%e Gust the same"

Let us su))ose ourse+%es inte++i*ent )eo)+e( e*in6

nin* to reason on our o$n e=istence( and to o6

ser%e the stars" The earth( $e mi*ht sa'( is no

dout immo%a+e in the midst of the $or+d the sun

and )+anets on+' re%o+%e in her ser%ice( and the stars

are on+' made for us man( therefore( is the *reat

oGect of a++ nature" What is the intention of a++

these *+oes( and of the immensit' of hea%en thus

destined for our use It is %er' +i<e+' that a++ s)ace

and these *+oes are )eo)+ed $ith sustances( and

since $e are the fa%orites of nature( )+aced in the

centre of the uni%erse( and a++ is made for man(

these sustances are e%ident+' destined to $atch o%er

man"



The Hrst man $ho e+ie%ed the thin* at a++ )os6

si+e $ou+d soon Hnd disci)+es )ersuaded that it e=6

isted" We mi*ht then commence ' sa'in*( *enii

)erha)s e=ist( and nood' cou+d aMrm the contrar'

for $here is the im)ossii+it' of the air and )+an6

ets ein* )eo)+ed We mi*ht after$ards sa' there

are *enii( and certain+' no one cou+d )ro%e that there

are not" Soon after( some sa*es mi*ht see these

*enii( and $e shou+d ha%e no ri*ht to sa' to them -

#3ou ha%e not seen them# as these )ersons mi*ht

e honora+e( and a+to*ether $orth' of credit" One

mi*ht see the *enius of the em)ire or of his o$n

89: Phi+oso)hica+

cit' another that of 0ars or Saturn the *enii of

the four e+ements mi*ht e manifested to se%era+

)hi+oso)hers more than one sa*e mi*ht see his o$n

*enius a++ at Hrst mi*ht e +itt+e more than dream6

in*( ut dreams are the s'mo+s of truth"

It $as soon <no$n e=act+' ho$ these *enii $ere

formed" To %isit our *+oe( the' must necessari+'



ha%e $in*s the' therefore had $in*s" We <no$

on+' of odies the' therefore had odies( ut od6

ies much Hner than ours( since the' $ere *enii( and

much +i*hter( ecause the' came from so *reat a

distance" The sa*es $ho had the )ri%i+e*e of con6

%ersin* $ith the *enii ins)ired others $ith the ho)e

of enGo'in* the same ha))iness" A s<e)tic $ou+d

ha%e een i++ recei%ed( if he had said to them- #I

ha%e seen no *enius( therefore there are none"# The'

$ou+d ha%e re)+ied- #3ou reason i++ it does not

fo++o$ that a thin* e=ists not( $hich is un<no$n to

'ou" There is no contradiction in the doctrine

$hich incu+cates these etherea+ )o$ers no im)os6

sii+it' that the' ma' %isit us the' sho$ themse+%es

to our sa*es( the' manifest themse+%es to us 'ou

are not $orth' of seein* *enii"#

E%er'thin* on earth is com)osed of *ood and

e%i+ there are therefore incontesta+' *ood and

ad *enii" The Persians had their )eris and di%es

the ree<s( their demons and cacodaemons the Lat6

ins( onos et ma+os *enios" The *ood *enii are

$hite( and the ad +ac<( e=ce)t amon* the ne*roes(

$here it is necessari+' the re%erse" P+ato $ithout



Dictionar'" 898

diMcu+t' admits of a *ood and e%i+ *enius for e%er'

indi%idua+" The e%i+ *enius of !rutus a))eared to

him( and announced to him his death efore the

att+e of Phi+i))i" &a%e not *ra%e historians said

so And $ou+d not P+utarch ha%e een %er' inGu6

dicious to ha%e assured us of this fact( if it $ere

not true

Further( consider $hat a source of feasts( amuse6

ments( *ood ta+es( and on mots( ori*inated in the

e+ief of *enii

There $ere ma+e and fema+e *enii" The *enii

of the +adies $ere ca++ed ' the Romans +itt+e .unos"

The' a+so had the )+easure of seein* their *enii

*ro$ u)" In infanc'( the' $ere a <ind of Cu)id

$ith $in*s( and $hen the' )rotected o+d a*e( the'

$ore +on* eards( and e%en sometimes the forms of

ser)ents" At Rome( there is )reser%ed a mar+e(

on $hich is re)resented a ser)ent under a )a+m tree(

to $hich are attached t$o cro$ns $ith this inscri)6

tion- #To the *enius of the Au*usti# it $as the

em+em of immorta+it'"



What demonstrati%e )roof ha%e $e at )resent(

that the *enii( so uni%ersa++' admitted ' so man'

en+i*htened nations( are on+' )hantoms of the ima*6

ination A++ that can e said is reduced to this-

#I ha%e ne%er seen a *enius( and no one of m' ac6

uaintance has e%er seen one !rutus has not $rit6

ten that his *enius a))eared to him efore the at6

t+e of Phi+i))i neither Ne$ton( Loc<e( nor e%en

Descartes( $ho *a%e the reins to his ima*ination

89> Phi+oso)hica+

neither <in*s nor ministers of state ha%e e%er een

sus)ected of communin* $ith their *enii there6

fore I do not e+ie%e a thin* of $hich there is not

the +east truth" I confess their e=istence is not im6

)ossi+e ut the )ossii+it' is not a )roof of the

rea+it'" It is )ossi+e that there ma' e sat'rs( $ith

+itt+e turned6u) tai+s and *oatsJ feet ut I must

see se%era+ to e+ie%e in them for if I sa$ ut one(

I shou+d sti++ dout their e=istence"#

ENI/S"



OF ENI/S or demon( $e ha%e a+read' s)o<en in

the artic+e on #an*e+"# It is not eas' to <no$ )re6

cise+' $hether the )eris of the Persians $ere in6

%ented efore the demons of the ree<s( ut it is

%er' )roa+e that the' $ere" It ma' e( that the

sou+s of the dead( ca++ed shades( manes( etc"( )assed

for demons" &esiod ma<es &ercu+es sa' that a

demon dictated his +aors"

The demon of Socrates had so *reat a re)utation(

that A)u+eius( the author of the #o+den Ass(# $ho

$as himse+f a ma*ician of *ood re)ute( sa's in his

#Treatise on the enius of Socrates(# that a man

must e $ithout re+i*ion $ho denies it" 3ou see

that A)u+eius reasons )recise+' +i<e rothers a6

rasse and !ertier - #3ou do not e+ie%e that $hich

I e+ie%e 'ou are therefore $ithout re+i*ion"# And

the .ansenists ha%e said as much of rother !ertier(

as $e++ as of a++ the $or+d e=ce)t themse+%es" #These

demons(# sa's the %er' re+i*ious and H+th' A)u+eius(

Dictionar'" 89



#are intermediate )o$ers et$een ether and our

+o$er re*ion" The' +i%e in our atmos)here( and ear

our )ra'ers and merits to the *ods" The' treat of

succors and eneHts( as inter)reters and amassa6

dors" P+ato sa's( that it is ' their ministr' that

re%e+ations( )resa*es( and the mirac+es of ma*icians(

are eBected"# Cceterum sunt ucedam di%ina medics

)ot estates( inter summum Ether a( et inHmas terras(

in isto interstice o1ris s)atio( )er uas et desideria

nostra et merita ad deos commeant" &os rceco

nomine demonias nuncu)ant" Inter terrico+as coe+i

co+asue %ictores( hinc )ecum( inde donorum- ui

u+tro citroue )ortant( hinc )etitiones( inde su))e6

tias- ceu uidam utriusue inter)retes( et sa+uti*eri"

Per hos eosdem( ut P+ato in s'm)osia autumat(

cuncta denuntiata et ma Gorum %aria miracu+a(

omnesue )rcesa*ium s)ecies re*untur"#

St" Au*ustine has condescended to refute A)u6

+eius in these $ords-

#It is im)ossi+e for us to sa' that demons are

neither morta+ nor eterna+( for a++ that has +ife( either

+i%es eterna++'( or +oses the reath of +ife ' death

and A)u+eius has said( that as to time( the de6

mons are eterna+" What then remains( ut that



demons ho+d a medium situation( and ha%e one ua+6

it' hi*her and another +o$er than man<ind and

as( of these t$o thin*s( eternit' is the on+' hi*her

thin* $hich the' e=c+usi%e+' )ossess( to com)+ete

the a++otted medium( $hat must e the +o$er( if not

miser' # This is )o$erfu+ reasonin*

Vo+" 9 8

89Q Phi+oso)hica+

As I ha%e ne%er seen an' *enii( demons( )eris(

or ho*o+ins( $hether eneHcent or mischie%ous(

I cannot s)ea< of them from <no$+ed*e" I on+'

re+ate $hat has een said ' )eo)+e $ho ha%e seen

them"

Amon* the Romans( the $ord #*enius# $as not

used to e=)ress a rare ta+ent( as $ith us - the term

for that ua+it' $as in*enium" We use the $ord

#*enius# indiBerent+' in s)ea<in* of the tute+ar

demon of a to$n of antiuit'( or an artist( or a mu6

sician" The term #*enius# seems to ha%e een in6

tended to desi*nate not *reat ta+ents *enera++'( ut



those into $hich in%ention enters" In%ention( ao%e

e%er'thin*( a))eared a *ift from the *ods this

in*enium( uasi in*enitum( a <ind of di%ine ins)i6

ration" No$ an artist( ho$e%er )erfect he ma' e

in his )rofession( if he ha%e no in%ention( if he e

not ori*ina+( is not considered a *enius" &e is on+'

ins)ired ' the artists his )redecessors( e%en $hen

he sur)asses them"

It is %er' )roa+e that man' )eo)+e no$ )+a' at

chess etter than the in%entor of the *ame( and that

the' mi*ht *ain the )ri1e of corn )romised him '

the Indian <in*" !ut this in%entor $as a *enius(

and those $ho mi*ht no$ *ain the )ri1e $ou+d e

no such thin*" Poussin( $ho $as a *reat )ainter

efore he had seen an' *ood )ictures( had a *enius

for )aintin*" Lu++i( $ho ne%er heard an' *ood mu6

sician in France( had a *enius for music"

Which is the more desira+e to )ossess( a *enius

Dictionar'" 89@

$ithout a master( or the attainment of )erfection '



imitatin* and sur)assin* the masters $hich )recede

us

If 'ou )ut this uestion to artists( the' $i++ )er6

ha)s e di%ided if 'ou )ut it to the )u+ic( it $i++

not hesitate" Do 'ou +i<e a eautifu+ oe+in ta)6

estr' etter than one made in F+anders at the com6

mencement of the arts Do 'ou )refer modern mas6

ter)ieces of en*ra%in* to the Hrst $ood6cuts the

music of the )resent da' to the Hrst airs( $hich re6

sem+ed the re*orian chant the ma<ers of the

arti++er' of our time to the *enius $hich in%ented

the Hrst cannon e%er'od' $i++ ans$er( #'es"# A++

)urchasers $i++ sa'- #I o$n that the in%entor of

the shutt+e had more *enius than the manufacturer

$ho made m' c+oth( ut m' c+oth is $orth more

than that of the in%entor"

In short( e%er' one in conscience $i++ confess(

that $e res)ect the *eniuses $ho in%ented the arts(

ut that the minds $hich )erfect them are of more

)resent eneHt"

SECTION II"

The artic+e on #enius# has een treated in



the #Enc'c+o)aedia# ' men $ho )ossess it" We

sha++ ha1ard %er' +itt+e after them"

E%er' to$n( e%er' man )ossessed a *enius" It

$as ima*ined that those $ho )erformed e=traor6

dinar' thin*s $ere ins)ired ' their *enius" The

nine muses $ere nine *enii( $hom it $as necessar'

to in%o<e therefore O%id sa's - #Et Deus in nois(

89; Phi+oso)hica+

a*itante ca+escimus i++o# #The od $ithin us( &e

the mind ins)ires"

!ut( )ro)er+' s)ea<in*( is *enius an'thin* ut

ca)ai+it' What is ca)ai+it' ut a dis)osition to

succeed in an art Wh' do $e sa' the *enius of a

+an*ua*e It is( that e%er' +an*ua*e( ' its termi6

nations( artic+es( )artici)+es( and shorter or +on*er

$ords( $i++ necessari+' ha%e e=c+usi%e )ro)erties of

its o$n"

!' the *enius of a nation is meant the charac6

ter( manners( ta+ents( and e%en %ices( $hich distin6



*uish one )eo)+e from another" It is suMcient to see

the French( En*+ish( and S)anish )eo)+e( to fee+

this diBerence"

We ha%e said that the )articu+ar *enius of a man

for an art is a diBerent thin* from his *enera+ ta+6

ent ut this name is *i%en on+' to a %er' su)erior

ai+it'" &o$ man' )eo)+e ha%e ta+ent for )oetr'(

music( and )aintin* 'et it $ou+d e ridicu+ous to

ca++ them *eniuses"

enius( conducted ' taste( $i++ ne%er commit a

*ross fau+t" Racine( since his #Andromache(# #Le

Poussin(# and #Rameau(# has ne%er committed

one" enius( $ithout taste( $i++ often commit enor6

mous errors and( $hat is $orse( it $i++ not e sen6

si+e of them"

EORAP&3"

EORAP&3 is one of those sciences $hich $i++

a+$a's reuire to e )erfected" Not$ithstandin*

Dictionar'" 8 9?



the )ains that ha%e een ta<en( it has hitherto een

im)ossi+e to ha%e an e=act descri)tion of the earth"

For this *reat $or<( it $ou+d e necessar' that a++

so%erei*ns shou+d come to an understandin*( and

+end mutua+ assistance" !ut the' ha%e e%er ta<en

more )ains to ra%a*e the $or+d than the' ha%e to

measure it"

No one has 'et een a+e to ma<e an e=act ma)

of u))er E*')t( nor of the re*ions orderin* on the

Red Sea( nor of the %ast countr' of Araia" Of

Africa $e <no$ on+' the coasts a++ the interior is

no more <no$n than it $as in the times of At+as and

&ercu+es" There is not a sin*+e $e++6detai+ed ma)

of a++ the rand Tur<Js )ossessions in Asia a++ is

)+aced at random( e=ce)tin* some fe$ +ar*e to$ns(

the crum+in* remains of $hich are sti++ e=istin*"

In the states of the reat 0o*u+ somethin* is

<no$n of the re+ati%e )ositions of A*ra and De+hi

ut thence to the <in*dom of o+conda e%er'thin*

is +aid do$n at a %enture"

It is <no$n that .a)an e=tends from aout the

thirtieth to the fortieth de*ree of north +atitude

there cannot e an error of more than t$o de*rees(



$hich is aout Hft' +ea*ues so that( re+'in* on one

of our est ma)s( a )i+ot $ou+d e in dan*er of +os6

in* his trac< or his +ife"

As for the +on*itude( the Hrst ma)s of the .esuits

determined it et$een the one hundred and Hft'6

se%enth and the one hundred and se%ent'6Hfth de6

*ree $hereas( it is no$ determined et$een the one

892 Phi+oso)hica+

hundred and fort'6si=th and the one hundred and

si=tieth"

China is the on+' Asiatic countr' of $hich $e

ha%e an e=act measurement ecause the em)eror

Kam6hi em)+o'ed some .esuit astronomers to dra$

e=act ma)s( $hich is the est thin* the .esuits ha%e

done" &ad the' een content $ith measurin* the

earth( the' $ou+d ne%er ha%e een )roscried"

In our $estern $or+d( Ita+'( France( Russia( En*6

+and( and the )rinci)a+ to$ns of the other states(

ha%e een measured ' the same method as $as



em)+o'ed in China ut it $as not unti+ a %er' fe$

'ears a*o( that in France it $as underta<en to

form an entire to)o*ra)h'" A com)an' ta<en from

the Academ' of Sciences des)atched en*ineers or

sur%e'ors into e%er' corner of the <in*dom( to +a'

do$n e%en the meanest ham+et( the sma++est ri%u+et(

the hi++s( the $oods( in their true )+aces" !efore that

time( so confused $as the to)o*ra)h'( that on the

e%e of the att+e of Fonteno'( the ma)s of the coun6

tr' ein* a++ e=amined( e%er' one of them $as found

entire+' defecti%e"

If a )ositi%e order had een sent from Versai++es

to an ine=)erienced *enera+ to *i%e att+e( and )ost

himse+f as a))eared most ad%isa+e from the ma)s(

as sometimes ha))ened in the time of the minister

Chami++ar( the att+e $ou+d infa++i+' ha%e een +ost"

A *enera+ $ho shou+d carr' on a $ar in the coun6

tr' of the 0or+achians( or the 0ontene*rins( $ith

no <no$+ed*e of )+aces ut from the ma)s( $ou+d

Dictionar'" 899



e at as *reat a +oss as if he $ere in the heart of

Africa"

&a))i+'( that $hich has often een traced '

*eo*ra)hers( accordin* to their o$n fanc'( in their

c+osets( is rectiHed on the s)ot" In *eo*ra)h'( as in

mora+s( it is %er' diMcu+t to <no$ the $or+d $ithout

*oin* from home"

It is not $ith this de)artment of <no$+ed*e( as

$ith the arts of )oetr'( music( and )aintin*" The

+ast $or<s of these <inds are often the $orst" !ut

in the sciences( $hich reuire e=actness rather than

*enius( the +ast are a+$a's the est( )ro%ided the'

are done $ith some de*ree of care"

One of the *reatest ad%anta*es of *eo*ra)h'(

in m' o)inion( is this - 'our foo+ of a nei*hor( and

his $ife a+most as stu)id( are incessant+' re)roach6

in* 'ou $ith not thin<in* as the' thin< in Rue

St" .acues" #See(# sa' the'( #$hat a mu+titude of

*reat men ha%e een of our o)inion( from Peter the

Lomard do$n to the Ae Petit6)ied" The $ho+e

uni%erse has recei%ed our truths the' rei*n in the

Fauour* St" &onore( at Chai++ot and at Htam)es(

at Rome and amon* the /scoues"# Ta<e a ma)



of the $or+d sho$ them a++ Africa( the em)ires of

.a)an( China( India( Tur<e'( Persia( and that of

Russia( more e=tensi%e than $as the Roman Em)ire

ma<e them )ass their Hn*er o%er a++ Scandina%ia(

a++ the north of erman'( the three <in*doms of

reat !ritain( the *reater )art of the Lo$ Coun6

tries( and of &e+%etia in short ma<e them oser%e(

>oo Phi+oso)hica+

in the four *reat di%isions of the earth( and in the

Hfth( $hich is as +itt+e <no$n as it is *reat in e=tent(

the )rodi*ious numer of races( $ho either ne%er

heard of those o)inions( or ha%e comated them( or

ha%e he+d them in ahorrence( and 'ou $i++ thus o)6

)ose the $ho+e uni%erse to Rue St" .acues"

3ou $i++ te++ them that .u+ius Caesar( $ho e=6

tended his )o$er much farther than that street( did

not <no$ a $ord of a++ $hich the' thin< so uni%er6

sa+ and that our ancestors( on $hom .u+ius Caesar

esto$ed the +ash( <ne$ no more of them than

he did"



The' $i++ then( )erha)s( fee+ some$hat ashamed

at ha%in* e+ie%ed that the or*an of St" Se%erinJs

church *a%e the tone to the rest of the $or+d"

LOR3 LORIO/S"

SECTION I"

LOR3 is re)utation Goined $ith esteem( and is

com)+ete $hen admiration is su)eradded" It a+6

$a's su))oses that $hich is ri++iant in action( in

%irtue( or in ta+ent( and the surmountin* of *reat

diMcu+ties" Caesar and A+e=ander had *+or'" The

same can hard+' e said of Socrates" &e c+aims

esteem( re%erence( )it'( indi*nation a*ainst his ene6

mies ut the term #*+or'# a))+ied to him $ou+d

e im)ro)er his memor' is %enera+e rather than

*+orious" Atti+a had much ri++ianc'( ut he has

no *+or' for histor'( $hich ma' e mista<en( at6

triutes to him no %irtues- Char+es 7II" sti++ has

Dictionar'" >:8

*+or' for his %a+or( his disinterestedness( his +i6



era+it'( $ere e=treme" Success is suMcient for re)6

utation( ut not for *+or'" The *+or' of &enr' IV"

is e%er' da' increasin* for time has rou*ht to

+i*ht a++ his %irtues( $hich $ere incom)ara+'

*reater than his defects"

+or' is a+so the )ortion of in%entors in the Hne

arts imitators ha%e on+' a))+ause" It is *ranted(

too( to *reat ta+ents( ut in su+ime arts on+'" We

ma' $e++ sa'( the *+or' of Vir*i+( or Cicero( ut

not of 0artia+( nor of Au+us e++ius"

0en ha%e dared to sa'( the *+or' of od- od

created this $or+d for &is *+or' not that the Su6

)reme !ein* can ha%e *+or' ut that men( ha%in*

no e=)ressions suita+e to &im( use for &im those '

$hich the' are themse+%es most attered"

Vain*+or' is that )ett' amition $hich is con6

tented $ith a))earances( $hich is e=hiited in )om6

)ous dis)+a'( and ne%er e+e%ates itse+f to *reater

thin*s" So%erei*ns( ha%in* rea+ *+or'( ha%e een

<no$n to e ne%erthe+ess fond of %ain*+or' see<6

in* too ea*er+' after )raise( and ein* too much at6

tached to the tra))in*s of ostentation"



Fa+se *+or' often %er*es to$ards %anit' ut it

often +eads to e=cesses( $hi+e %ain*+or' is more con6

Hned to s)+endid +itt+enesses" A )rince $ho shou+d

+oo< for honor in re%en*e( $ou+d see< a fa+se *+or'

rather than a %ain one"

To *i%e *+or' si*niHes to ac<no$+ed*e( to ear

$itness" i%e *+or' to truth( means ac<no$+ed*in*

>O> Phi+oso)hica+

truth i%e *+or' to the od $hom 'ou ser%e

!ear $itness to the od $hom 'ou ser%e"

+or' is ta<en for hea%en &e d$e++s in *+or'

ut this is the case in no re+i*ion ut ours" It is not

a++o$a+e to sa' that !acchus or &ercu+es $as re6

cei%ed into *+or'( $hen s)ea<in* of their a)otheosis"

The saints and an*e+s ha%e sometimes een ca++ed

the *+orious( as d$e++in* in the aode of *+or'"

+orious+' is a+$a's ta<en in the *ood sense he

rei*ned *+orious+' he e=tricated himse+f *+orious+'

from *reat dan*er or emarrassment"



To *+or' in( is sometimes ta<en in the *ood(

sometimes in the ad( sense( accordin* to the nature

of the oGect in uestion" &e *+ories in a dis*race

$hich is the fruit of his ta+ents and the eBect of

en%'" We sa' of the mart'rs( that the' *+oriHed

od that is( that their constanc' made the od

$hom the' attested re%ered ' men"

SECTION II"

That Cicero shou+d +o%e *+or'( after ha%in* sti6

ed Cati+ineJs cons)irac'( ma' e )ardoned him"

That the <in* of Prussia( Frederic< the reat( shou+d

ha%e the same fee+in*s after Rosach and Lissa( and

after ein* the +e*is+ator( the historian( the )oet( and

the )hi+oso)her of his countr' that he shou+d e

)assionate+' fond of *+or'( and at the same time(

ha%e se+f6command enou*h to e modest+' so he

$i++( on that account( e the more *+oriHed"

That the em)ress Catherine II" shou+d ha%e een

Dictionar'" >:



forced ' the rutish inso+ence of a Tur<ish su+tan

to dis)+a' a++ her *enius that from the far north

she shou+d ha%e sent four suadrons $hich s)read

terror in the Dardane++es and in Asia 0inor and

that( in 8??:( she too< four )ro%inces from those

Tur<s $ho made Euro)e trem+e $ith this sort of

*+or' she $i++ not e re)roached( ut $i++ e ad6

mired for s)ea<in* of her successes $ith that air of

indiBerence and su)eriorit' $hich sho$s that the'

$ere merited"

In short( *+or' eHts *eniuses of this sort( thou*h

e+on*in* to the %er' mean race of morta+s"

!ut if( at the e=tremit' of the $est( a to$nsman

of a )+ace ca++ed Paris thin<s he has *+or' in ein*

haran*ued ' a teacher of the uni%ersit'( $ho sa's

to him - #0onsei*neur( the *+or' 'ou ha%e acuired

in the e=ercise of 'our oMce( 'our i++ustrious +aors

$ith $hich the uni%erse resounds(# etc"( then I as<

if there are mouths enou*h in that uni%erse to ce+6

erate( $ith their hisses( the *+or' of our citi1en(

and the e+ouence of the )edant $ho attends to ra'

out this haran*ue at monsei*neurJs hote+ We are

such foo+s that $e ha%e made od *+orious +i<e our6



se+%es"

That $orth' chief of the der%ishes( !en6a+6etif(

said to his rethren one da'- #0' rethren( it is

*ood that 'ou shou+d freuent+' use that sacred

formu+a of our Koran( JIn the name of the most mer6

cifu+ odJ ecause od uses merc'( and 'ou +earn

to do so too( ' oft re)eatin* the $ords that rec6

>:Q Phi+oso)hica+

ommend %irtue( $ithout $hich there $ou+d e fe$

men +eft u)on the earth" !ut( m' rethren( e$are

of imitatin* those rash ones $ho oast( on e%er' oc6

casion( of +aorin* for the *+or' of od"

#If a 'oun* sim)+eton maintains a thesis on the

cate*ories( an i*noramus in furs )residin*( he is sure

to $rite in +ar*e characters( at the head of his thesis(

JE< a+ha aron do=a JAd maGorem Dei *+oriam"J

To the *reater *+or' of od" If a *ood 0ussu+6

man has had his house $hite$ashed( he cuts this

foo+ish inscri)tion in the door" A sa<a carries $ater

for the *reater *+or' of od" It is an im)ious usa*e(



)ious+' used" What $ou+d 'ou sa' of a +itt+e

chiaou=( $ho( $hi+e em)t'in* our su+tanJs c+ose6

stoo+( shou+d e=c+aim - #To the *reater *+or' of our

in%inci+e monarch# There is certain+' a *reater

distance et$een od and the su+tan than et$een

the su+tan and the +itt+e chiaou="

#3e misera+e earth6$orms( ca++ed men( $hat

ha%e 'ou resem+in* the *+or' of the Su)reme

!ein* Can &e +o%e *+or' Can &e recei%e it from

'ou Can &e enGo' it &o$ +on*( 'e t$o6+e**ed

anima+s $ithout feathers( $i++ 'ou ma<e od after

'our o$n ima*e What ecause 'ou are %ain(

ecause 'ou +o%e *+or'( 'ou $ou+d ha%e od +o%e

it a+so If there $ere se%era+ ods( )erha)s each

one $ou+d see< to *ain the *ood o)inion of his fe+6

+o$s" That mi*ht e *+or' to od" Such a od(

if inHnite *reatness ma' e com)ared $ith e=treme

+o$+iness( $ou+d e +i<e Kin* A+e=ander or Iscander(

Dictionar'" >:@

$ho $ou+d enter the +ists $ith none ut <in*s" !ut

'ou( )oor creatures $hat *+or' can 'ou *i%e to



od Cease to )rofane the sacred name" An em6

)eror( named Octa%ius Au*ustus( forade his ein*

)raised in the schoo+s of Rome( +est his name shou+d

e rou*ht into contem)t" 3ou can rin* the name

of the Su)reme !ein* neither into contem)t( nor

into honor" &um+e 'ourse+%es in the dust adore(

and e si+ent"#

Thus s)a<e !en6a+6etif and the der%ishes cried

out- #+or' to od !en6a+6etif has said $e++"#

SECTION III"

Con%ersation $ith a Chinese"

In 8?>( there $as in &o++and a Chinese- this

Chinese $as a man of +etters and a merchant $hich

t$o )rofessions ou*ht not to e incom)ati+e( ut

$hich ha%e ecome so amon*st us( than<s to the e=6

treme re*ard $hich is )aid to mone'( and the +itt+e

consideration $hich man<ind ha%e e%er sho$n( and

$i++ e%er sho$( for merit"

This Chinese( $ho s)o<e a +itt+e Dutch( $as once

in a oo<se++erJs sho) $ith some men of +earnin*"

&e as<ed for a oo<( and #!ossuetJs /ni%ersa+ &is6



tor'(# ad+' trans+ated( $as )ro)osed to him" #Ah #

said he( #ho$ fortunate I sha++ no$ see $hat is said

of our *reat em)ire of our nation( $hich has e=6

isted as a nationa+ od' for more than Hft' thousand

'ears of that succession of em)erors $ho ha%e

*o%erned us for so man' a*es" I sha++ no$ see $hat

>:; Phi+oso)hica+

is thou*ht of the re+i*ion of the men of +etters of

that sim)+e $orshi) $hich $e render to the Su6

)reme !ein*" &o$ )+easin* to see $hat is said in

Euro)e of our arts( man' of $hich are more an6

cient amon*st us than an' Euro)ean <in*dom" I

*uess the author $i++ ha%e made man' mista<es in

the histor' of the $ar $hich $e had t$ent'6t$o

thousand H%e hundred and Hft'6t$o 'ears a*o( $ith

the $ar+i<e nations of Tonuin and .a)an( and of

that so+emn emass' $hich the mi*ht' em)eror of

the 0o*u+s sent to as< +a$s from us( in the 'ear of

the $or+d @::(:::(:::(:::(:?9(8>(Q@:(:::"# #A+as #

said one of the +earned men to him( #'ou are not

e%en mentioned in that oo< 'ou are too inconsid6

era+e it is a+most a++ aout the Hrst nation in the



$or+d the on+' nation( the *reat .e$ish )eo)+e#

#The .e$ish )eo)+e# e=c+aimed the Chinese"

#Are the'( then( masters of at +east three6uarters

of the earth# #The' atter themse+%es that the'

sha++ one da' e so(# $as the ans$er #unti+ $hich

time the' ha%e the honor of ein* our o+d6c+othes6

men( and( no$ and then( c+i))ers of our coin"#

#3ou Gest(# said the Chinese #had these )eo)+e

e%er a %ast em)ire# #The' had as their o$n for

some 'ears(# said I( #a sma++ countr' ut it is not

' the e=tent of their states that a )eo)+e are to e

Gud*ed as it is not ' his riches that $e are to

estimate a man"#

#!ut is no other )eo)+e s)o<en of in this oo< #

as<ed the man of +etters" #/ndouted+'(# returned

Dictionar'" >:?

a +earned man $ho stood ne=t me( and $ho instant+'

re)+ied( #there is a dea+ said in it of a sma++

countr' si=t' +ea*ues road( ca++ed E*')t( $here

it is asserted that there $as a +a<e a hundred and



Hft' +ea*ues round( cut ' the hands of men"#

#4ounds # said the Chinese #a +a<e a hundred and

Hft' +ea*ues round in a countr' on+' si=t' road

That is Hne( indeed # #E%er'od' $as $ise in that

countr'(# added the doctor" #Oh $hat Hne times

the' must ha%e een(# said the Chinese" #!ut is

that a++# #No(# re)+ied the Euro)ean #he a+so

treats of that ce+erated )eo)+e( the ree<s"# #Who

are these ree<s # as<ed the man of +etters" #Ah #

continued the other( #the' inhaited a )ro%ince aout

a t$o6hundredth )art as +ar*e as China( ut $hich

has een famous throu*hout the $or+d"# #I ha%e

ne%er heard s)ea< of these )eo)+e( neither in 0o*u+

nor in .a)an( nor in reat Tartar'(# said the Chi6

nese( $ith an in*enuous +oo<"

#Oh( i*norant( ararous man # )o+ite+' e=6

c+aimed our scho+ar" #Kno$ 'ou not( then( the The6

an E)aminondas nor the haror of Piraeus nor

the name of the t$o horses of Achi++es nor that

of Si+enusJs ass &a%e 'ou not heard of .u)iter(

nor of Dio*enes( nor of Lais( nor of C'e+e( nor #

#I am much afraid(# re)+ied the man of +etters(

#that 'ou <no$ nothin* at a++ of the e%er memora+e

ad%enture of the ce+erated 7i=ofou Concochi6



*ram<i( nor of the m'steries of the *reat Fi Psi &i

&i" !ut )ra'( $hat are the other un<no$n thin*s

>:2 Phi+oso)hica+

of $hich this uni%ersa+ histor' treats # The scho+ar

then s)o<e for a uarter of an hour on the Roman

common$ea+th - ut $hen he came to .u+ius Caesar(

the Chinese interru)ted him( sa'in*( #As for him(

I thin< I <no$ him - $as he not a Tur< #

#What# said the scho+ar( some$hat $arm( #do

'ou not at +east <no$ the diBerence et$een

Pa*ans( Christians( and 0ussu+mans Do 'ou not

<no$ Constantine( and the histor' of the )o)es#

#We ha%e indistinct+' heard(# ans$ered the Asiatic(

#of one 0ahomet"#

#It is im)ossi+e(# returned the other( #that 'ou

shou+d not( at +east( e acuainted $ith Luther(

4uin*+ius( !e++armin( CEco+am)adius"# #I sha++

ne%er rememer those names(# said the Chinese"

&e then $ent a$a' to se++ a considera+e )arce+ of

tea and Hne *ro*ram( $ith $hich he ou*ht t$o



Hne *ir+s and a shi)6o'( $hom he too< ac< to his

o$n countr'( adorin* Tien( and commendin* him6

se+f to Confucius"

For m'se+f( $ho $as )resent at this con%ersation(

I c+ear+' sa$ $hat *+or' is and I said- Since

Caesar and .u)iter are un<no$n in the Hnest( the

most ancient( the most e=tensi%e( the most )o)u6

+ous and $e++6re*u+ated <in*dom u)on earth it

eseems 'ou( 'e *o%ernors of some +itt+e countr'( 'e

)reachers in some +itt+e )arish( or some +itt+e to$n

'e doctors of Sa+amanca and of !our*es( 'e ims'

authors( and 'e )onderous commentators it e6

seems 'ou to ma<e )retensions to reno$n

Dictionar'" >:9

OAT SORCER3"

T&E honors of e%er' <ind $hich antiuit' )aid

to *oats $ou+d e %er' astonishin*( if an'thin* cou+d

astonish those $ho ha%e *ro$n a +itt+e fami+iar $ith

the $or+d( ancient and modern" The E*')tians and

the .e$s often desi*nated the <in*s and the chiefs



of the )eo)+e ' the $ord #*oat"# We Hnd in 4ach6

ariah -

#0ine an*er $as <ind+ed a*ainst the she)herds(

and I )unished the *oats for the Lord of &osts

hath %isited his oc<( the house of .udah( and hath

made them as his *ood+' horse in the att+e"#

#Remo%e out of the midst of !a'+on(# sa's .ere6

miah to the chiefs of the )eo)+e #*o forth out of

the +and of the Cha+dseans( and e as the he6*oats

efore the oc<s"#

Isaiah( in cha)ters =" and =i%"( uses the term

#*oat(# $hich has een trans+ated #)rince"# The

E*')tians $ent much farther than ca++in* their

<in*s *oats the' consecrated a *oat in 0endes(

and it is e%en said that the' adored him" The truth

%er' +i<e+' $as( that the )eo)+e too< an em+em for

a di%init'( as is ut too often the case"

It is not +i<e+' that the E*')tian shoen or sho6

tim( i" e"( )riests( immo+ated *oats and $orshi))ed

them at the same time" We <no$ that the' had

their *oat &a1a1e+( $hich the' adorned and cro$ned

$ith o$ers( and thre$ do$n head+on*( as an e=)ia6



tion for the )eo)+e and that the .e$s too< from

Vo+" 9 8Q

8 8 o Phi+oso)hica+

them( not on+' this ceremon'( ut e%en the %er'

name of &a1a1e+( as the' ado)ted man' other rites

from E*')t"

!ut *oats recei%ed another( and 'et more sin*u6

+ar honor" It is e'ond a dout that in E*')t man'

$omen set the same e=am)+e $ith *oats( as Pasi)hae

did $ith her u++"

The .e$s ut too faithfu++' imitated these aom6

inations" .erooam instituted )riests for the ser%ice

of his ca+%es and his *oats"

The $orshi) of the *oat $as esta+ished in

E*')t( and in the +ands of a )art of Pa+estine" En6

chantments $ere e+ie%ed to e o)erated ' means

of *oats( and other monsters( $hich $ere a+$a's

re)resented $ith a *oatJs head"



0a*ic( sorcer'( soon )assed from the East into

the West( and e=tended itse+f throu*hout the earth"

The sort of sorcer' that came from the .e$s $as

ca++ed Saatum ' the Romans( $ho thus con6

founded their sacred da' $ith their secret aomina6

tions" Thence it $as( that in the nei*horin* na6

tions( to e a sorcerer and to *o to the saath(

meant the same thin*"

Wretched %i++a*e $omen( decei%ed ' <na%es(

and sti++ more ' the $ea<ness of their o$n ima*i6

nations( e+ie%ed that after )ronouncin* the $ord

#ara=a(# and ruin* themse+%es $ith an ointment

mi=ed $ith co$6dun* and *oatJs hair( the' $ent to

the saath on a room6stic< in their s+ee)( that there

the' adored a *oat( and that he enGo'ed them"

Dictionar'" >88

This o)inion $as uni%ersa+" A++ the doctors as6

serted that it $as the de%i+( $ho metamor)hosed

himse+f into a *oat" This ma' e seen in De+ RioJs

#Disuisitions(# and in a hundred other authors"



The theo+o*ian ri++andus( a *reat )romoter of the

Inuisition( uoted ' De+ Rio( sa's that sorcerers

ca++ the *oat 0artinet" &e assures us that a $oman

$ho $as attached to 0artinet( mounted on his ac<(

and $as carried in an instant throu*h the air to a

)+ace ca++ed the Nut of !ene%ento"

There $ere oo<s in $hich the m'steries of the

sorcerers $ere $ritten" I ha%e seen one of them( at

the head of $hich $as a H*ure of a *oat %er' ad+'

dra$n( $ith a $oman on her <nees ehind him"

In France( these oo<s $ere ca++ed #*rimoires# and

in other countries #the de%i+Js a+)haet"# That $hich

I sa$ contained on+' four +ea%es( in a+most i++e*i+e

characters( much +i<e those of the #She)herdJs A+6

manac"#

Reasonin* and etter education $ou+d ha%e suf6

Hced in Euro)e for the e=tir)ation of such an e=6

tra%a*ance ut e=ecutions $ere em)+o'ed instead

of reasonin*" The )retended sorcerers had their

#*rimoire(# and the Gud*es had their sorcererJs code"

In 8@99( the .esuit De+ Rio( a doctor of Lou%ain(

)u+ished his #0a*ica+ Disuisitions"# &e aMrms

that a++ heretics are ma*icians( and freuent+' rec6

ommends that the' e )ut to the torture" &e has



no dout that the de%i+ transforms himse+f into a

*oat( and *rants his fa%ors to a++ $omen )resented

>8> Phi+oso)hica+

to him" &e uotes %arious Gurisconsu+ts( ca++ed de6

mono*ra)hers( $ho assert that Luther $as the son

of a $oman and a *oat" &e assures us that at !rus6

se+s( in 8@9@( a $oman $as rou*ht to ed of a chi+d(

of $hich the de%i+( dis*uised as a *oat( $as father(

and that she $as )unished( ut he does not inform

us in $hat manner"

!ut the Guris)rudence of $itchcraft has een the

most )rofound+' treated ' one !o*uet( #*rand Gu*e

en dernier ressort# of an ae' of St" C+aude in

Franche6Comte" &e *i%es an account of a++ the e=e6

cutions to $hich he condemned $i1ards and $itches(

and the numer is %er' considera+e" Near+' a++ the

$itches are su))osed to ha%e had commerce $ith

the *oat"

It has a+read' een said that more than a hundred

thousand sorcerers ha%e een e=ecuted in Euro)e"



Phi+oso)h' a+one has at +en*th cured men of this

aomina+e de+usion( and has tau*ht Gud*es that

the' shou+d not urn the insane"

OD ODS"

SECTION I"

T&E reader cannot too carefu++' ear in mind

that this dictionar' has not een $ritten for the )ur6

)ose of re)eatin* $hat so man' others ha%e said"

The <no$+ed*e of a od is not im)ressed u)on us

' the hands of nature( for then men $ou+d a++ ha%e

the same idea and no idea is orn $ith us" It does

not come to us +i<e the )erce)tion of +i*ht( of the

Dictionar'" >8

*round( etc"( $hich $e recei%e as soon as our e'es

and our understandin*s are o)ened" Is it a )hi+6

oso)hica+ idea % No men admitted the e=istence

of *ods efore the' $ere )hi+oso)hers"



Whence( then( is this idea deri%ed From fee+6

in*( and from that natura+ +o*ic $hich unfo+ds itse+f

$ith a*e( e%en in the rudest of man<ind" Astonish6

in* eBects of nature $ere ehe+d har%ests and ar6

renness( fair $eather and storms( eneHts and

scour*es and the hand of a master $as fe+t" Chiefs

$ere necessar' to *o%ern societies and it $as need6

fu+ to admit so%erei*ns of these ne$ so%erei*ns

$hom human $ea<ness had *i%en itse+f ein*s e6

fore $hose )o$er these men $ho cou+d ear do$n

their fe++o$6men mi*ht trem+e" The Hrst so%er6

ei*ns in their time em)+o'ed these notions to cement

their )o$er" Such $ere the Hrst ste)s thus e%er'

+itt+e societ' had its *od" These notions $ere rude

ecause e%er'thin* $as rude" It is %er' natura+ to

reason ' ana+o*'" One societ' under a chief did

not den' that the nei*horin* trie shou+d +i<e$ise

ha%e its Gud*e( or its ca)tain conseuent+' it cou+d

not den' that the other shou+d a+so ha%e its *od"

!ut as it $as to the interest of each trie that its

ca)tain shou+d ue the est( it $as a+so interested in

e+ie%in*( and conseuent+' it did e+ie%e( that its

*od $as the mi*htiest" &ence those ancient fa+es

$hich ha%e so +on* een *enera++' diBused( that the

*ods of one nation fou*ht a*ainst the *ods of an6

other" &ence the numerous )assa*es in the &e6



>8Q Phi+oso)hica+

re$ oo<s( $hich $e Hnd constant+' disc+osin* the

o)inion entertained ' the .e$s( that the *ods of

their enemies e=isted( ut that the' $ere inferior

to the od of the .e$s"

0ean$hi+e( in the *reat states $here the )ro*ress

of societ' a++o$ed to indi%idua+s the enGo'ment of

s)ecu+ati%e +eisure( there $ere )riests( 0a*i( and

)hi+oso)hers"

Some of these )erfected their reason so far as to

ac<no$+ed*e in secret one on+' and uni%ersa+ *od"

So( a+thou*h the ancient E*')tians adored Osiri(

Osiris( or rather Osireth $hich si*niHes this +and

is mine thou*h the' a+so adored other su)erior

ein*s( 'et the' admitted one su)reme( one on+'

)rinci)a+ *od( $hom the' ca++ed #Knef(# $hose

s'mo+ $as a s)here )+aced on the frontis)iece of

the tem)+e"

After this mode+( the ree<s had their 4eus( their



.u)iter( the master of the other *ods( $ho $ere ut

$hat the an*e+s are $ith the !a'+onians and the

&ere$s( and the saints $ith the Christians of the

Roman communion"

It is a more thorn' uestion than it has een con6

sidered( and one ' no means )rofound+' e=amined(

$hether se%era+ *ods( eua+ in )o$er( can e=ist at

the same time

We ha%e no adeuate idea of the Di%init' $e

cree) on from conGecture to conGecture( from +i<e6

+ihood to )roai+it'" We ha%e %er' fe$ certainties"

There is somethin* therefore there is somethin*

Dictionar'"

eterna+ for nothin* is )roduced from nothin*"

&ere is a certain truth on $hich the mind re)oses"

E%er' $or< $hich sho$s us means and an end(

announces a $or<man then this uni%erse( com6

)osed of s)rin*s( of means( each of $hich has its

end( disco%ers a most mi*ht'( a most inte++i*ent

$or<man" &ere is a )roai+it' a))roachin* the



*reatest certaint'" !ut is this su)reme artiHcer in6

Hnite Is he e%er'$here Is he in one )+ace &o$

are $e( $ith our fee+e inte++i*ence and +imited

<no$+ed*e( to ans$er these uestions

0' reason a+one )ro%es to me a ein* $ho has

arran*ed the matter of this $or+d ut m' reason

is una+e to )ro%e to me that he made this matter

that he rou*ht it out of nothin*" A++ the sa*es

of antiuit'( $ithout e=ce)tion( e+ie%ed matter to

e eterna+( and e=istin* ' itse+f" A++ then that I

can do( $ithout the aid of su)erior +i*ht( is to e6

+ie%e that the od of this $or+d is a+so eterna+( and

e=istin* ' &imse+f" od and matter e=ist ' the

nature of thin*s" 0a' not other *ods e=ist( as

$e++ as other $or+ds Who+e nations( and %er' en6

+i*htened schoo+s( ha%e c+ear+' admitted t$o *ods

in this $or+d one the source of *ood( the other

the source of e%i+" The' admitted an eterna+ $ar

et$een t$o eua+ )o$ers" Assured+'( nature can

more easi+' suBer the e=istence of se%era+ inde6

)endent ein*s in the immensit' of s)ace( than that

of +imited and )o$er+ess *ods in this $or+d( of

$hom one can do no *ood( and the other no harm"



> 8 ; Phi+oso)hica+

If od and matter e=ist from a++ eternit'( as

antiuit' e+ie%ed( here then are t$o necessar'

ein*s no$( if there e t$o necessar' ein*s( there

ma' e thirt'" These douts a+one( $hich are the

*erm of an inHnit' of reections( ser%e at +east to

con%ince us of the fee+eness of our understandin*"

We must( $ith Cicero( confess our i*norance of the

nature of the Di%init' $e sha++ ne%er <no$ an'

more of it than he did"

In %ain do the schoo+s te++ us that od is inHnite

ne*ati%e+' and not )ri%ati%e+' #forma+iter et non

materia+iter(# that &e is the Hrst act( the midd+e(

and the +ast that &e is e%er'$here $ithout ein*

in an' )+ace a hundred )a*es of commentaries on

deHnitions +i<e these cannot *i%e us the sma++est

+i*ht" We ha%e no ste)s $here' to arri%e at such

<no$+ed*e"

We fee+ that $e are under the hand of an in6

%isi+e ein* this is a++ $e cannot ad%ance one

ste) farther" It is mad temerit' to see< to di%ine

$hat this ein* is $hether he is e=tended or not(



$hether he is in one )+ace or not( ho$ he e=ists( or

ho$ he o)erates"

SECTION II"

I am e%er a))rehensi%e of ein* mista<en ut

a++ monuments *i%e me suMcient e%idence that the

)o+ished nations of antiuit' ac<no$+ed*ed a su6

)reme *od" There is not a oo<( not a meda+( not

a as6re+ief( not an inscri)tion( in $hich .uno(

0iner%a( Ne)tune( 0ars( or an' of the other deities(

Dictionar'" >8?

is s)o<en of as a formin* ein*( the so%erei*n of

a++ nature" On the contrar'( the most ancient )ro6

fane oo<s that $e ha%e those of &esiod and

&omer re)resent their 4eus as the on+' thunderer(

the on+' master of *ods and men he e%en )unishes

the other *ods he ties .uno $ith a chain( and dri%es

A)o++o out of hea%en"

The ancient re+i*ion of the !rahmins the Hrst

that admitted ce+estia+ creatures the Hrst $hich



s)o<e of their ree++ion e=)+ains itse+f in su+ime

manner concernin* the unit' and )o$er of od

as $e ha%e seen in the artic+e on #An*e+"#

The Chinese( ancient as the' are( come after the

Indians" The' ha%e ac<no$+ed*ed one on+' *od

from time immemoria+ the' ha%e no suordinate

*ods( no mediatin* demons or *enii et$een od

and man no orac+es( no astract do*mas( no

theo+o*ica+ dis)utes amon* the +ettered their em6

)eror $as a+$a's the Hrst )ontiB their re+i*ion

$as a+$a's au*ust and sim)+e thus it is that this

%ast em)ire( thou*h t%%ice suGu*ated( has con6

stant+' )reser%ed its inte*rit'( has made its con6

uerors recei%e &s +a$s( and not$ithstandin* the

crimes and miseries inse)ara+e from the human

race( is sti++ the most ourishin* state u)on earth"

The 0a*i of Cha+dsea(the Saeans( ac<no$+ed*ed

ut one su)reme *od( $hom the' adored in the

stars( $hich are his $or<" The Persians adored

him in the sun" The s)here )+aced on the frontis6

)iece of the tem)+e of 0em)his $as the em+em of



> 8 2 Phi+oso)hica+

one on+' and )erfect *od( ca++ed #Knef# ' the

E*')tians"

The tit+e of #Deus O)timus 0a=imus# $as ne%er

*i%en ' the Romans to an' ut #.u)iter( hominum

sator atue deorum"# This *reat truth( $hich $e

ha%e e+se$here )ointed out( cannot e too often re6

)eated"

This adoration of a Su)reme od( from Romu+us

do$n to the tota+ destruction of the em)ire and of its

re+i*ion( is conHrmed" In s)ite of a++ the fo++ies of

the )eo)+e( $ho %enerated secondar' and ridicu+ous

*ods( and in s)ite of the E)icureans( $ho in rea+it'

ac<no$+ed*ed none( it is %eriHed that( in a++ times(

the ma*istrates and the $ise adored one so%erei*n

od"

From the *reat numer of testimonies +eft us

to this truth( I $i++ se+ect Hrst that of 0a=imus of

T're( $ho ourished under the Antonines those

mode+s of true )iet'( since the' $ere mode+s of

humanit'" These are his $ords( in his discourse

entit+ed #Of od(# accordin* to P+ato" The reader



$ho $ou+d instruct himse+f is reuested to $ei*h

them $e++ -

#0en ha%e een so $ea< as to *i%e to od a

human H*ure( ecause the' had seen nothin* su6

)erior to man ut it is ridicu+ous to ima*ine( $ith

&omer( that .u)iter or the Su)reme Di%init' has

+ac< e'ero$s and *o+den hair( $hich he cannot

sha<e $ithout ma<in* the hea%ens trem+e"

#When men are uestioned concernin* the nature

Dictionar'" >89

of the Di%init'( their ans$ers are a++ diBerent" 3et(

not$ithstandin* this )rodi*ious %ariet' of o)inions(

'ou $i++ Hnd one and the same fee+in* throu*hout

the earth %i1"( that there is ut one od( $ho is

the father of a++ #

After this forma+ a%o$a+( after the immorta+ dis6

courses of Cicero( of Antonine( of E)ictetus( $hat

ecomes of the dec+amations $hich so man' i*norant

)edants are sti++ re)eatin* What a%ai+ those eterna+



re)roachin*s of ase )o+'theism and )ueri+e ido+6

atr'( ut to con%ince us that the re)roachers ha%e

not the s+i*htest acuaintance $ith ster+in* an6

tiuit' The' ha%e ta<en the re%eries of &omer

for the doctrines of the $ise"

Is it necessar' to ha%e stron*er or more e=6

)ressi%e testimon' 3ou $i++ Hnd it in the +etter

from 0a=imus of 0adaura to St" Au*ustine oth

$ere )hi+oso)hers and orators at +east( the' )rided

themse+%es on ein* so the' $rote to each other

free+' the' $ere e%en friends as much as a man

of the o+d re+i*ion and one of the ne$ cou+d e

friends" Read 0a=imus of 0adauraJs +etter( and

the isho) of &i))oJs ans$er-

Letter from 0a=imus of 0adaura"

#No$( that there is a so%erei*n od( $ho is $ith6

out e*innin*( and( $ho( $ithout ha%in* e*otten

an'thin* +i<e unto himse+f( is ne%erthe+ess the father

and the former of a++ thin*s( $hat man can e *ross

and stu)id enou*h to dout &e it is of $hom(



8>O Phi+oso)hica+

under diBerent names( $e adore the eterna+ )o$er

e=tendin* throu*h e%er' )art of the $or+d thus

honorin* se)arate+'( ' diBerent sorts of $orshi)(

$hat ma' e ca++ed his se%era+ memers( $e

adore him entire+' 0a' those suordinate

*ods )reser%e 'ou( under $hose names( and '

$hom a++ $e morta+s u)on earth adore the common

father of *ods and men( ' diBerent sorts of $or6

shi)( it is true( ut a++ accordin* in their %ariet'(

and a++ tendin* to the same end"#

!' $hom $as this +etter $ritten !' a

Numidian one of the countr' of the A+*erines

Au*ustineJs Ans$er"

#In 'our )u+ic suare there are t$o statues of

0ars( the one na<ed( the other armed and c+ose

'( the H*ure of a man $ho( $ith three Hn*ers ad6

%anced to$ards 0ars( ho+ds in chec< that di%init'(

so dan*erous to the $ho+e to$n" With re*ard to

$hat 'ou sa' of such *ods( ein* )ortions of the



on+' true od( I ta<e the +iert' 'ou *i%e me( to

$arn 'ou not to fa++ into such a sacri+e*e for that

on+' od( of $hom 'ou s)ea<( is dout+ess &e $ho

is ac<no$+ed*ed ' the $ho+e $or+d( and concern6

in* $hom( as some of the ancients ha%e said( the

i*norant a*ree $ith the +earned" No$( $i++ 'ou

sa' that he $hose stren*th( if not his crue+t'( is

re)resented ' an inanimate man( is a )ortion of

that od I cou+d easi+' )ush 'ou hard on this

suGect for 'ou $i++ c+ear+' see ho$ much mi*ht

Dictionar'" >>8

e said u)on it ut I refrain( +est 'ou shou+d sa'

that I em)+o' a*ainst 'ou the $ea)ons of rhetoric

rather than those of %irtue"#

We <no$ not $hat $as si*niHed ' these t$o

statues( of $hich no %esti*e is +eft us ut not a++

the statues $ith $hich Rome $as H++ed not the

Pantheon and a++ the tem)+es consecrated to the in6

ferior *ods( nor e%en those of the t$e+%e *reater

*ods )re%ented #Dens O)timus 0a=imus# #od(

most *ood( most *reat# from ein* ac<no$+ed*ed



throu*hout the em)ire"

The misfortune of the Romans( then( $as their

i*norance of the 0osaic +a$( and after$ards( of the

+a$ of the disci)+es of our Sa%iour .esus Christ

their $ant of the faith their mi=in* $ith the $or6

shi) of a su)reme od the $orshi) of 0ars( of

Venus( of 0iner%a( of A)o++o( $ho did not e=ist(

and their )reser%in* that re+i*ion unti+ the time of

the Theodosii" &a))i+'( the oths( the &uns( the

Vanda+s( the &eru+i( the Lomards( the Fran<s( $ho

destro'ed that em)ire( sumitted to the truth( and

enGo'ed a +essin* denied to Sci)io( to Cato( to

0ete++us( to Emi+ius( to Cicero( to Varro( to Vir*i+(

and to &orace"

None of these *reat men <ne$ .esus Christ(

$hom the' cou+d not <no$ 'et the' did not $or6

shi) the de%i+( as so man' )edants are e%er' da' re6

)eatin*" &o$ shou+d the' $orshi) the de%i+( of

$hom the' had ne%er heard

>>> Phi+oso)hica+



A Ca+umn' on Cicero ' Warurton( on the Su6

Gect of a Su)reme od"

Warurton( +i<e his contem)oraries( has ca+6

umniated Cicero and ancient Rome" &e o+d+'

su))oses that Cicero )ronounced these $ords( in his

#Oration for F+accus# -

#It is un$orth' of the maGest' of the em)ire to

adore on+' one od# #0aGestatem im)eri+ non

decuit ut unus tantum Deus co+atur"#

It $i++( )erha)s( hard+' e e+ie%ed that there is

not a $ord of this in the #Oration for F+accus(#

nor in an' of CiceroJs $or<s" F+accus( $ho had

e=ercised the )raetorshi) in Asia 0inor( is char*ed

$ith e=ercisin* some %e=ations" &e $as secret+'

)ersecuted ' the .e$s( $ho then inundated Rome

for( ' their mone'( the' had otained )ri%i+e*es

in Rome at the %er' time $hen Pom)e'( after

Crassus( had ta<en .erusa+em( and han*ed their

)ett' <in*( A+e=ander( son of Aristoo+us" F+accus

had foridden the con%e'in* of *o+d and si+%er

s)ecie to .erusa+em( ecause the mone' came ac<

a+tered( and commerce $as there' inGured and

he had sei1ed the *o+d $hich $as c+andestine+' car6



ried" This *o+d( said Cicero( is sti++ in the treasur'"

F+accus has acted as disinterested+' as Pom)e'"

Cicero( then( $ith his $onted iron'( )ronounces

these $ords- #Each countr' has its re+i*ion $e

ha%e ours" Whi+e .erusa+em $as 'et free( $hi+e

the .e$s $ere 'et at )eace( e%en then the' he+d in

ahorrence the s)+endor of this em)ire( the di*nit'

Dictionar'" >>

of the Roman name( the institutions of our an6

cestors" No$ that nation has sho$n more than

e%er( ' the stren*th of its arms( $hat it shou+d

thin< of the Roman Em)ire" It has sho$n us( '

its %a+or( ho$ dear it is to the immorta+ *ods it

has )ro%ed it to us( ' its ein* %anuished( e=)a6

triated( and triutar'"# #Stantius &ieroso+'mis(

)acatisue .udais( tamen istorum re+i*io sacrorum(

a s)+endore huGus im)eri+( *ra%itate nominis nostri(

maGorum institutis( ahorreat nunc %ero hoc

ma*is uid i+ia *ens( uid de im)erio nostro sen6

tiret( ostendit armis uam cara diis immorta+ius

esset( docuit( uod est %icta( uod e+ocata( uod



ser%ata"#

It is then uite fa+se that Cicero( or an' other

Roman( e%er said that it did not ecome the maGest'

of the em)ire to ac<no$+ed*e a su)reme od" Their

.u)iter( the 4eus of the ree<s( the .eho%ah of the

Phoenicians( $as a+$a's considered as the master

of the secondar' *ods" This *reat truth cannot e

too forci+' incu+cated"

Did the Romans Ta<e Their ods from the ree<s

&ad not the Romans ser%ed *ods for $hom

the' $ere not indeted to the ree<s For instance(

the' cou+d not e *ui+t' of )+a*iarism in adorin*

Cce+um( $hi+e the ree<s adored Ouranon or in

addressin* themse+%es to Saturnus and Te++us( $hi+e

the ree<s addressed themse+%es to e and Chronos"

The' ca++ed Ceres( her $hom the ree<s named

Deo and Demiter"

>>Q Phi+oso)hica+

Their Ne)tune $as Poseidon( their Venus $as

A)hrodite their .uno $as ca++ed( in ree<( Era



their Proser)ine( Core and their fa%orites( 0ars

and !e++ona( $ere Ares and Enio" In none of these

instances do the names resem+e"

Did the in%enti%e s)irits of Rome and of reece

assem+e or did the one ta<e from the other the

thin*( $hi+e the' dis*uised the name It is %er'

natura+ that the Romans( $ithout consu+tin* the

ree<s( shou+d ma<e to themse+%es *ods of the

hea%ens( of time ein*s )residin* o%er $ar( o%er

*eneration( o%er har%ests( $ithout *oin* to reece

to as< for *ods( as the' after$ards $ent there to

as< for +a$s" When 'ou Hnd a name that resem+es

nothin* e+se( it is ut fair to e+ie%e it a nati%e of

that )articu+ar countr'"

!ut is not .u)iter( the master of a++ the *ods( a

$ord e+on*in* to e%er' nation( from the Eu)hrates

to the Tier Amon* the Hrst Romans( it $as

.o%( .oins amon* the ree<s( 4eus amon* the

Phoenicians( the S'rians( and the E*')tians( .e6

ho%ah"

Does not this resem+ance ser%e to conHrm the

su))osition that e%er' )eo)+e had the <no$+ed*e of

the Su)reme !ein* a <no$+ed*e confused( it is



true ut $hat man can ha%e it distinct

SECTION III"

E=amination of S)ino1a"

S)ino1a cannot he+) admittin* an inte++i*ence

actin* in matter( and formin* a $ho+e $ith it"

Dictionar'" >>@

#I must conc+ude(# he sa's( #that the aso+ute

ein* is neither thou*ht nor e=tent( e=c+usi%e+' of

each other ut that e=tent and thou*ht are neces6

sar' attriutes of the aso+ute ein*"#

&erein he a))ears to diBer from a++ the atheists

of antiuit' from Oce++us( Lucanus( &erac+itus(

Democritus( Leuci))us( Strato( E)icurus( P'tha*6

oras( Dia*oras( 4eno of E+is( Ana=imander( and

so man' others" &e diBers from them( ao%e a++(

in his method( $hich he too< entire+' from the read6

in* of Descartes( $hose %er' st'+e he has imitated"



The mu+titude of those $ho cr' out a*ainst

S)ino1a( $ithout e%er ha%in* read him( $i++ es)e6

cia++' e astonished ' his fo++o$in* dec+aration"

&e does not ma<e it to da11+e man<ind( nor to a)6

)ease theo+o*ians( nor to otain )rotectors( nor to

disarm a )art' he s)ea<s as a )hi+oso)her( $ith6

out namin* himse+f( $ithout ad%ertisin* himse+f

and e=)resses himse+f in Latin( so as to e under6

stood ' a %er' sma++ numer" &ere is his )ro6

fession of faith"

S)ino1aJs Profession of Faith"

#If I a+so conc+uded that the idea of od( com6

)rised in that of the inHnit' of the uni%erse( e=cused

me from oedience( +o%e( and $orshi)( I shou+d

ma<e a sti++ more )ernicious use of m' reason for

it is e%ident to me that the +a$s $hich I ha%e re6

cei%ed( not ' the re+ation or inter%ention of other

men( ut immediate+' from &im( are those $hich

Vo+" 9 8@

>>; Phi+oso)hica+



the +i*ht of nature )oints out to me as the true *uides

of rationa+ conduct" If I fai+ed of oedience( in this

)articu+ar( I shou+d sin( not on+' a*ainst the )rinci6

)+e of m' ein* and the societ' of m' <ind( ut

a+so a*ainst m'se+f( in de)ri%in* m'se+f of the most

so+id ad%anta*e of m' e=istence" This oedience

does( it is true( ind me on+' to the duties of m'

state( and ma<es me +oo< on a++ esides as fri%o+ous

)ractices( in%ented in su)erstition to ser%e the )ur6

)oses of their in%entors"

#With re*ard to the +o%e of od( so far( I con6

cei%e( is this idea from tendin* to $ea<en it( that no

other is more ca+cu+ated to increase it since( throu*h

it( I <no$ that od is intimate $ith m' ein* that

&e *i%es me e=istence and m' e%er' )ro)ert' ut

&e *i%es me them +iera++'( $ithout re)roach( $ith6

out interest( $ithout suGectin* me to an'thin* ut

m' o$n nature" It anishes fear( uneasiness( dis6

trust( and a++ the eBects of a %u+*ar or interested

+o%e" It informs me that this is a *ood $hich I

cannot +ose( and $hich I )ossess the more fu++'( as

I <no$ and +o%e it"#

Are these the $ords of the %irtuous and tender



Fene+on( or those of S)ino1a &o$ is it that t$o

men so o))osed to each other( ha%e( $ith such dif6

ferent notions of od( concurred in the idea of +o%in*

od for &imse+f

It must e ac<no$+ed*ed that the' $ent oth to

the same end the one as a Christian( the other as

a man $ho had the misfortune not to e so the

Dictionar'" >>?

ho+' archisho)( as )hi+oso)her( con%inced that od

is distinct from nature the other as a $ide+'6errin*

disci)+e of Descartes( $ho ima*ined that od is a++

nature"

The former $as orthodo=( the +atter $as mis6

ta<en( I must assent ut oth $ere honest( oth

estima+e in their sincerit'( as in their mi+d and

sim)+e manners thou*h there is no other )oint of

resem+ance et$een the imitator of the #Od'sse'(#

and a dr' Cartesian fenced round $ith ar*uments

et$een one of the most accom)+ished men of the

court of Louis 7IV" in%ested $ith $hat is ca++ed a



hi*h di%init'( and a )oor unGudai1ed .e$( +i%in*

$ith an income of three hundred orins( in the most

)rofound oscurit'"

If there e an' simi+itude et$een them( it is that

Fene+on $as accused efore the Sanhedrim of the

ne$ +a$( and the other efore a s'na*o*ue $ithout

)o$er or $ithout reason ut the one sumitted( the

other ree++ed"

Foundation of S)ino1aJs Phi+oso)h'"

The *reat dia+ectician !a'+e has refuted S)ino1a"

&is s'stem( therefore( is not demonstrated( +i<e one

of Euc+idJs )ro)ositions for( if it $ere so( it cou+d

not e comated" It is( therefore( at +east oscure"

I ha%e a+$a's had some sus)icion that S)ino1a(

$ith his uni%ersa+ sustance( his modes and acci6

dents( had some other meanin* than that in $hich

he is understood ' !a'+e and conseuent+'( that

8>2 Phi+oso)hica+



!a'+e ma' e ri*ht( $ithout ha%in* confounded

S)ino1a" And( in )articu+ar( I ha%e a+$a's thou*ht

that often S)ino1a did not understand himse+f( and

that this is the )rinci)a+ reason $h' he has not een

understood"

It seems to me that the ram)arts of S)ino1ism

mi*ht e eaten do$n on a side $hich !a'+e has

ne*+ected" S)ino1a thin<s that there can e=ist ut

one sustance and it a))ears throu*hout his oo<

that he ui+ds his theor' on the mista<e of Descartes(

that #nature is a )+enum"#

The theor' of a )+enum is as fa+se as that of a

%oid" It is no$ demonstrated that motion is as im6

)ossi+e in aso+ute fu+ness( as it is im)ossi+e that(

in an eua+ a+ance( a $ei*ht of t$o )ounds in one

sca+e shou+d sin< a $ei*ht of t$o in the other"

No$( if e%er' motion aso+ute+' reuires em)t'

s)ace( $hat ecomes of S)ino1aJs one and on+' su6

stance &o$ can the sustance of a star( et$een

$hich and us there is a %oid so immense( e )re6

cise+' the sustance of this earth( or the sustance of

m'se+f( or the sustance of a ' eaten ' a s)ider



Perha)s I mista<e( ut I ne%er ha%e een a+e to

concei%e ho$ S)ino1a( admittin* an inHnite su6

stance of $hich thou*ht and matter are the t$o

moda+ities admittin* the sustance $hich he ca++s

od( and of $hich a++ that $e see is mode or acci6

dent cou+d ne%erthe+ess reGect Hna+ causes" If this

inHnite( uni%ersa+ ein* thin<s( must he not ha%e de6

si*n If he has desi*n( must he not ha%e a $i++

DESCARTES

Dictionar'" >>9

S)ino1a sa's( $e are modes of that aso+ute( neces6

sar'( inHnite ein*" I sa' to S)ino1a( $e $i++( and

ha%e desi*n( $e $ho are ut modes therefore( this

inHnite( necessar'( aso+ute ein* cannot e de)ri%ed

of them therefore( he has $i++( desi*n( )o$er"

I am a$are that %arious )hi+oso)hers( and es)e6

cia++' Lucretius( ha%e denied Hna+ causes I am a+so

a$are that Lucretius( thou*h not %er' chaste( is a



%er' *reat )oet in his descri)tions and in his mora+s

ut in )hi+oso)h' I o$n he a))ears to me to e %er'

far ehind a co++e*e )orter or a )arish ead+e" To

aMrm that the e'e is not made to see( nor the ear to

hear( nor the stomach to di*est is not this the most

enormous asurdit'( the most re%o+tin* fo++'( that

e%er entered the human mind Douter as I am(

this insanit' seems to me e%ident( and I sa' so"

For m' )art( I see in nature( as in the arts( on+'

Hna+ causes( and I e+ie%e that an a))+e tree is made

to ear a))+es( as I e+ie%e that a $atch is made to

te++ the hour"

I must here acuaint the readers that if S)ino1a(

in se%era+ )assa*es of his $or<s( ma<es a Gest of

Hna+ causes( he most e=)ress+' ac<no$+ed*es them

in the Hrst )art of his #!ein*( in enera+ and in

Particu+ar"#

&ere he sa's( #Permit me for a fe$ moments to

d$e++ $ith admiration on the $onderfu+ dis)ensa6

tion of nature( $hich( ha%in* enriched the consti6

tution of man $ith a++ the resources necessar' to

)ro+on* to a certain term the duration of his frai+



>: Phi+oso)hica+

e=istence( and to animate his <no$+ed*e of himse+f

' that of an inHnit' of distant oGects( seems )ur6

)ose+' to ha%e ne*+ected to *i%e him the means of

$e++ <no$in* $hat he is o+i*ed to ma<e a more

ordinar' use of the indi%idua+s of his o$n s)ecies"

3et( $hen du+' considered( this a))ears +ess the

eBect of a refusa+ than of an e=treme +iera+it' for(

if there $ere an' inte++i*ent ein* that cou+d )ene6

trate another a*ainst his $i++( he $ou+d enGo' such

an ad%anta*e as $ou+d of itse+f e=c+ude him from

societ' $hereas( in the )resent state of thin*s( each

indi%idua+ enGo'in* himse+f in fu++ inde)endence

communicates himse+f so much on+' as he Hnds con6

%enient"#

What sha++ I conc+ude from this That S)ino1a

freuent+' contradicted himse+f that he had not

a+$a's c+ear ideas that in the *reat $rec< of

s'stems( he c+un* sometimes to one )+an<( some6

times to another that in this $ea<ness he $as

+i<e 0a+eranche( Arnau+d( !ossuet( and C+aude(

$ho no$ and then contradicted themse+%es in



their dis)utes that he $as +i<e numer+ess

meta)h'sicians and theo+o*ians I sha++ conc+ude

that I ha%e additiona+ reason for distrustin* a++

m' meta)h'sica+ notions that I am a %er' fee+e

anima+( treadin* on uic<sands( $hich are continu6

a++' *i%in* $a' eneath me and that there is )er6

ha)s nothin* so foo+ish as to e+ie%e ourse+%es

a+$a's in the ri*ht"

!aruch S)ino1a( 'ou are %er' confused ut are

Dictionar'" > 8

'ou as dan*erous as 'ou are said to e I maintain

that 'ou are not and m' reason is( that 'ou are

confused( that 'ou ha%e $ritten in ad Latin( and

that there are not ten )ersons in Euro)e $ho read

'ou from e*innin* to end( a+thou*h 'ou ha%e een

trans+ated into French" Who is the dan*erous

author &e $ho is read ' the id+e at court and

' the +adies"

SECTION IV"



The #S'stem of Nature#

The author of the #S'stem of Nature# has had

the ad%anta*e of ein* read ' oth +earned and

i*norant( and ' $omen" &is st'+e( then( has

merits $hich that of S)ino1a $anted" &e is often

+uminous( sometimes e+ouent a+thou*h he ma' e

char*ed( +i<e a++ the rest( $ith re)etition( dec+ama6

tion( and se+f6contradiction" !ut for )rofundit'( he

is %er' often to e distrusted oth in )h'sics and in

mora+s" The interest of man<ind is here in ues6

tion $e $i++( therefore( e=amine $hether his doc6

trine is true and usefu+ and $i++( if $e can( e rief"

#Order and disorder do not e=ist"# What in

)h'sics( is not a chi+d orn +ind( $ithout +e*s( or a

monster( contrar' to the nature of the s)ecies Is

it not the ordinar' re*u+arit' of nature that ma<es

order( and irre*u+arit' that constitues disorder

Is it not a *reat deran*ement( a dreadfu+ disorder(

$hen nature *i%es a chi+d hun*er and c+oses the

oeso)ha*us The e%acuations of e%er' <ind are

>> Phi+oso)hica+



necessar' 'et the channe+s are freuent+' $ithout

oriHces( $hich it is necessar' to remed'" Dout+ess

this disorder has its cause for there is no eBect

$ithout a cause ut it is a %er' disordered eBect"

Is not the assassination of our friend( or of our

rother( a horri+e disorder in mora+s Are not the

ca+umnies of a arasse( of a Lete++ier( of a Doucin(

a*ainst .ansenists( and those of .ansenists a*ainst

.esuits( )ett' disorders Were not the massacre

of St" !artho+ome$( the Irish massacre( etc"( e=e6

cra+e disorders This crime has its cause in )as6

sion( ut the eBect is e=ecra+e the cause is fata+

this disorder ma<es us shudder" The ori*in of the

disorder remains to e disco%ered( ut the disorder

e=ists"

#E=)erience )ro%es to us that the matter $hich

$e re*ard as inert and dead assumes action( inte++i6

*ence( and +ife( $hen it is comined in a certain

$a'"#

This is )recise+' the diMcu+t'" &o$ does a *erm

come to +ife Of this the author and the reader are

a+i<e i*norant" &ence( are not the #S'stem of



Nature(# and a++ the s'stems in the $or+d( so man'

dreams

#It $ou+d e necessar' to deHne the %ita+ )rinci)+e(

$hich I deem im)ossi+e"# Is not this deHnition

%er' eas'( %er' common Is not +ife or*ani1ation

$ith fee+in* !ut that 'ou ha%e these t$o )ro)6

erties from the motion of matter a+one( it is im6

)ossi+e to *i%e an' )roof and if it cannot e

Dictionar'" >

)ro%ed( $h' aMrm it Wh' sa' a+oud( #I <no$(#

$hi+e 'ou sa' to 'ourse+f( #I <no$ not#

#It $i++ e as<ed( $hat is man # etc" Assured+'(

this artic+e is no c+earer than the most oscure of

S)ino1aJs and man' readers $i++ fee+ indi*nant at

the decisi%e tone $hich is assumed $ithout an'thin*

ein* e=)+ained"

#0atter is eterna+ and necessar' ut its forms

and its cominations are transitor' and contin*ent(#

etc" It is hard to com)rehend( matter ein*( accord6



in* to our author( necessar'( and $ithout freedom(

ho$ there can e an'thin* contin*ent" !' contin6

*enc'( $e understand that $hich ma' e( or ma' not

e ut since a++ must e( of aso+ute necessit'( e%er'

manner of ein*( $hich he here %er' erroneous+'

ca++s contin*ent( is as aso+ute+' of necessit' as the

ein* itse+f" &ere a*ain $e are in a +a'rinth"

When 'ou %enture to aMrm that there is no od(

that matter acts of itse+f ' an eterna+ necessit'( it

must e demonstrated +i<e a )ro)osition in Euc+id(

other$ise 'ou rest 'our s'stem on+' on a )erha)s"

What a foundation for that $hich is most interest6

in* to the human race

#If man is ' his nature forced to +o%e his $e++6

ein*( he is forced to +o%e the means of that $e++6

ein*" It $ere use+ess( and )erha)s unGust( to as<

a man to e %irtuous( if he cannot e so $ithout

ma<in* himse+f unha))'" So soon as %ice ma<es

him ha))'( he must +o%e %ice"#

This ma=im is 'et more e=ecra+e in mora+s than



>Q Phi+oso)hica+

the others are in )h'sics" Were it true that a man

cou+d not e %irtuous $ithout suBerin*( he must e

encoura*ed to suBer" Our authorJs )ro)osition

$ou+d e%ident+' e the ruin of societ'" !esides( ho$

does he <no$ that $e cannot e ha))' $ithout

ha%in* %ices On the contrar'( is it not )ro%ed '

e=)erience that the satisfaction of ha%in* sudued

them is a thousand times *reater than the )+easure

of 'ie+din* to them a )+easure a+$a's em)oisoned(

a )+easure +eadin* to $oe" !' suduin* our %ices(

$e acuire tranui++it'( the conso+in* testimon' of

our conscience ' *i%in* ourse+%es u) to them( $e

+ose our hea+th( our uiet $e ris< e%er'thin*"

Thus our author himse+f( in t$ent' )assa*es( $ishes

a++ to e sacriHced to %irtue and he ad%ances this

)ro)osition on+' to *i%e in his s'stem a fresh )roof

of the necessit' of ein* %irtuous"

#The' $ho( $ith so man' ar*uments( reGect in6

nate ideas shou+d ha%e )ercei%ed that this ineBa+e

inte++i*ence ' $hich the $or+d is said to e *uided(

and of $hich our senses can determine neither the

e=istence nor the ua+ities( is a ein* of reason"#



!ut( tru+'( ho$ does it fo++o$ from our ha%in*

no innate ideas( that there is no od Is not this

conseuence asurd Is there an' contradiction in

sa'in* that od *i%es us ideas throu*h our senses

Is it not( on the contrar'( most c+ear+' e%ident( that

if there is an A+mi*ht' !ein* from $hom $e ha%e

+ife( $e o$e to him our ideas and our senses as $e++

as e%er'thin* e+se It shou+d Hrst ha%e een )ro%ed

Dictionar'" >@

that od does not e=ist( $hich our author has not

done( $hich he has not e%en attem)ted to do efore

this )a*e of his tenth cha)ter"

Fearfu+ of $ear'in* the reader ' an e=amination

of a++ these detached )assa*es( I $i++ come at once

to the foundation of the oo<( and the astonishin*

error u)on $hich the author has ui+t his s'stem"

Stor' of the Ee+s on Which the S'stem is

Founded"

Aout the 'ear 8?@: there $as( in France( an



En*+ish .esuit ca++ed Needham( dis*uised as a sec6

u+ar( $ho $as then ser%in* as tutor to the ne)he$

of 0" Di++on( archisho) of Tou+ouse" This man

made e=)eriments in natura+ )hi+oso)h'( and es)e6

cia++' in chemistr'"

&a%in* )ut some r'e mea+ into $e++6cor<ed ot6

t+es( and some oi+ed mutton *ra%' into other ott+es(

he thou*ht that his mutton *ra%' and his mea+ had

*i%en irth to ee+s( $hich a*ain )roduced others

and that thus a race of ee+s $as formed indiBerent+'

from the Guice of meat( or from a *rain of r'e"

A natura+ )hi+oso)her( of some re)utation( had no

dout that this Needham $as a )rofound atheist"

&e conc+uded that( since ee+s cou+d e made of

r'e mea+( men mi*ht e made of $heat our

that nature and chemistr' )roduce a++ and that it

$as demonstrated that $e ma' %er' $e++ dis)ense

$ith an a++6formin* od"

This )ro)ert' of mea+ %er' easi+' decei%ed one

Phi+oso)hica+



$ho( unfortunate+'( $as a+read' $anderin* amidst

ideas that shou+d ma<e us trem+e for the $ea<ness

of the human mind" &e $anted to di* a ho+e in the

centre of the earth( to see the centra+ Hre to dissect

Pata*onians( that he mi*ht <no$ the nature of the

sou+ to co%er the sic< $ith )itch( to )re%ent them

from )ers)irin* to e=a+t his sou+( that he mi*ht

forete++ the future" If to these thin*s it $ere added(

that he had the sti++ *reater unha))iness of see<in*

to o))ress t$o of his rethren( it $ou+d do no honor

to atheism it $ou+d on+' ser%e to ma<e us +oo<

into ourse+%es $ith confusion"

It is rea++' stran*e that men( $hi+e den'in* a

creator( shou+d ha%e attriuted to themse+%es the

)o$er of creatin* ee+s"

!ut it is 'et more de)+ora+e that natura+ )hi+os6

o)hers( of etter information( ado)ted the .esuit

NeedhamJs ridicu+ous s'stem( and Goined it to that of

0ai++et( $ho asserted that the ocean had formed

the A+)s and P'renees( and that men $ere ori*ina++'

)or)oises( $hose for<ed tai+s chan*ed in the course

of time into thi*hs and +e*s" Such fancies are $orth'

to e )+aced $ith the ee+s formed ' mea+" We



$ere assured( not +on* a*o( that at !russe+s a hen

had rou*ht forth ha+f a do1en 'oun* raits"

This transmutation of mea+ and *ra%' into ee+s

$as demonstrated to e as fa+se and ridicu+ous as

it rea++' is( ' 0" S)a++an1ani( a rather etter o6

ser%er than Needham" !ut the e=tra%a*ance of so

)a+)a+e an i++usion $as e%ident $ithout his oser%a6

Dictionar'" >?

tions" NeedhamJs ee+s soon fo++o$ed the !russe+sJ

hen"

Ne%erthe+ess( in 8?;2( the correct( e+e*ant( and

Gudicious trans+ator of Lucretius $as so far +ed

a$a'( that he not on+'( in his notes to oo< %iii" )"

;8( re)eats NeedhamJs )retended e=)eriments( ut

he a+so does a++ he can to esta+ish their %a+idit'"

&ere( then( $e ha%e the ne$ foundation of the #S's6

tem of Nature"#

The author( in the second cha)ter( thus e=)resses

himse+f- #After moistenin* mea+ $ith $ater( and



shuttin* u) the mi=ture( it is found after a +itt+e

time( $ith the aid of the microsco)e( that it has )ro6

duced or*ani1ed ein*s( of $hose )roduction the

$ater and mea+ $ere e+ie%ed to e inca)a+e" Thus

inanimate nature can )ass into +ife( $hich is itse+f

ut an assem+a*e of motions"#

Were this un)ara++e+ed +under true( 'et( in ri*or6

ous reasonin*( I do not see ho$ it $ou+d )ro%e there

is no od I do not see $h' a su)reme( inte++i*ent(

and mi*ht' ein*( ha%in* formed the sun and the

stars( mi*ht not a+so dei*n to form anima+cu+ae $ith6

out a *erm" &ere is no contradiction in terms" A

demonstrati%e )roof that# od has no e=istence must

e sou*ht e+se$here and most assured+' no )erson

has e%er found( or $i++ e%er Hnd( one"

Our author treats Hna+ causes $ith contem)t( e6

cause the ar*ument is hac<ne'ed ut this much6

contemned ar*ument is that of Cicero and of Ne$6

ton" This a+one mi*ht some$hat +essen the conH6

> 2 Phi+oso)hica+



dence of atheists in themse+%es" The numer is not

sma++ of the sa*es $ho( oser%in* the course of the

stars( and the )rodi*ious art that )er%ades the struc6

ture of anima+s and %e*eta+es( ha%e ac<no$+ed*ed

a )o$erfu+ hand $or<in* these continua+ $onders"

The author asserts that matter( +ind and $ithout

choice( )roduces inte++i*ent anima+s" Produce( $ith6

out inte++i*ence( ein*s $ith inte++i*ence Is this

concei%a+e Is this s'stem founded on the sma++est

%erisimi+itude An o)inion so contradictor' re6

uires )roofs no +ess astonishin* than itse+f" The

author *i%es us none he ne%er )ro%es an'thin*

ut he aMrms a++ that he ad%ances" What chaos

$hat confusion and $hat temerit'

S)ino1a at +east ac<no$+ed*ed an inte++i*ence act6

in* in this *reat $ho+e( $hich constituted nature-

in this there $as )hi+oso)h'" !ut in the ne$ s's6

tem( I am under the necessit' of sa'in* that there is

none"

0atter has e=tent( so+idit'( *ra%it'( di%isii+it'"

I ha%e a++ these as $e++ as this stone - ut $as a stone

e%er <no$n to fee+ and thin< If I am e=tended(

so+id( di%isi+e( I o$e it to matter" !ut I ha%e sensa6



tions and thou*hts to $hat do I o$e them Not

to $ater( not to mire most +i<e+' to somethin* more

)o$erfu+ than m'se+f" So+e+' to the comination of

the e+ements( 'ou $i++ sa'" Then )ro%e it to me"

Sho$ me )+ain+' that m' inte++i*ence cannot ha%e

een *i%en to me ' an inte++i*ent cause" To this are

'ou reduced"

Dictionar'" >9

Our author successi%e+' comats the od of the

schoo+men a od com)osed of discordant ua+6

ities a od to $hom( as to those of &omer( is at6

triuted the )assions of men a od ca)ricious(

Hc<+e( unreasona+e( asurd ut he cannot comat

the od of the $ise" The $ise( contem)+atin* na6

ture( admit an inte++i*ent and su)reme )o$er" It is

)erha)s im)ossi+e for human reason( destitute of di6

%ine assistance( to *o a ste) further"

Our author as<s $here this ein* resides and(

from the im)ossii+it' that an'one( $ithout ein*

inHnite( shou+d te++ $here &e resides( he conc+udes

that &e does not e=ist" This is not )hi+oso)hica+



for $e are not( ecause $e cannot te++ $here the

cause of an eBect is( to conc+ude that there is no

cause" If 'ou had ne%er seen a *unner( and 'ou sa$

the eBects of a atter' of cannon( 'ou $ou+d not

sa' it acts entire+' ' itse+f" Sha++ it( then( on+' e

necessar' for 'ou to sa' there is no od( in order

to e e+ie%ed on 'our $ords

Fina++'( his *reat oGection is( the $oes and

crimes of man<ind an oGection a+i<e ancient and

)hi+oso)hica+ an oGection common( ut fata+ and

terri+e( and to $hich $e Hnd no ans$er ut in the

ho)e of a etter +ife" 3et $hat is this ho)e We

can ha%e no certaint' in it ut from reason" !ut I

$i++ %enture to sa'( that $hen it is )ro%ed to us that

a %ast ediHce( constructed $ith the *reatest art( is

ui+t ' an architect( $hoe%er he ma' e( $e ou*ht

to e+ie%e in that architect( e%en thou*h the ediHce

>Q: Phi+oso)hica+

shou+d e stained $ith our +ood( )o++uted ' our

crimes( and shou+d crush us in its fa++" I inuire

not $hether the architect is a *ood one( $hether I



shou+d e satisHed $ith his ui+din*( $hether I

shou+d uit it rather than sta' in it( nor $hether

those $ho are +od*ed in it for a fe$ da's( +i<e m'6

se+f( are content - I on+' inuire if it e true that

there is an architect( or if this house( containin* so

man' Hne a)artments and so man' $retched *arrets(

ui+t itse+f"

SECTION %"

The Necessit' of !e+ie%in* in a Su)reme !ein*"

The *reat( the interestin* oGect( as it a))ears to

me( is( not to ar*ue meta)h'sica++'( ut to consider

$hether( for the common *ood of us misera+e and

thin<in* anima+s( $e shou+d admit a re$ardin* and

a%en*in* od( at once our restraint and conso+ation(

or shou+d reGect this idea( and so aandon ourse+%es

to ca+amit' $ithout ho)e( and crime $ithout re6

morse"

&oes sa's that if( in a common$ea+th( in $hich

no od shou+d e ac<no$+ed*ed( an' citi1en $ere to

)ro)ose one( he $ou+d ha%e him han*ed"

A))arent+'( he meant ' this stran*e e=a**er6



ation( a citi1en $ho shou+d see< to ru+e in the name

of a *od( a char+atan $ho $ou+d ma<e himse+f a t'6

rant" We understand citi1ens( $ho( fee+in* the

$ea<ness of human nature( its )er%erseness( and its

miser'( see< some )ro) to su))ort it throu*h the

+an*uors and horrors of this +ife"

Dictionar'" >Q8

From .o do$n to us( a *reat man' men ha%e

cursed their e=istence $e ha%e( therefore( )er)et6

ua+ need of conso+ation and ho)e" Of these 'our

)hi+oso)h' de)ri%es us" The fa+e of Pandora $as

etter it +eft us ho)e $hich 'ou snatch from us

Phi+oso)h'( 'ou sa'( furnishes no )roof of ha))iness

to come" No ut 'ou ha%e no demonstration of the

contrar'" There ma' e in us an indestructi+e mo6

nad $hich fee+s and thin<s( $ithout our <no$in*

an'thin* at a++ of ho$ that monad is made" Reason

is not aso+ute+' o))osed to this idea( thou*h reason

a+one does not )ro%e it" &as not this o)inion a )ro6

di*ious ad%anta*e o%er 'ours 0ine is usefu+ to

man<ind( 'ours is anefu+ sa' of it $hat 'ou $i++(

it ma' encoura*e a Nero( an A+e=ander VI" ( or a



Cartouche" 0ine ma' restrain them"

0arcus Antoninus and E)ictetus e+ie%ed that

their monad( of $hate%er <ind it $as( $ou+d e

united to the monad of the reat !ein* and the'

$ere the most %irtuous of men"

In the state of dout in $hich $e oth are( I do

not sa' to 'ou $ith Pasca+( #choose the safest"#

There is no safet' in uncertaint'" We are here not

to ta+<( ut to e=amine $e must Gud*e( and our

Gud*ment is not determined ' our $i++" I do not

)ro)ose to 'ou to e+ie%e e=tra%a*ant thin*s( in

order to esca)e emarrassment" I do not sa' to 'ou(

#o to 0ecca( and instruct 'ourse+f ' <issin* the

+ac< stone( ta<e ho+d of a co$Js tai+( muUe 'ourse+f

in a sca)u+ar'( or e imeci+e and fanatica+ to acuire

Vo+" 98;

>Q"> Phi+oso)hica+

the fa%or of the !ein* of ein*s"# I sa' to 'ou -

#Continue to cu+ti%ate %irtue( to e eneHcent( to re6



*ard a++ su)erstition $ith horror( or $ith )it' ut

adore( $ith me( the desi*n $hich is manifested in a++

nature( and conseuent+' the Author of that desi*n

the )rimordia+ and Hna+ cause of a++ ho)e $ith

me that our monad( $hich reasons on the *reat eter6

na+ ein*( ma' e ha))' throu*h that same *reat

!ein*"# There is no contradiction in this" 3ou can

no more demonstrate its im)ossii+it' than I can

demonstrate mathematica++' that it is so" In

meta)h'sics $e scarce+' reason on an'thin* ut

)roai+ities" We are a++ s$immin* in a sea of $hich

$e ha%e ne%er seen the shore" Woe e to those

$ho H*ht $hi+e the' s$im Land $ho can - ut he

that cries out to me( #3ou s$im in %ain( there is no

+and(# disheartens me( and de)ri%es me of a++ m'

stren*th"

What is the oGect of our dis)ute To conso+e

our unha))' e=istence" Who conso+es it 'ou

or I

3ou 'ourse+f o$n( in some )assa*es of 'our

$or<( that the e+ief in a od has $ithhe+d some

men on the rin< of crime for me( this ac<no$+6

ed*ment is enou*h" If this o)inion had )re%ented

ut ten assassinations( ut ten ca+umnies( ut ten



iniuitous Gud*ments on the earth( I ho+d that the

$ho+e earth ou*ht to emrace it"

Re+i*ion( 'ou sa'( has )roduced thousands of

crimes sa'( rather( su)erstition( $hich unha))i+'

Dictionar'" >Q

rei*ns o%er this *+oe it is the most crue+ enem' of

the )ure adoration due to the Su)reme !ein*"

Let us detest this monster $hich has constant+'

een tearin* the osom of its mother the' $ho

comat it are enefactors to man<ind - it is a ser)ent

enc+osin* re+i*ion in its fo+ds( its head must e

ruised( $ithout $oundin* the )arent $hom it in6

fects and de%ours"

3ou fear( #that( ' adorin* od( men $ou+d soon

a*ain ecome su)erstitious and fanatica+"# !ut is it

not to e feared that in den'in* &im( the' $ou+d

aandon themse+%es to the most atrocious )assions(

and the most fri*htfu+ crimes !et$een these t$o

e=tremes is there not a %er' rationa+ mean Where



is the safe trac< et$een these t$o roc<s It is

od( and $ise +a$s"

3ou aMrm that it is ut one ste) from adoration

to su)erstition - ut there is an inHnit' to $e++6con6

stituted minds( and these are no$ %er' numerous

the' are at the head of nations the' inuence )u6

+ic manners( and( 'ear ' 'ear( the fanaticism that

o%ers)read the earth is recedin* in its detesta+e

usur)ations"

I sha++ sa' a fe$ $ords more in ans$er to $hat

'ou sa' in )a*e >>" #If it e )resumed that there

are re+ations et$een man and this incredi+e ein*(

then a+tars must e raised and )resents must e

made to him( etc" if no conce)tion e formed of

this ein*( then the matter must e referred to

)riests( $ho " " " "# A *reat e%i+ to e sure( to

>QQ Phi+oso)hica+

assem+e in the har%est season( and than< od for

the read that &e has *i%en us Who sa's 'ou

shou+d ma<e )resents to od The idea is ridicu6



+ous !ut $here is the harm of em)+o'in* a citi1en(

ca++ed an #e+der# or #)riest(# to render than<s to the

Di%init' in the name of the other citi1ens )ro6

%ided the )riest is not a re*or' VII" tram)+in* on

the heads of <in*s( nor an A+e=ander VI" )o++utin*

' incest his dau*hter( the oBs)rin* of a ra)e( and(

' the aid of his astard son( )oisonin* and assas6

sinatin* a+most a++ the nei*horin* )rinces - )ro6

%ided that( in a )arish( this )riest is not a <na%e(

)ic<in* the )oc<ets of the )enitents he confesses(

and usin* the mone' to seduce the *ir+s he cate6

chises )ro%ided that this )riest is not a Lete++ier(

)uttin* the $ho+e <in*dom in comustion ' ro*ue6

ries $orth' of the )i++or'( nor a Warurton( %io+at6

in* the +a$s of societ'( ma<in* )u+ic the )ri%ate

)a)ers of a memer of )ar+iament in order to ruin

him( and ca+umniatin* $hosoe%er is not of his o)in6

ion" The +atter cases are rare" The sacerdota+ state

is a cur $hich forces to *ood eha%ior"

A stu)id )riest e=cites contem)t a ad )riest

ins)ires horror a *ood )riest( mi+d( )ious( $ithout

su)erstition( charita+e( to+erant( is one $ho ou*ht

to e cherished and re%ered" 3ou dread auses so

do I" Let us unite to )re%ent them ut +et us not

condemn the usa*e $hen it is usefu+ to societ'(



$hen it is not )er%erted ' fanaticism( or ' fraud6

u+ent $ic<edness"

Dictionar'" >Q@

I ha%e one %er' im)ortant thin* to te++ 'ou" I

am )ersuaded that 'ou are in a *reat error( ut I

am eua++' con%inced that 'ou are honest in 'our

se+f6de+usion" 3ou $ou+d ha%e men %irtuous e%en

$ithout a od( a+thou*h 'ou ha%e unfortunate+' said

that #so soon as %ice renders man ha))'( he must

+o%e %ice# a fri*htfu+ )ro)osition( $hich 'our

friends shou+d ha%e )re%ai+ed on 'ou to erase" E%6

er'$here e+se 'ou ins)ire )roit'" This )hi+oso)hi6

ca+ dis)ute $i++ e on+' et$een 'ou and a fe$ )hi6

+oso)hers scattered o%er Euro)e the rest of the

earth $i++ not e%en hear of it" The )eo)+e do not

read us" If some theo+o*ian $ere to see< to )erse6

cute us( he $ou+d e im)udent as $e++ as $ic<ed

he $ou+d ut ser%e to conHrm 'ou( and to ma<e ne$

atheists"

3ou are $ron* - ut the ree<s did not )ersecute

E)icurus the Romans did not )ersecute Lucretius"



3ou are $ron*- ut 'our *enius and 'our %irtue

must e res)ected( $hi+e 'ou are refuted $ith a++

)ossi+e stren*th"

In m' o)inion( the Hnest homa*e that can e ren6

dered to od is to stand for$ard in &is defence

$ithout an*er as the most un$orth' )ortrait that

can e dra$n of6 &im is to )aint &im %indicti%e and

furious" &e is truth itse+f and truth is $ithout

)assion" To e a disci)+e of od is to announce

&im as of a mi+d heart and of an una+tera+e mind"

I thin<( $ith 'ou( that fanaticism is a monster a

thousand times more dan*erous than )hi+oso)hica+

>Q; Phi+oso)hica+

atheism" S)ino1a did not commit a sin*+e ad ac6

tion" Chate+ and Ra%ai++ac( oth de%otees( assassi6

nated &enr' IV"

The atheist of the c+oset is a+most a+$a's a uiet

)hi+oso)her( $hi+e the fanatic is a+$a's turu+ent-

ut the court atheist( the atheistica+ )rince( mi*ht



e the scour*e of man<ind" !or*ia and his +i<e ha%e

done a+most as much harm as the fanatics of 0ini6

ster and of the Ce%ennes" I sa' the fanatics on oth

sides" The misfortune is( that atheists of the c+oset

ma<e atheists of the court" It $as Chiron $ho

rou*ht u) Achi++es he fed him $ith +ionJs mar6

ro$" Achi++es $i++ one da' dra* &ectorJs od'

round the $a++s of Tro'( and immo+ate t$e+%e ca)6

ti%es to his %en*eance"

od <ee) us from an aomina+e )riest $ho

shou+d he$ a <in* in )ieces $ith his sacriHcin* <nife(

as a+so from him $ho( $ith a he+met on his head

and a cuirass on his ac<( at the a*e of se%ent'(

shou+d dare to si*n $ith his three +ood' Hn*ers the

ridicu+ous e=communication of a <in* of France

and from """" and from """"

!ut a+so( ma' od )reser%e us from a cho+eric

and ararous des)ot( $ho( not e+ie%in* in a od(

shou+d e his o$n od( $ho shou+d render himse+f

un$orth' of his sacred trust ' tram)+in* on the

duties $hich that trust im)oses( $ho shou+d re6

morse+ess+' sacriHce to his )assions( his friends( his

re+ati%es( his ser%ants( and his )eo)+e" These t$o



Dictionar'" >Q?

ti*ers( the one shorn( the other cro$ned are eua++'

to e feared" !' $hat means sha++ $e mu11+e

them """"

If the idea of a od has made a Titus or a Tra6

Gan( an Antonine or an Aure+ius( and those *reat

Chinese em)erors( $hose memor' is so dear to the

second of the most ancient and most e=tensi%e em6

)ires in the $or+d( these e=am)+es are suMcient for

m' cause and m' cause is that of a++ man<ind"

I do not e+ie%e that there is in a++ Euro)e one

statesman( one man at a++ %ersed in the aBairs of the

$or+d( $ho has not the most )rofound contem)t for

the +e*ends $ith $hich $e ha%e een inundated(

e%en more than $e no$ are $ith )am)h+ets" If re6

+i*ion no +on*er *i%es irth to ci%i+ $ars( it is to

)hi+oso)h' a+one that $e are indeted( theo+o*ica+

dis)utes e*innin* to e re*arded in much the same

manner as the uarre+s of Punch and .ud' at the

fair" A usur)ation( a+i<e odious and ridicu+ous(

founded u)on fraud on one side and stu)idit' on



the other( is e%er' instant undermined ' reason(

$hich is esta+ishin* its rei*n" The u++ #In ccena

Domini# that master)iece of inso+ence and fo++'(

no +on*er dares a))ear( e%en in Rome" If a re*i6

ment of mon<s ma<es the +east e%o+ution a*ainst the

+a$s of the state( it is immediate+' ro<en" !ut(

ecause the .esuits ha%e een e=)e++ed( must $e a+so

e=)e+ od On the contrar'( $e must +o%e &im the

more"

>Q2 Phi+oso)hica+

SECTION VI"

In the rei*n of Arcadius( Lo*omachos( a theo6

+o*ue of Constantino)+e( $ent into Sc'thia and

sto))ed at the foot of 0ount Caucasus in the fruit6

fu+ )+ains of 4e)hirim( on the orders of Co+chis"

The *ood o+d man Dondindac $as in his *reat ha++

et$een his +ar*e shee)fo+d and his e=tensi%e arn

he $as on his <nees $ith his $ife( his H%e sons and

H%e dau*hters( his <insmen and ser%ants and a++

$ere sin*in* the )raises of od( after a +i*ht re)ast"

#What are 'ou doin*( ido+ater# said Lo*omachos



to him" #I am not an ido+ater(# said Dondindac"

#3ou must e an ido+ater(# said Lo*omachos( #for

'ou are not a ree<" Come( te++ me $hat 'ou $ere

sin*in* in 'our ararous Sc'thian Gar*on# #A++

ton*ues are a+i<e to the ears of od(# ans$ered the

Sc'thian #$e $ere sin*in* &is )raises"# #Ver'

e=traordinar' # returned the theo+o*ue #a Sc'thian

fami+' )ra'in* to od $ithout ha%in* een in6

structed ' us # &e soon entered into con%ersation

$ith the Sc'thian Dondindac for the theo+o*ue

<ne$ a +itt+e Sc'thian( and the other a +itt+e ree<"

This con%ersation has een found in a manuscri)t

)reser%ed in the +irar' of Constantino)+e"

LOO0AC&OS"

Let us see if 'ou <no$ 'our catechism" Wh' do

'ou )ra' to od

DONDINDAC"

!ecause it is Gust to adore the Su)reme !ein*(

from $hom $e ha%e e%er'thin*"



Dictionar'" >Q9

LOO0AC&OS"

Ver' fair for a ararian" And $hat do 'ou

as< of him

DONDINDAC"

I than< &im for the +essin*s I enGo'( and e%en

for the tria+s $hich &e sends me ut I am carefu+

to as< nothin* of &im for &e <no$s our $ants

etter than $e do esides( I shou+d e afraid of

as<in* for fair $eather $hi+e m' nei*hor $as as<6

in* for rain"

LOO0AC&OS"

Ah I thou*ht he $ou+d sa' some nonsense or

other" Let us e*in farther ac<" !ararian( $ho

to+d 'ou that there is a od

DONDINDAC"

A++ nature te++s me"



LOO0AC&OS"

That is not enou*h" What idea ha%e 'ou of od

DONDINDAC"

The idea of m' Creator m' master( $ho $i++

re$ard me if I do *ood( and )unish me if I do e%i+"

LOO0AC&OS"

Tries trash Let us come to some essentia+s"

Is od inHnite secundum uid( or accordin* to es6

sence

DONDINDAC"

I donJt understand 'ou"

>@: Phi+oso)hica+

LOO0AC&OS"

!rute east Is od in one )+ace( or in e%er'



)+ace

DONDINDAC"

I <no$ not """" Gust as 'ou )+ease"

LOO0AC&OS"

I*noramus " " " " Can &e cause that $hich has

not een to ha%e een( or that a stic< sha++ not ha%e

t$o ends Does &e see the future as future( or as

)resent &o$ does &e dra$ ein* from nothin*(

and ho$ reduce ein* to nothin*

DONDINDAC"

I ha%e ne%er e=amined these thin*s"

LOO0AC&OS"

What a stu)id fe++o$ We++( I must come nearer

to 'our +e%e+ Te++ me( friend( do 'ou thin<

that matter can e eterna+



DONDINDAC"

What matters it to me $hether it e=ists from a++

eternit' or not I do not e=ist from a++ eternit'"

od must sti++ e m' 0aster" &e has *i%en me the

nature of Gustice it is m' dut' to fo++o$ it - I see<

not to e a )hi+oso)her I $ish to e a man"

LOO0AC&OS"

One has a *reat dea+ of trou+e $ith these +oc<6

heads" Let us )roceed ste) ' ste)" What is od

DONDINDAC"

0' so%erei*n( m' Gud*e( m' father"

Dictionar'" >@8

LOO0AC&OS"

That is not $hat I as<" What is &is nature



DONDINDAC"

To e mi*ht' and *ood"

LOO0AC&OS"

!ut is &e cor)orea+ or s)iritua+

DONDINDAC"

&o$ shou+d I <no$ that

LOO0AC&OS"

What do 'ou not <no$ $hat a s)irit is

DONDINDAC"

Not in the +east" Of $hat ser%ice $ou+d that

<no$+ed*e e to me Shou+d I e more Gust

Shou+d I e a etter husand( a etter father( a et6

ter master( or a etter citi1en

LOO0AC&OS"



3ou must aso+ute+' e tau*ht $hat a s)irit is"

It is it is it is I $i++ sa' $hat another time"

DONDINDAC"

I much fear that 'ou $i++ te++ me rather $hat it is

not than $hat it is" Permit me( in turn( to as< 'ou

one uestion" Some time a*o( I sa$ one of 'our

tem)+es - $h' do 'ou )aint od $ith a +on* eard

LOO0AC&OS"

That is a %er' diMcu+t uestion( and reuires )re6

+iminar' instruction"

>@> Phi+oso)hica+

DONDINDAC"

!efore I recei%e 'our instruction( I must re+ate to

'ou a thin* $hich one da' ha))ened to me" I had

Gust ui+t a c+oset at the end of m' *arden( $hen I

heard a mo+e ar*uin* thus $ith an ant - #&ere is a

Hne faric(# said the mo+e #it must ha%e een a



%er' )o$erfu+ mo+e that )erformed this $or<"#

#3ou Gest(# returned the ant #the architect of this

ediHce is an ant of mi*ht' *enius"# From that time

I reso+%ed ne%er to dis)ute"

OOD T&E SOVEREIN OOD( A C&I6

0ERA"

SECTION I"

&APPINESS is an astract idea com)osed of cer6

tain )+easura+e sensations" P+ato( $ho $rote etter

than he reasoned( concei%ed the notion of his $or+d

in archet')e that is( his ori*ina+ $or+d of his *en6

era+ ideas of the eautifu+( the *ood( the order+'( and

the Gust( as if there had e=isted eterna+ ein*s( ca++ed

order( *ood( eaut'( and Gustice $hence mi*ht e

deri%ed the fee+e co)ies e=hiited here e+o$ of the

Gust( the eautifu+( and the *ood"

It is( then( in conseuence of his su**estions that

)hi+oso)hers ha%e occu)ied themse+%es in see<in*

for the so%erei*n *ood( as chemists see< for the

)hi+oso)herJs stone ut the so%erei*n *ood has no

more e=istence than the so%erei*n suare( or the

so%erei*n crimson- there is the crimson co+or( and



there are suares ut there is no *enera+ e=istence

Dictionar'" >@

so denominated" This chimerica+ manner of reason6

in* $as for a +on* time the ane of )hi+oso)h'"

Anima+s fee+ )+easure in )erformin* a++ the func6

tions for $hich the' are destined" The ha))iness

$hich )oetica+ fanc' has ima*ined $ou+d e an un6

interru)ted series of )+easures ut such a series

$ou+d e incom)ati+e $ith our or*ans and our des6

tination" There is *reat )+easure in eatin*( drin<in*(

and connuia+ endearments ut it is c+ear that if

a man $ere a+$a's eatin*( or a+$a's in the fu++

ecstas' of enGo'ment( his or*ans $ou+d e inca)a+e

of sustainin* it - it is further e%ident that he $ou+d

e una+e to fu+H+ the destinies he $as orn to( and

that( in the case su))osed( the human race $ou+d a6

so+ute+' )erish throu*h )+easure"

To )ass constant+' and $ithout interru)tion from

one )+easure to another is a+so a chimera" The

$oman $ho has concei%ed must *o throu*h chi+d6



irth( $hich is a )ain the man is o+i*ed to c+ea%e

$ood and he$ stone( $hich is not a )+easure"

If the name of ha))iness is meant to e a))+ied

to some )+easures $hich are diBused o%er human

+ife( there is in fact( $e must admit( ha))iness" If the

name attaches on+' to one )+easure a+$a's )erma6

nent( or a continued a+thou*h %aried ran*e of de6

+icious enGo'ment( then ha))iness e+on*s not to this

terraueous *+oe" o and see< for it e+se$here"

If $e ma<e ha))iness consist in an' )articu+ar

situation that a man ma' e in( as for instance( a

situation of $ea+th( )o$er( or fame( $e are no +ess

>@Q Phi+oso)hica+

mista<en" There are some sca%en*ers $ho are ha)6

)ier than some so%erei*ns" As< Crom$e++ $hether

he $as more ha))' $hen he $as +ord )rotector of

En*+and( than $hen( in his 'outhfu+ da's( he en6

Go'ed himse+f at a ta%ern he $i++ )roa+' te++ 'ou

in ans$er( that the )eriod of his usur)ation $as not

the )eriod most )roducti%e of )+easures" &o$ man'



)+ain or e%en u*+' countr' $omen are more ha))'

than $ere &e+en and C+eo)atra"

We must here ho$e%er ma<e one short remar<

that $hen $e sa' such a )articu+ar man is )roa+'

ha))ier than some other that a 'oun* mu+eteer has

ad%anta*es %er' su)erior to those of Char+es V"

that a dressma<er has more enGo'ment than a )rin6

cess( $e shou+d adhere to the )roai+it' of the case"

There is certain+' e%er' a))earance that a mu+eteer(

in fu++ hea+th( must ha%e more )+easure than Char+es

the Fifth( +aid u) $ith the *out ut ne%erthe+ess it

ma' a+so e( that Char+es( on his crutches( re%o+%es

in his mind $ith such ecstas' the facts of his ho+d6

in* a <in* of France and a )o)e )risoners( that his

+ot is aso+ute+' )refera+e to that of the 'oun* and

%i*orous mu+eteer"

It certain+' e+on*s to od a+one( to a ein* ca)a6

+e of seein* throu*h a++ hearts( to decide $hich is

the ha))iest man" There is on+' one case in $hich

a )erson can aMrm that his actua+ state is $orse or

etter than that of his nei*hor this case is that of

e=istin* ri%a+shi)( and the moment that of %ictor'"

I $i++ su))ose that Archimedes has an assi*nation



Dictionar'" >@@

at ni*ht $ith his mistress" Nomentanus has the

same assi*nation at the same hour" Archimedes

)resents himse+f at the door( and it is shut in his

face ut it is o)ened to his ri%a+( $ho enGo's an

e=ce++ent su))er( $hich he en+i%ens ' his re)eated

sa++ies of $it u)on Archimedes( and after the con6

c+usion of $hich he $ithdra$s to sti++ hi*her enGo'6

ments( $hi+e the other remains e=)osed in the street

to a++ the )e+tin* of a )iti+ess storm" There can e

no dout that Nomentanus has a ri*ht to sa' - #I

am more ha))' to6ni*ht than Archimedes- I ha%e

more )+easure than he# ut it is necessar'( in order

to admit the truth and Gustness of the inference of

the successfu+ com)etitors in his o$n fa%or( to su)6

)ose that Archimedes is thin<in* on+' aout the +oss

of his *ood su))er( aout ein* des)ised and de6

cei%ed ' a eautifu+ $oman( aout ein* su))+anted

' his ri%a+( and anno'ed ' the tem)est for( if the

)hi+oso)her in the street shou+d e ca+m+' reectin*

that his sou+ ou*ht to e ao%e ein* discom)osed

' a strum)et or a storm( if he shou+d e asored



in a )rofound and interestin* )ro+em( and if he

shou+d disco%er the )ro)ortions et$een the c'+inder

and the s)here( he ma' e=)erience a )+easure a hun6

dred times su)erior to that of Nomentanus"

It is on+' therefore in the sin*+e case of actua+

)+easure and actua+ )ain( and $ithout a reference to

an'thin* e+se $hate%er( that a com)arison et$een

an' t$o indi%idua+s can e )ro)er+' made" It is un6

uestiona+e that he $ho enGo's the societ' of his

>@; Phi+oso)hica+

mistress is ha))ier at the moment than his scorned

ri%a+ de)+orin* o%er his misfortune" A man in

hea+th( su))in* on a fat )artrid*e( is undouted+'

ha))ier at the time than another under the torment

of the co+ic ut $e cannot safe+' carr' our infer6

ences farther $e cannot estimate the e=istence of

one man a*ainst that of another $e )ossess no ac6

curate a+ance for $ei*hin* desires and sensations"

We e*an this artic+e $ith P+ato and his so%er6

ei*n *ood $e $i++ conc+ude it $ith So+on and the



sa'in* of his $hich has een so hi*h+' ce+erated(

that #$e ou*ht to )ronounce no man ha))' efore

his death"# This ma=im( $hen e=amined into( $i++

e found nothin* more than a )ueri+e remar<( Gust

+i<e man' other a)othe*ms consecrated ' their an6

tiuit'" The moment of death has nothin* in com6

mon $ith the +ot e=)erienced ' an' man in +ife a

man ma' )erish ' a %io+ent and i*nominious death(

and 'et( u) to that moment( ma' ha%e enGo'ed a++ the

)+easures of $hich human nature is susce)ti+e" It

is %er' )ossi+e and %er' common for a ha))' man

to cease to e so no one can dout it ut he has

not the +ess had his ha))' moments"

What( then( can So+onJs e=)ression strict+' and

fair+' mean that a man ha))' to6da' is not cer6

tain of ein* so to6morro$ In this case it is a truth

so incontesta+e and tri%ia+ that( not mere+' is it not

$orth' of ein* e+e%ated into a ma=im( ut it is not

$orth' de+i%erin* at a++"

Dictionar'" >@?

SECTION II"



We++6ein* is a rare )ossession" 0a' not the

so%erei*n *ood in this $or+d e considered as a so%6

erei*n chimera The ree< )hi+oso)hers discussed

at *reat +en*th( accordin* to their usua+ )ractice(

this ce+erated uestion" The reader $i++( )roa+'(

com)are them to Gust so man' mendicants reasonin*

aout the )hi+oso)herJs stone"

The so%erei*n *ood What an e=)ression It

mi*ht as $e++ ha%e een as<ed - What is the so%er6

ei*n +ue( or the so%erei*n ra*out( or the so%erei*n

$a+<( or the so%erei*n readin*

E%er' one )+aces his *ood $here he can( and has

as much of it as he can( in his o$n $a'( and in %er'

scant' measure" Castor +o%ed horses his t$in

rother( to tr' a fa++

5uid dem uidnon dem renuis tu uod Guet a+ter """"

Castor *audet euis( o%o )ro*natus eodem

Pu*nis( etc"

The *reatest *ood is that $hich de+i*hts us so

)o$erfu++' as to render us inca)a+e of fee+in* an'6

thin* e+se as the *reatest e%i+ is that $hich *oes



so far as to de)ri%e us of a++ fee+in*" These are the

t$o e=tremes of human nature( and these moments

are short" Neither e=treme de+i*ht nor e=treme tor6

ture can +ast a $ho+e +ife" The so%erei*n *ood and

the so%erei*n e%i+ are nothin* more than chimeras"

We a++ <no$ the eautifu+ fa+e of rantor" &e

introduces u)on the sta*e at the O+'m)ic *ames(

Wea+th( P+easure( &ea+th( and Virtue" Each

c+aims the a))+e" Wea+th sa's( I am the so%erei*n

Vo+" 9 8?

>@2 Phi+oso)hica+

*ood( for $ith me a++ *oods are )urchased" P+easure

sa's( the a))+e e+on*s to me( for it is on+' on m'

account that $ea+th is desired" &ea+th asserts( that

$ithout her there can e no )+easure( and $ea+th is

use+ess" Fina++'( Virtue states that she is su)erior

to the other three( ecause( a+thou*h )ossessed of

*o+d( )+easures( and hea+th( a man ma' ma<e himse+f

%er' contem)ti+e ' misconduct" The a))+e $as

conferred on Virtue"



The fa+e is %er' in*enious it $ou+d e sti++ more

so if rantor had said that the so%erei*n *ood con6

sists in the comination of the four ri%a+s( Virtue(

&ea+th( Wea+th( and P+easure ut this fa+e neither

does( nor can( reso+%e the asurd uestion aout the

so%erei*n *ood" Virtue is not a *ood it is a dut'"

It is of a diBerent nature of a su)erior order" It

has nothin* to do $ith )ainfu+ or $ith a*reea+e

sensations" A %irtuous man( +aorin* under stone

and *out( $ithout aid( $ithout friends( destitute of

necessaries( )ersecuted( and chained do$n to the

oor ' a %o+u)tuous t'rant $ho enGo's *ood hea+th(

is %er' $retched and his inso+ent )ersecutor( caress6

in* a ne$ mistress on his ed of )ur)+e( is %er'

ha))'" Sa'( if 'ou )+ease( that the )ersecuted sa*e

is )refera+e to the )ersecutin* )roi*ate sa' that

'ou admire the one and detest the other ut con6

fess that the sa*e in chains is scarce+' +ess than mad

$ith ra*e and )ain if he does not himse+f admit

that he is so( he com)+ete+' decei%es 'ou he is a

char+atan"

Dictionar'" >@9



OOD""

Of ood and E%i+( Ph'sica+ and 0ora+"

WE &ERE treat of a uestion of the *reatest diM6

cu+t' and im)ortance" It re+ates to the $ho+e of

human +ife" It $ou+d e of much *reater conse6

uence to Hnd a remed' for our e%i+s ut no rem6

ed' is to e disco%ered( and $e are reduced to the

sad necessit' of tracin* out their ori*in" With re6

s)ect to this ori*in( men ha%e dis)uted e%er since the

da's of 4oroaster( and in a++ )roai+it' the' dis6

)uted on the same suGect +on* efore him" It $as

to e=)+ain the mi=ture of *ood and e%i+ that the'

concei%ed the idea of t$o )rinci)+es Oroma1es( the

author of +i*ht( and Arimanes( the author of dar<6

ness the o= of Pandora the t$o %esse+s of .u)i6

ter the a))+e eaten ' E%e and a %ariet' of other

s'stems" The Hrst of dia+ecticians( a+thou*h not the

Hrst of )hi+oso)hers( the i++ustrious !a'+e( has c+ear+'

sho$n ho$ diMcu+t it is for Christians $ho admit

one on+' od( )erfect+' *ood and Gust( to re)+' to

the oGections of the 0anichaeans $ho ac<no$+ed*e

t$o ods one *ood( and the other e%i+"



The foundation of the s'stem of the 0anichseans(

$ith a++ its antiuit'( $as not on that account more

reasona+e" Lemmas( susce)ti+e of the most c+ear

and ri*id *eometrica+ demonstrations( shou+d a+one

ha%e induced an' men to the ado)tion of such a the6

orem as the fo++o$in*- #There are t$o necessar'

ein*s( oth su)reme( oth inHnite( oth eua++'

>;: Phi+oso)hica+

)o$erfu+( oth in conict $ith each other( 'et( Hna++'(

a*reein* to )our out u)on this +itt+e )+anet one(

a++ the treasures of his eneHcence( and the other a++

the stores of his ma+ice"# It is in %ain that the ad6

%ocates of this h')othesis attem)t to e=)+ain ' it

the cause of *ood and e%i+ - e%en the fa+e of Pro6

metheus e=)+ains it etter" E%er' h')othesis $hich

on+' ser%es to assi*n a reason for certain thin*s(

$ithout ein*( in addition to that recommendation(

esta+ished u)on indis)uta+e )rinci)+es( ou*ht in%a6

ria+' to e reGected"

The Christian doctors inde)endent+' of re%e+a6

tion( $hich ma<es e%er'thin* credi+e e=)+ain the



ori*in of *ood and e%i+ no etter than the )artner6

*ods of 4oroaster"

When the' sa' od is a tender father( od is a

Gust <in* $hen the' add the idea of inHnit' to that

of +o%e( that <indness( that Gustice $hich the' o6

ser%e in the est of their o$n s)ecies( the' soon fa++

into the most )a+)a+e and dreadfu+ contradictions"

&o$ cou+d this so%erei*n( $ho )ossessed in inHnite

fu+ness the )rinci)+e or ua+it' of human Gustice(

ho$ cou+d this father( entertainin* an inHnite aBec6

tion for his chi+dren ho$ cou+d this ein*( inHnite+'

)o$erfu+( ha%e formed creatures in &is o$n +i<eness(

to ha%e them immediate+' after$ards tem)ted ' a

ma+i*nant demon( to ma<e them 'ie+d to that tem)6

tation to inict death on those $hom &e had

created immorta+( and to o%er$he+m their )osterit'

$ith ca+amities and crimes We do not here s)ea<

Dictionar'" >;8

of a contradiction sti++ more re%o+tin* to our fee+e

reason" &o$ cou+d" od( $ho ransomed the human

race ' the death of &is on+' Son or rather( ho$



cou+d od( $ho too< u)on &imse+f the nature of

man( and died on the cross to sa%e men from )erdi6

tion( consi*n o%er to eterna+ tortures near+' the $ho+e

of that human race for $hom &e died Certain+'(

$hen $e consider this s'stem mere+' as )hi+oso)hers

$ithout the aid of faith $e must consider it as

aso+ute+' monstrous and aomina+e" It ma<es of

od either )ure and unmi=ed ma+ice( and that ma+ice

inHnite( $hich created thin<in* ein*s( on )ur)ose

to de%ote them to eterna+ miser'( or aso+ute im)o6

tence and imeci+it'( in not ein* a+e to foresee or

to )re%ent the torments of his oBs)rin*"

!ut the eternit' of miser' is not the suGect of

this artic+e( $hich re+ates )ro)er+' on+' to the *ood

and e%i+ of the )resent +ife" None of the doctors of

the numerous churches of Christianit'( a++ of $hich

ad%ocate the doctrine $e are here contestin*( ha%e

een a+e to con%ince a sin*+e sa*e"

We cannot concei%e ho$ !a'+e( $ho mana*ed the

$ea)ons of dia+ectics $ith such admira+e stren*th

and de=terit'( cou+d content himse+f $ith introduc6

in* in a dis)ute a 0anichaean( a Ca+%inist( a 0o+in6

ist( and a Socinian" Wh' did he not introduce( as

s)ea<in*( a reasona+e and sensi+e man Wh' did



not !a'+e s)ea< in his o$n )erson &e $ou+d ha%e

said far etter $hat $e sha++ no$ %enture to sa' our6

se+%es"

>;> Phi+oso)hica+

A father $ho <i++s his chi+dren is a monster a

<in* $ho conducts his suGects into a snare( in order

to otain a )rete=t for de+i%erin* them u) to )unish6

ment and torture( is an e=ecra+e t'rant" If 'ou

concei%e od to )ossess the same <indness $hich

'ou reuire in a father( the same Gustice that 'ou re6

uire in a <in*( no )ossi+e resource e=ists ' $hich(

if $e ma' use the e=)ression( od can e e=cu+6

)ated and ' a++o$in* &im to )ossess inHnite $is6

dom and inHnite *oodness 'ou( in fact( render &im

inHnite+' odious 'ou e=cite a $ish that &e had no

e=istence 'ou furnish arms to the atheist( $ho $i++

e%er e GustiHed in trium)hant+' remar<in* to 'ou -

!etter ' far is it to den' a od a+to*ether( than

im)ute to &im such conduct as 'ou $ou+d )unish(

to the e=tremit' of the +a$( in men"

We e*in then $ith oser%in*( that it is unecom6



in* in us to ascrie to od human attriutes" It is

not for us to ma<e od after our o$n +i<eness" &u6

man Gustice( human <indness( and human $isdom

can ne%er e a))+ied or made suita+e to &im" We

ma' e=tend these attriutes in our ima*ination as

far as $e are a+e( to inHnit' the' $i++ ne%er e

other than human ua+ities $ith oundaries )er)et6

ua++' or indeHnite+' remo%ed it $ou+d e eua++'

rationa+ to attriute to &im inHnite so+idit'( inHnite

motion( inHnite roundness( or inHnite di%isii+it'"

These attriutes can ne%er e &is"

Phi+oso)h' informs us that this uni%erse must

ha%e een arran*ed ' a !ein* incom)rehensi+e(

Dictionar'" >;

eterna+( and e=istin* ' &is o$n nature ut( once

a*ain( $e must oser%e that )hi+oso)h' *i%es us no

information on the suGect of the attriutes of that

nature" We <no$ $hat &e is not( and not $hat

&e is"

With res)ect to od( there is neither *ood nor



e%i+( )h'sica++' or mora++'" What is )h'sica+ or

natura+ e%i+ Of a++ e%i+s( the *reatest( undouted+'(

is death" Let us for a moment consider $hether man

cou+d ha%e een immorta+"

In order that a od' +i<e ours shou+d ha%e een

indisso+u+e( im)erisha+e( it $ou+d ha%e een neces6

sar' that it shou+d not e com)osed of )arts that it

shou+d not e orn that it shou+d ha%e neither nour6

ishment nor *ro$th that it shou+d e=)erience no

chan*e" Let an' one e=amine each of these )oints

and +et e%er' reader e=tend their numer accordin*

to his o$n su**estions( and it $i++ e seen that the

)ro)osition of an immorta+ man is a contradiction"

If our or*ani1ed od' $ere immorta+( that of

mere anima+s $ou+d e so +i<e$ise ut it is e%ident

that( in the course of a %er' short time( the $ho+e

*+oe $ou+d( in this case( e incom)etent to su))+'

nourishment to those anima+s those immorta+ e6

in*s $hich e=ist on+' in conseuence of reno%ation

' food( $ou+d then )erish for $ant of the means

of such reno%ation" A++ this in%o+%es contradiction"

We mi*ht ma<e %arious other oser%ations on the

suGect( ut e%er' reader $ho deser%es the name of

a )hi+oso)her $i++ )ercei%e that death $as necessar'



>;Q Phi+oso)hica+

to e%er'thin* that is orn that death can neither e

an error on the )art of od( nor an e%i+( an inGustice(

nor a chastisement to man"

0an( orn to die( can no more e e=em)t from

)ain than from death" To )re%ent an or*ani1ed su6

stance endo$ed $ith fee+in* from e%er e=)eriencin*

)ain( it $ou+d e necessar' that a++ the +a$s of

nature shou+d e chan*ed that matter shou+d no

+on*er e di%isi+e that it shou+d neither ha%e

$ei*ht( action( nor force that a roc< mi*ht fa++ on

an anima+ $ithout crushin* it and that $ater shou+d

ha%e no )o$er to suBocate( or Hre to urn it" 0an(

im)assi%e( then( is as much a contradiction as man

immorta+"

This fee+in* of )ain $as indis)ensa+e to stimu6

+ate us to se+f6)reser%ation( and to im)art to us such

)+easures as are consistent $ith those *enera+ +a$s

' $hich the $ho+e s'stem of nature is ound and

re*u+ated"



If $e ne%er e=)erienced )ain( $e shou+d e e%er'

moment inGurin* ourse+%es $ithout )ercei%in* it"

Without the e=citement of uneasiness( $ithout some

sensation of )ain( $e shou+d )erform no function

of +ife shou+d ne%er communicate it( and shou+d

e destitute of a++ the )+easures of it" &un*er is

the commencement of )ain $hich com)e+s us to ta<e

our reuired nourishment" Ennui is a )ain $hich

stimu+ates to e=ercise and occu)ation" Lo%e itse+f

is a necessit' $hich ecomes )ainfu+ unti+ it is met

$ith corres)ondin* attachment" In a $ord( e%er'

Dictionar'" >;@

desire is a $ant( a necessit'( a e*innin* of )ain"

Pain( therefore( is the mains)rin* of a++ the actions

of animated ein*s" E%er' anima+ )ossessed of

fee+in* must e +ia+e to )ain( if matter is di%isi+e

and )ain $as as necessar' as death" It is not( there6

fore( an error of Pro%idence( nor a resu+t of ma+i*6

nit'( nor a creature of ima*ination" &ad $e seen

on+' rutes suBer( $e shou+d( for that( ne%er ha%e

accused nature of harshness or crue+t' had $e(



$hi+e ourse+%es $ere im)assi%e( $itnessed the +in6

*erin* and torturin* death of a do%e( $hen a <ite

sei1ed u)on it $ith his murderous ta+ons( and +ei6

sure+' de%ourin* its +eedin* +ims( doin* in that no

more than $e do ourse+%es( $e shou+d not e=)ress

the s+i*htest murmur of dissatisfaction" !ut $hat

c+aim ha%e $e for an e=em)tion of our o$n odies

from such dismemerment and torture e'ond $hat

mi*ht e ur*ed in eha+f of rutes Is it that $e

)ossess an inte++ect su)erior to theirs !ut $hat

has inte++ect to do $ith the di%isii+it' of matter

Can a fe$ ideas more or +ess in a rain )re%ent Hre

from urnin*( or a roc< from crushin* us

0ora+ e%i+( u)on $hich so man' %o+umes ha%e

een $ritten is( in fact( nothin* ut natura+ e%i+"

This mora+ e%i+ is a sensation of )ain occasioned '

one or*ani1ed ein* to another" Ra)ine( outra*e(

etc"( are e%i+ on+' ecause the' )roduce e%i+" !ut as

$e certain+' are una+e to do an' e%i+( or occasion

an' )ain to od( it is e%ident ' the +i*ht of reason

for faith is a+to*ether a diBerent )rinci)+e that in

>;; Phi+oso)hica+



re+ation to the Su)reme !ein* and as aBectin* &im(

mora+ e%i+ can ha%e no e=istence"

As the *reatest of natura+ e%i+s is death( the *reat6

est of mora+ e%i+s is( unuestiona+'( $ar" A++ crimes

fo++o$ in its train fa+se and ca+umnious dec+ara6

tions( )erHdious %io+ation of the treaties( )i++a*e( de6

%astation( )ain( and death under e%er' hideous and

a))a++in* form"

A++ this is )h'sica+ e%i+ in re+ation to man( ut

can no more e considered mora+ e%i+ in re+ation to

od than the ra*e of do*s $orr'in* and destro'in*

one another" It is a mere common)+ace idea( and as

fa+se as it is fee+e( that men are the on+' s)ecies that

s+au*hter and destro' one another" Wo+%es( do*s(

cats( coc<s( uai+s( a++ $ar $ith their res)ecti%e s)e6

cies - house s)iders de%our one another the ma+e

uni%ersa++' H*hts for the fema+e" This $arfare is

the resu+t of the +a$s of nature( of )rinci)+es in their

%er' +ood and essence a++ is connected a++ is nec6

essar'"

Nature has *ranted man aout t$o and t$ent'

'ears of +ife( one $ith another that is( of a thou6



sand chi+dren orn in the same month( some of $hom

ha%e died in their infanc'( and the rest +i%ed re6

s)ecti%e+' to the a*e of thirt'( fort'( Hft'( and e%en

ei*ht' 'ears( or )erha)s e'ond( the a%era*e ca+cu6

+ation $i++ a++o$ to each the ao%e6mentioned num6

er of t$ent'6t$o 'ears"

&o$ can it aBect the Deit'( $hether a man die

in att+e or of a fe%er War destro's fe$er human

Dictionar'" >;?

ein*s than sma++)o=" The scour*e of $ar is tran6

sient( that of sma++)o= rei*ns $ith )aramount and

)ermanent fata+it' throu*hout the earth( fo++o$ed

' a numerous train of others and ta<in* into con6

sideration the comined( and near+' re*u+ar o)era6

tion of the %arious causes $hich s$ee) man<ind

from the sta*e of +ife( the a++o$ance of t$o and

t$ent' 'ears for e%er' indi%idua+ $i++ e found in

*enera+ to e to+era+' correct"

0an( 'ou sa'( oBends od ' <i++in* his nei*h6

or if this e the case( the directors of nations must



indeed e tremendous crimina+s for( $hi+e e%en in6

%o<in* od to their assistance( the' ur*e on to

s+au*hter immense mu+titudes of their fe++o$6ein*s(

for contem)ti+e interests $hich it $ou+d sho$ in6

Hnite+' more )o+ic'( as $e++ as humanit'( to aandon"

!ut ho$ to reason mere+' as )hi+oso)hers ho$ do

the' oBend od .ust as much as ti*ers and croco6

di+es oBend him" It is( sure+'( not od $hom the'

harass and torment( ut their nei*hor" It is on+'

a*ainst man that man can e *ui+t'" A hi*h$a'

roer can commit no roer' on od" What can

it si*nif' to the eterna+ Deit'( $hether a fe$ )ieces

of 'e++o$ meta+ are in the hands of .erome( or of

!ona%enture We ha%e necessar' desires( necessar'

)assions( and necessar' +a$s for the restraint of

oth and $hi+e on this our ant6hi++( durin* the +itt+e

da' of our e=istence( $e are en*a*ed in ea*er and

destructi%e contest aout a stra$( the uni%erse mo%es

on in its maGestic course( directed ' eterna+ and

>;2 Phi+oso)hica+

una+tera+e +a$s( $hich com)rehend in their o)era6

tion the atom that $e ca++ the earth"



OSPEL"

IT is a matter of hi*h im)ortance to ascertain

$hich are the Hrst *os)e+s" It is a decided truth(

$hate%er Aadie ma' assert to the contrar'( that

none of the Hrst fathers of the Church( do$n to Ire6

naeus inc+usi%e+'( ha%e uoted an' )assa*e from the

four *os)e+s $ith $hich $e are acuainted" And

to this it ma' e added( that the A+o*i( the Theodo6

sians( constant+' reGected the *os)e+ of St" .ohn(

and a+$a's s)o<e of it $ith contem)t as $e are

informed ' St" E)i)hanius in his thirt'6fourth hom6

i+'" Our enemies further oser%e that the most

ancient fathers do not mere+' forear to uote an'6

thin* from our *os)e+s( ut re+ate man' )assa*es or

e%ents $hich are to e found on+' in the a)ocr')ha+

*os)e+s reGected ' the canon"

St" C+ement( for e=am)+e( re+ates that our Lord(

ha%in* een uestioned concernin* the time $hen

&is <in*dom $ou+d come( ans$ered( #That $i++ e

$hen $hat is $ithout sha++ resem+e that $ithin(

and $hen there sha++ e neither ma+e nor fema+e"#

!ut $e must admit that this )assa*e does not occur

in either of our *os)e+s" There are innumera+e



other instances to )ro%e this truth $hich ma' e

seen in the #Critica+ E=amination# of 0" Freret(

)er)etua+ secretar' of the Academ' of !e++es Let6

tres at Paris"

Dictionar'" >;9

The +earned Faricius too< the )ains to co++ect

the ancient *os)e+s $hich time has s)ared that of

.ames a))ears to e the Hrst and it is certain that it

sti++ )ossesses considera+e authorit' $ith some of

the Orienta+ churches" It is ca++ed #the Hrst *os)e+"#

There remain the )assion and the resurrection( )re6

tended to ha%e een $ritten ' Nicodemus" This

*os)e+ of Nicodemus is uoted ' St" .ustin and Ter6

tu++ian" It is there $e Hnd the names of our LordJs

accusers Annas( Caia)has( Soumas( Dathan( am6

a+ie+( .udas( Le%i( and Na)tha+i the attention and

)articu+arit' $ith $hich these names are *i%en con6

fer u)on the $or< an a))earance of truth and sin6

cerit'" Our ad%ersaries ha%e inferred that as so

man' fa+se *os)e+s $ere for*ed( $hich at Hrst $ere

reco*ni1ed as true( those $hich constitute at the

)resent da' the foundation of our o$n faith ma'



ha%e een for*ed a+so" The' d$e++ much on the

circumstance of the Hrst heretics suBerin* e%en

death itse+f in defence of these a)ocr')ha+ *os)e+s"

There ha%e e%ident+' een( the' sa'( for*ers( seduc6

ers( and men $ho ha%e een seduced ' them into

error( and died in defence of that error it is( at +east(

therefore( no )roof of the truth of Christianit' that

it has had its mart'rs $ho ha%e died for it"

The' add further( that the mart'rs $ere ne%er

as<ed the uestion( $hether the' e+ie%ed the *os)e+

of .ohn or the *os)e+ of .ames" The Pa*ans cou+d

not )ut a series of interro*atories aout oo<s $ith

$hich the' $ere not at a++ acuainted the ma*is6

iGo Phi+oso)hica+

trates )unished some Christians %er' unGust+'( as

disturers of the )u+ic )eace( ut the' ne%er )ut

)articu+ar uestions to them in re+ation to our four

*os)e+s" These oo<s $ere not <no$n to the Ro6

mans efore the time of Dioc+etian( and e%en to$ards

the c+ose of Dioc+etianJs rei*n( the' had scarce+' o6

tained an' )u+icit'" It $as deemed in a Christian a



crime oth aomina+e and un)ardona+e to sho$ a

*os)e+ to an' enti+e" This is so true( that 'ou can6

not Hnd the $ord #*os)e+# in an' )rofane author

$hate%er"

The ri*id Socinians( inuenced ' the ao%e6

mentioned or other diMcu+ties( do not consider our

four di%ine *os)e+s in an' other +i*ht than as $or<s

of c+andestine introduction( faricated aout a cen6

tur' after the time of .esus Christ( and carefu++'

concea+ed from the enti+es for another centur' e6

'ond that $or<s( as the' e=)ress it( of a coarse

and %u+*ar character( $ritten ' coarse and %u+*ar

men( $ho( for a +on* time conHned their discourses

and a))ea+s to the mere )o)u+ace of their )art'" We

$i++ not here re)eat the +as)hemies uttered ' them"

This sect( a+thou*h considera+' diBused and nu6

merous( is at )resent as much concea+ed as $ere the

Hrst *os)e+s" The diMcu+t' of con%ertin* them is

so much the *reater( in conseuence of their osti6

nate+' refusin* to +isten to an'thin* ut mere rea6

son" The other Christians contend a*ainst them

on+' $ith the $ea)ons of the &o+' Scri)ture - it is

conseuent+' im)ossi+e that( ein* thus a+$a's in



Dictionar'" >?8

hosti+it' $ith res)ect to )rinci)+es( the' shou+d e%er

unite in their conc+usions"

With res)ect to ourse+%es( +et us e%er remain in6

%io+a+' attached to our four *os)e+s( in union $ith

the Infa++i+e church" Let us reGect the H%e *os)e+s

$hich it has reGected +et us not inuire $h' our

Lord .esus Christ )ermitted H%e fa+se *os)e+s( H%e

fa+se histories of his +ife to e $ritten and +et us

sumit to our s)iritua+ )astors and directors( $ho

a+one on earth are en+i*htened ' the &o+' S)irit"

Into $hat a *ross error did Aadie fa++ $hen he

considered as authentic the +etters so ridicu+ous+'

for*ed( from Pi+ate to Tierius( and the )retended

)ro)osa+ of Tierius to )+ace .esus Christ in the

numer of the *ods" If Aadie is a ad critic and

a contem)ti+e reasoner( is the Church on that ac6

count +ess en+i*htened are $e the +ess ound to e6

+ie%e it Sha++ $e at a++ the +ess sumit to it

OVERN0ENT"



SECTION L

T&E )+easure of *o%ernin* must certain+' e

e=uisite( if $e ma' Gud*e from the %ast numers

$ho are ea*er to e concerned in it" We ha%e man'

more oo<s on *o%ernment than there are monarchs

in the $or+d" &ea%en )reser%e me from ma<in* an'

attem)t here to *i%e instruction to <in*s and their

no+e ministers their %a+ets( confessors( or Hnan6

ciers" I understand nothin* aout the matter I

ha%e the )rofoundest res)ect and re%erence for them

>?> Phi+oso)hica+

a++" It e+on*s on+' to 0r" Wi+<es( $ith his En*+ish

a+ance( to $ei*h the merits of those $ho are at the

head of the human race" It $ou+d( esides( e e=6

ceedin*+' stran*e if( $ith three or four thousand

%o+umes on the suGect of *o%ernment( $ith 0achia6

%e++i( and !ossuetJs #Po+ic' of the &o+' Scri)ture(#

$ith the #enera+ Financier(# the #uide to Fi6

nances(# the #0eans of Enrichin* a State(# etc"(

there cou+d )ossi+' e a sin*+e )erson +i%in* $ho

$as not )erfect+' acuainted $ith the duties of



<in*s and the science of *o%ernment"

Professor PuBendorf( or( as )erha)s $e shou+d

rather sa'( !aron PuBendorf( sa's that Kin* Da%id(

ha%in* s$orn ne%er to attem)t the +ife of Shimei(

his )ri%' counse++or( did not %io+ate his oath $hen(

accordin* to the .e$ish histor'( he instructed his

son So+omon to *et him assassinated( #ecause Da%id

had on+' en*a*ed that he himse+f $ou+d not <i++

Shimei"# The aron( $ho reu<es so shar)+' the

menta+ reser%ations of the .esuits( a++o$s Da%id( in

the )resent instance( to entertain one $hich $ou+d

not e )articu+ar+' )a+ata+e to )ri%' counse++ors"

Let us consider the $ords of !ossuet in his

#Po+ic' of the &o+' Scri)ture(# addressed to 0on6

sei*neur the Dau)hin" #Thus $e see ro'a+t' esta6

+ished accordin* to the order of succession in the

house of Da%id and So+omon( and the throne of

Da%id is secured fore%er a+thou*h( ' the $a'(

that same +itt+e Goint6stoo+ ca++ed a Jthrone instead

of ein* secured fore%er( +asted( in fact( on+' a

Dictionar'" >?



%er' short time"# !' %irtue of this +a$( the e+dest

son $as to succeed( to the e=c+usion of his rothers(

and on this account AdomGah( $ho $as the e+dest(

said to !athshea( the mother of So+omon( #Thou

<no$est that the <in*dom $as mine( and a++ Israe+

had reco*ni1ed m' ri*ht ut the Lord hath trans6

ferred the <in*dom to m' rother So+omon"# The

ri*ht of AdoniGah $as incontesta+e" !ossuet e=6

)ress+' admits this at the c+ose of this artic+e" #The

Lord has transferred# is on+' a usua+ )hrase( $hich

means( I ha%e +ost m' )ro)ert' or ri*ht( I ha%e een

de)ri%ed of m' ri*ht" AdoniGah $as the issue of a

+a$fu+ $ife the irth of his 'oun*er rother $as

the fruit of a dou+e crime"

#/n+ess( then(# sa's !ossuet( #somethin* e=tra6

ordinar' occurred( the e+dest $as to succeed"# !ut

the somethin* e=traordinar'( in the )resent instance(

$hich )re%ented it $as( that So+omon( the issue of a

marria*e arisin* out of a dou+e adu+ter' and a mur6

der( )rocured the assassination( at the foot of the

a+tar( of his e+der rother and his +a$fu+ <in*(

$hose ri*hts $ere su))orted ' the hi*h )riest Aia6

thar and the chief commander .oa" After this

$e must ac<no$+ed*e that it is more diMcu+t than



some seem to ima*ine to ta<e +essons on the ri*hts

of )ersons( and on the true s'stem of *o%ernment

from the &o+' Scri)tures( $hich $ere Hrst *i%en

to the .e$s( and after$ards to ourse+%es( for )ur6

)oses of a far hi*her nature"

#The )reser%ation of the )eo)+e is the su)reme

Vo+" 982

>?Q Phi+oso)hica+

+a$"# Such is the fundamenta+ ma=im of nations

ut in a++ ci%i+ $ars the safet' of the )eo)+e is made

to consist in s+au*hterin* a numer of the citi1ens"

In a++ forei*n $ars( the safet' of a )eo)+e consists

in <i++in* their nei*hors( and ta<in* )ossession of

their )ro)ert' It is diMcu+t to )ercei%e in this a

)articu+ar+' sa+utar' #ri*ht of nations(# and a *o%6

ernment eminent+' fa%ora+e to +iert' of thou*ht

and socia+ ha))iness"

There are *eometrica+ H*ures e=ceedin*+' re*u6

+ar and com)+ete in their <ind arithmetic is )erfect

man' trades or manufactures are carried on in a



manner constant+' uniform and e=ce++ent ut $ith

res)ect to the *o%ernment of men( is it )ossi+e for

an' one to e *ood( $hen a++ are founded on )as6

sions in conict $ith each other

No con%ent of mon<s e%er e=isted $ithout dis6

cord it is im)ossi+e( therefore( to e=c+ude it from

<in*doms" E%er' *o%ernment resem+es not mere+'

a monastic institution( ut a )ri%ate househo+d"

There are none e=istin* $ithout uarre+s and

uarre+s et$een one )eo)+e and another( et$een

one )rince and another( ha%e e%er een san*uinar'

those et$een suGects and their so%erei*ns ha%e

een sometimes no +ess destructi%e" &o$ is an in6

di%idua+ to act 0ust he ris< Goinin* in the conict(

or $ithdra$ from the scene of action

SECTION II"

0ore than one )eo)+e are desirous of ne$ consti6

tutions" The En*+ish $ou+d ha%e no oGection to a

Dictionar'" >?@



chan*e of ministers once in e%er' ei*ht hours( ut

the' ha%e no $ish to chan*e the form of their *o%6

ernment"

The modern Romans are )roud of their church of

St" Peter and their ancient ree< statues ut the

)eo)+e $ou+d e *+ad to e etter fed( a+thou*h the'

$ere not uite so rich in enedictions the fathers

of fami+ies $ou+d e content that the Church shou+d

ha%e +ess *o+d( if the *ranaries had more corn

the' re*ret the time $hen the a)ost+es Gourne'ed

on foot( and $hen the citi1ens of Rome tra%e++ed

from one )a+ace to another in +itters"

We are incessant+' reminded of the admira+e re6

)u+ics of reece" There is no uestion that the

ree<s $ou+d )refer the *o%ernment of a Peric+es

and a Demosthenes to that of a )asha ut in their

most )ros)erous and )a+m' times the' $ere a+$a's

com)+ainin* discord and hatred )re%ai+ed et$een

a++ the cities $ithout( and in e%er' se)arate cit'

$ithin" The' *a%e +a$s to the o+d Romans( $ho

efore that time had none ut their o$n $ere so

ad for themse+%es that the' $ere continua++' chan*6

in* them"



What cou+d e said in fa%or of a *o%ernment un6

der $hich the Gust Aristides $as anished( Phocion

)ut to death( Socrates condemned to drin< hem+oc<

after ha%in* een e=)osed to anter and derision on

the sta*e ' Aristo)hanes and under $hich the

Am)h'ctions( $ith contem)ti+e imeci+it'( actua++'

de+i%ered u) reece into the )o$er of Phi+i)( e6

>?; Phi+oso)hica+

cause the Phocians had )+ou*hed u) a He+d $hich

$as )art of the territor' of A)o++o !ut the *o%6

ernment of the nei*horin* monarchies $as $orse"

PuBendorf )romises us a discussion on the est

form of *o%ernment" &e te++s us( #that man' )ro6

nounce in fa%or of monarch'( and others( on the con6

trar'( in%ei*h furious+' a*ainst <in*s and that it

does not fa++ $ithin the +imits of his suGect to e=6

amine in detai+ the reasons of the +atter"# If an'

mischie%ous and ma+icious reader e=)ects to e to+d

here more than he is to+d ' PuBendorf( he $i++ e

much decei%ed"



A S$iss( a &o++ander( a Venetian no+eman( an

En*+ish )eer( a cardina+( and a count of the em)ire(

$ere once dis)utin*( on a Gourne'( aout the nature

of their res)ecti%e *o%ernments( and $hich of them

deser%ed the )reference - no one <ne$ much aout

the matter each remained in his o$n o)inion $ith6

out ha%in* an' %er' distinct idea $hat that o)inion

$as and the' returned $ithout ha%in* come to an'

*enera+ conc+usion e%er' one )raisin* his o$n

countr' from %anit'( and com)+ainin* of it from

fee+in*"

What( then( is the destin' of man<ind Scarce+'

an' *reat nation is *o%erned ' itse+f" !e*in from

the east( and ta<e the circuit of the $or+d" .a)an

c+osed its )orts a*ainst forei*ners from the $e++6

founded a))rehension of a dreadfu+ re%o+ution"

China actua++' e=)erienced such a re%o+ution she

oe's Tartars of a mi=ed race( ha+f 0antchou and

Dictionar'" >??

ha+f &un" India oe's 0o*u+ Tartars" The Ni+e(



the Orontes( reece( and E)irus are sti++ under the

'o<e of the Tur<s" It is not an En*+ish race that

rei*ns in En*+and it is a erman fami+' $hich suc6

ceeded to a Dutch )rince( as the +atter succeeded a

Scotch fami+' $hich had succeeded an An*e%in

fami+'( that had re)+aced a Norman fami+'( $hich

had e=)e++ed a fami+' of usur)in* Sa=ons" S)ain

oe's a French fami+' $hich succeeded to an Aus6

trasian race( that Austrasian race had succeeded

fami+ies that oasted of Visi*oth e=traction these

Visi*oths had een +on* dri%en out ' the Aras(

after ha%in* succeeded to the Romans( $ho had e=6

)e++ed the Cartha*inians" au+ oe's Fran<s( after

ha%in* oe'ed Roman )refects"

The same an<s of the Danue ha%e e+on*ed to

ermans( Romans( Aras( S+a%onians( !u+*arians(

and &uns( to t$ent' diBerent fami+ies( and a+most

a++ forei*ners"

And $hat *reater $onder has Rome had to e=6

hiit than so man' em)erors $ho $ere orn in the

ararous )ro%inces( and so man' )o)es orn in

)ro%inces no +ess ararous Let him *o%ern $ho

can" And $hen an' one has succeeded in his at6

tem)ts to ecome master( he *o%erns as he can"



SECTION III"

In 8?;9( a tra%e++er de+i%ered the fo++o$in* nar6

rati%e - #I sa$( in the course of m' Gourne'( a +ar*e

and )o)u+ous countr'( in $hich a++ oMces and )+aces

>?2 Phi+oso)hica+

$ere )urchasa+e I do not mean c+andestine+'( and

in e%asion of the +a$( ut )u+ic+'( and in conformit'

to it" The ri*ht to Gud*e( in the +ast resort( of the

honor( )ro)ert'( and +ife of the citi1en( $as )ut to

auction in the same manner as the ri*ht and )ro)ert'

in a fe$ acres of +and" Some %er' hi*h commissions

in the arm' are conferred on+' on the hi*hest idder"

The )rinci)a+ m'ster' of their re+i*ion is ce+erated

for the )ett' sum of three sesterces( and if the ce+e6

rator does not otain this fee he remains id+e +i<e a

)orter $ithout em)+o'ment"

#Fortunes in this countr' are not made ' a*ri6

cu+ture( ut are deri%ed from a certain *ame of

chance( in *reat )ractice there( in $hich the )arties



si*n their names( and transfer them from hand to

hand" If the' +ose( the' $ithdra$ into the mud and

mire of their ori*ina+ e=traction if the' $in( the'

share in the administration of )u+ic aBairs the'

marr' their dau*hters to mandarins( and their sons

ecome a s)ecies of mandarins a+so"

#A considera+e numer of the citi1ens ha%e their

$ho+e means of susistence assi*ned u)on a house(

$hich )ossesses in fact nothin*( and a hundred )er6

sons ha%e ou*ht for a hundred thousand cro$ns

each the ri*ht of recei%in* and )a'in* the mone'

due to these citi1ens u)on their assi*nments on this

ima*inar' hote+ ri*hts $hich the' ne%er e=ercise(

as the' in rea+it' <no$ nothin* at a++ of $hat is thus

su))osed to )ass throu*h their hands"

#Sometimes a )ro)osa+ is made and cried aout

Dictionar'" >?9

the streets( that a++ $ho ha%e a +itt+e mone' in their

chest shou+d e=chan*e it for a s+i) of e=uisite+'

manufactured )a)er( $hich $i++ free 'ou from a+t



)ecuniar' care( and ena+e 'ou to )ass throu*h +ife

$ith ease and comfort" On the morro$ an order is

)u+ished( com)e++in* 'ou to chan*e this )a)er for

another( much etter" On the fo++o$in* da' 'ou are

deafened $ith the cr' of a ne$ )a)er( cance++in* the

t$o former ones" 3ou are ruined !ut +on* heads

conso+e 'ou $ith the assurance( that $ithin a fort6

ni*ht the ne$smen $i++ cr' u) some )ro)osa+ more

en*a*in*"

#3ou tra%e+ into one )ro%ince of this em)ire( and

)urchase artic+es of food( drin<( c+othin*( and +od*6

in*" If 'ou *o into another )ro%ince( 'ou are

o+i*ed to )a' duties u)on a++ those commodities( as

if 'ou had Gust arri%ed from Africa" 3ou inuire

the reason of this( ut otain no ans$er or if( from

e=traordinar' )o+iteness( an' one condescends to no6

tice 'our uestions( he re)+ies that 'ou come from a

)ro%ince re)uted forei*n( and that( conseuent+'(

'ou are o+i*ed to )a' for the con%enience of com6

merce" In %ain 'ou )u11+e( 'ourse+f to com)rehend

ho$ the )ro%ince of a <in*dom can e deemed for6

ei*n to that <in*dom"

#On one )articu+ar occasion( $hi+e chan*in*

horses( Hndin* m'se+f some$hat fati*ued( I re6



uested the )ostmaster to fa%or me $ith a *+ass of

$ine" JI cannot +et 'ou ha%e it sa's he Jthe su)er6

intendents of thirst( $ho are %er' considera+e in

>2: Phi+oso)hica+

numer( and a++ of them remar<a+' soer( $ou+d

accuse me of drin<in* to e=cess( $hich $ou+d aso6

+ute+' e m' ruin"J J!ut drin<in* a sin*+e *+ass of

$ine(J I re)+ied( Jto re)air a manJs stren*th( is not

drin<in* to e=cess and $hat diBerence can it ma<e

$hether that sin*+e *+ass of $ine is ta<en ' 'ou or

meJ

J JSir(J re)+ied the man( Jour +a$s re+atin* to

thirst are much more e=ce++ent than 'ou a))ear to

thin< them" After our %inta*e is Hnished( )h'sicians

are a))ointed ' the re*u+ar authorities to %isit our

ce++ars" The' set aside a certain uantit' of $ine(

such as the' Gud*e $e ma' drin< consistent+' $ith

hea+th" At the end of the 'ear the' return and if

the' concei%e that $e ha%e e=ceeded their restriction

' a sin*+e ott+e( the' )unish us $ith %er' se%ere

Hnes and if $e ma<e the s+i*htest resistance( $e are



sent to Tou+on to drin< sa+t6$ater" Were I to *i%e

'ou the $ine 'ou as<( I shou+d most certain+' e

char*ed $ith e=cessi%e drin<in*" 3ou must see to

$hat dan*er I shou+d e e=)osed from the su)er6

%isors of our hea+th"J

#I cou+d not refrain from astonishment at the

e=istence of such a s'stem ut m' astonishment

$as no +ess on meetin* $ith a disconso+ate and mor6

tiHed )+eader( $ho informed me that he had Gust

then +ost( a +itt+e e'ond the nearest ri%u+et( a cause

)recise+' simi+ar to one he had *ained on this side

of it" I understood from him that( in his countr'(

Dictionar'" >28

there are as man' diBerent codes of +a$s as there

are cities" &is con%ersation raised m' curiosit'"

JOur nation(J said he( Jis so com)+ete+' $ise and en6

+i*htened( that nothin* is re*u+ated in it" La$s(

customs( the ri*hts of cor)orate odies( ran<( )re6

cedence( e%er'thin* is aritrar' a++ is +eft to the

)rudence of the nation"J



#I ha))ened to e sti++ in this same countr' $hen

it ecame in%o+%ed in a $ar $ith some of its nei*h6

ors" This $ar $as nic<named JThe Ridicu+e(J e6

cause there $as much to e +ost and nothin* to e

*ained ' it" I $ent u)on m' tra%e+s e+se$here( and

did not return ti++ the conc+usion of )eace( $hen the

nation seemed to e in the most dreadfu+ state of

miser' it had +ost its mone'( its so+diers( its eets(

and its commerce" I said to m'se+f( its +ast hour is

come e%er'thin*( a+as must )ass a$a'" &ere is

a nation aso+ute+' annihi+ated" What a dreadfu+

)it' for a *reat )art of the )eo)+e $ere amia+e(

industrious( and *a'( after ha%in* een former+'

coarse( su)erstitious( and ararous"

#I $as )erfect+' astonished( at the end of on+'

t$o 'ears( to Hnd its ca)ita+ and )rinci)a+ cities more

o)u+ent than e%er" Lu=ur' had increased( and an

air of enGo'ment )re%ai+ed e%er'$here" ( I cou+d not

com)rehend this )rodi*' and it $as on+' after I

had e=amined into the *o%ernment of the nei*hor6

in* nations that I cou+d disco%er the cause of $hat

a))eared so unaccounta+e" I found that the *o%6



>2> Phi+oso)hica+

ernment of a++ the rest $as Gust as ad as that of this

nation( and that this nation $as su)erior to a++ the

rest in industr'"

#A )ro%incia+ of the countr' I am s)ea<in* of

$as once itter+' com)+ainin* to me of a++ the *rie%6

ances under $hich he +aored" &e $as $e++ ac6

uainted $ith histor'" I as<ed him if he thou*ht he

shou+d ha%e een ha))ier had he +i%ed a hundred

'ears efore( $hen his countr' $as in a com)arati%e

state of ararism( and a citi1en $as +ia+e to e

han*ed for ha%in* eaten esh in Lent &e shoo<

his head in the ne*ati%e" Wou+d 'ou )refer the

times of the ci%i+ $ars( $hich e*an at the death of

Francis II" or the times of the defeats of St" 5uen6

tin and Pa%ia or the +on* disorders attendin* the

$ars a*ainst the En*+ish or the feuda+ anarch' or

the horrors of the second race of <in*s( or the ar6

arit' of the Hrst At e%er' successi%e uestion( he

a))eared to shudder more %io+ent+'" The *o%ern6

ment of the Romans seemed to him the most into+6

era+e of a++" JNothin* can e $orse he said( Jthan

to e under forei*n masters"J At +ast $e came to the

Druids" JAh J he e=c+aimed( JI $as uite mista<en -



it is sti++ $orse to e *o%erned ' san*uinar' )riests"J

&e admitted( at +ast( a+thou*h $ith sore re+uctance(

that the time he +i%ed in $as( a++ thin*s considered(

the +east into+era+e and hatefu+"#

SECTION IV"

An ea*+e *o%erned the irds of the $ho+e countr'

of Ornithia" &e had no other ri*ht( it must e a+6

Dictionar'" >2

+o$ed( than $hat he deri%ed from his ea< and

c+a$s ho$e%er( after )ro%idin* +iera++' for his

o$n re)asts and )+easures( he *o%erned as $e++ as

an' other ird of )re'"

In his o+d a*e he $as in%aded ' a oc< of hun6

*r' %u+tures( $ho rushed from the de)ths of the

North to scatter fear and deso+ation throu*h his

)ro%inces" There a))eared( Gust aout this time( a

certain o$+( $ho $as orn in one of the most scru'

thic<ets of the em)ire( and $ho had +on* een <no$n

under the name of #+uci6fu*a=(# or +i*ht6hater" &e



)ossessed much cunnin*( and associated on+' $ith

ats and( $hi+e the %u+tures $ere en*a*ed in con6

ict $ith the ea*+e( our )o+itic o$+ and his )art' en6

tered $ith *reat adroitness( in the character of )aciH6

cators( on that de)artment of the air $hich $as dis6

)uted ' the comatants"

The ea*+e and %u+tures( after a $ar of +on* dura6

tion( at +ast actua++' referred the cause of contention

to the o$+( $ho( $ith his so+emn and im)osin* )h'si6

o*nom'( $as $e++ formed to decei%e them oth"

&e )ersuaded the ea*+es and %u+tures to suBer

their c+a$s to e a +itt+e )ared( and Gust the )oints of

their ea<s to e cut oB( in order to rin* aout )er6

fect )eace and reconci+iation" !efore this time( the

o$+ had a+$a's said to the irds( #Oe' the ea*+e#

after$ards( in conseuence of the in%asion( he had

said to them( #Oe' the %u+tures"# &e no$( ho$6

e%er( soon ca++ed out to them( #Oe' me on+'"# The

)oor irds did not <no$ to $hom to +isten- the'

>2Q Phi+oso)hica+



$ere )+uc<ed ' the ea*+e( the %u+tures( and the o$+

and ats" #5ui haet aures( audiat# #&e that

hath ears to hear( +et him hear"#

SECTION %"

#I ha%e in m' )ossession a *reat numer of cata6

)u+tse and a+istse of the ancient Romans( $hich are

certain+' rather $orm6eaten( ut $ou+d sti++ do %er'

$e++ as s)ecimens" I ha%e man' $ater6c+oc<s( ut

ha+f of them )roa+' out of re)air and ro<en( some

se)u+chra+ +am)s( and an o+d co))er mode+ of a

uinuereme" I ha%e a+so to*as( )rete=tas( and +ati6

c+a%es in +ead and m' )redecessors esta+ished a

societ' of tai+ors $ho( after ins)ectin* ancient

monuments( can ma<e u) roes )rett' a$<$ard+'"

For these reasons thereunto mo%in* us( after hear6

in* the re)ort of our chief antiuar'( $e do here'

a))oint and ordain( that a++ the said %enera+e usa*es

shou+d e oser%ed and <e)t u) fore%er and e%er'

)erson( throu*h the $ho+e e=tent of our dominions(

sha++ dress and thin< )recise+' as men dressed and

thou*ht in the time of Cnidus RuH++us( )ro)rietor of

the )ro%ince de%o+%ed to us ' ri*ht(# etc"

It is re)resented to an oMcer e+on*in* to the



de)artment $hence this edict issued( that a++ the en6

*ines enumerated in it are ecome use+ess that the

understandin*s and the in%entions of man<ind are

e%er' da' ma<in* ne$ ad%ances to$ards )erfection

and that it $ou+d e more Gudicious to *uide and

*o%ern men ' the reins in )resent use( than ' those

Dictionar'" >2@

' $hich the' $ere former+' suGected that no )er6

son cou+d e found to *o on oard the uinuereme

of his most serene hi*hness that his tai+ors mi*ht

ma<e as man' +atic+a%es as the' )+eased( and that not

a sou+ $ou+d )urchase one of them and that it

$ou+d e $orth' of his $isdom to condescend( in

some sma++ measure( to the manner of thin<in* that

no$ )re%ai+ed amon* the etter sort of )eo)+e in his

o$n dominions"

The oMcer ao%e mentioned )romised to com6

municate this re)resentation to a c+er<( $ho )rom6

ised to s)ea< aout it to the referendar'( $ho )rom6

ised to mention it to his most serene hi*hness $hen6

e%er an o))ortunit' shou+d oBer"



SECTION VI"

Picture of the En*+ish o%ernment"

The esta+ishment of a *o%ernment is a matter of

curious and interestin* in%esti*ation" I sha++ not

s)ea<( in this )+ace( of the *reat Tamer+ane( or Tim6

er+in*( ecause I am not )recise+' acuainted $ith

the m'ster' of the reat 0o*u+Js *o%ernment" !ut

$e can see our $a' some$hat more c+ear+' into the

administration of aBairs in En*+and and I had

rather e=amine that than the administration of In6

dia as En*+and( $e are informed( is inhaited '

free men and not ' s+a%es and in India( accordin*

to the accounts $e ha%e of it( there are man' s+a%es

and ut fe$ free men"

Let us( in the Hrst )+ace( %ie$ a Norman astard

>2; Phi+oso)hica+

seatin* himse+f u)on the throne of En*+and( +ie

had aout as much ri*ht to it as St" Louis had( at a



+ater )eriod( to rand Cairo" !ut St" Louis had the

misfortune not to e*in $ith otainin* a Gudicia+ de6

cision in fa%or of his ri*ht to E*')t from the court

of Rome and Wi++iam the !astard fai+ed not to ren6

der his cause +e*itimate and sacred( ' otainin* in

conHrmation of the ri*htfu+ness of his c+aim( a de6

cree of Po)e A+e=ander II" issued $ithout the o))o6

site )art' ha%in* otained a hearin*( and sim)+' in

%irtue of the $ords( #Whatsoe%er thou sha+t ind on

earth( sha++ e ound in hea%en"# &is com)etitor(

&aro+d( a )erfect+' +e*itimate monarch( ein* thus

ound ' a decree of hea%en( Wi++iam united to this

%irtue of the ho+' see another of far more )o$erfu+

eMcac' sti++( $hich $as the %ictor' of &astin*s" &e

rei*ned( therefore( ' the ri*ht of the stron*est( Gust

as Pe)in and C+o%is had rei*ned in France the

oths and Lomards in Ita+' the Visi*oths( and

after$ards the Aras in S)ain the Vanda+s in

Africa( and a++ the <in*s of the $or+d in succession"

It must e ne%erthe+ess admitted( that our !as6

tard )ossessed as Gust a tit+e as the Sa=ons and

the Danes( $hose tit+e( a*ain( $as uite as *ood as

that of the Romans" And the tit+e of a++ these heroes

in succession $as )recise+' that of #roers on the

hi*h$a'(# or( if 'ou +i<e it etter( that of fo=es and



)o+e6cats $hen the' commit their de)redations on

the farm6'ard"

A++ these *reat men $ere so com)+ete+' hi*h$a'

Dictionar'" >2?

roers( that from the time of Romu+us do$n to the

uccaneers( the on+' uestion and concern $ere

aout the #s)o+ia o)ima# the )i++a*e and )+under(

the co$s and o=en carried oB ' the hand of %io6

+ence" 0ercur'( in the fa+e( stea+s the co$s of

A)o++o and in the O+d Testament( Isaiah assi*ns

the name of roer to the son $hom his $ife $as

to rin* into the $or+d( and $ho $as to e an im6

)ortant and sacred t')e" That name $as 0aher6

sha+a+hasha1( #di%ide s)eedi+' the soi+"# We ha%e

a+read' oser%ed( that the names of so+dier and ro6

er $ere often s'non'mous"

Thus then did Wi++iam soon ecome <in* ' di6

%ine ri*ht" Wi++iam Rufus( $ho usur)ed the cro$n

o%er his e+der rother( $as a+so <in* ' di%ine ri*ht(

$ithout an' diMcu+t' and the same ri*ht attached



after him to &enr'( the third usur)er"

The Norman arons $ho had Goined at their o$n

e=)ense in the in%asion of En*+and( $ere desirous

of com)ensation" It $as necessar' to *rant it( and

for this )ur)ose to ma<e them *reat %assa+s( and

*reat oMcers of the cro$n" The' ecame )ossessed

of the Hnest estates" It is e%ident that Wi++iam

$ou+d rather( had he dared( ha%e <e)t a++ to him6

se+f( and made a++ these +ords his *uards and +ac<6

e's" !ut this $ou+d ha%e een too dan*erous an

attem)t" &e $as o+i*ed( therefore( to di%ide and

distriute"

With res)ect to the An*+o6Sa=on +ords( there $as

no %er' eas' $a' of <i++in*( or e%en ma<in* s+a%es of

>22 Phi+oso)hica+

the $ho+e of them" The' $ere )ermitted in their

o$n districts( to enGo' the ran< and denomination of

+ords of the manor s6ei*nieurs chate+ans" The'

he+d of the *reat Norman %assa+s( $ho he+d of Wi++6

iam"



!' this s'stem e%er'thin* $as <e)t in eui+irium

unti+ the rea<in* out of the Hrst uarre+" And $hat

ecame of the rest of the nation The same that

had ecome of near+' a++ the )o)u+ation of Euro)e"

The' ecame serfs or %i++eins"

At +en*th( after the fren1' of the Crusades( the

ruined )rinces se++ +iert' to the serfs of the *+ee(

$ho had otained mone' ' +aor and commerce"

Cities are made free( the commons are *ranted cer6

tain )ri%i+e*es and the ri*hts of men re%i%e e%en

out of anarch' itse+f"

The arons $ere e%er'$here in contention $ith

their <in*( and $ith one another" The contention

ecame e%er'$here a )ett' intestine $ar( made u)

out of numer+ess ci%i+ $ars" From this aomi6

na+e and *+oom' chaos a))eared a fee+e *+eam(

$hich en+i*htened the commons( and considera+'

im)ro%ed their situation"

The <in*s of En*+and( ein* themse+%es *reat

%assa+s of France for Normand'( and after$ards for

uienne and other )ro%inces( easi+' ado)ted the

usa*es of the <in*s from $hom the' he+d" The



states of the rea+m $ere +on* made u)( as in France(

of arons and isho)s"

The En*+ish court of chancer' $as an imitation

Dictionar'" >29

of the counci+ of state( of $hich the chance++or of

France $as )resident" The court of <in*Js ench

$as formed on the mode+ of the )ar+iament insti6

tuted ' Phi+i) +e !e+" The common )+eas $ere +i<e

the Gurisdiction of the chate+at" The court of e=6

cheuer resem+ed that of the su)erintendents of the

Hnances *enerau= des Hnances $hich ecame( in

France( the court of aids"

The ma=im that the <in*Js domain is ina+iena+e

is e%ident+' ta<en from the s'stem of French *o%6

ernment"

The ri*ht of the <in* of En*+and to ca++ on his(

suGects to )a' his ransom( shou+d he ecome a )ris6

oner of $ar that of reuirin* a susid' $hen he

married his e+dest dau*hter( and $hen he conferred



the honor of <ni*hthood on his son a++ these cir6

cumstances ca++ to reco++ection the ancient usa*es of

a <in*dom of $hich Wi++iam $as the chief %assa+"

Scarce+' had Phi+i) +e !e+ summoned the com6

mons to the states6*enera+( efore Ed$ard( <in* of

En*+and( ado)ted the +i<e measure( in order to a+6

ance the *reat )o$er of the arons" For it $as

under this monarchJs rei*n that the commons $ere

Hrst c+ear+' and distinct+' summoned to )ar+iament"

We )ercei%e( then( that u) to this e)och in the

fourteenth centur'( the En*+ish *o%ernment fo+6

+o$ed re*u+ar+' in the ste)s of France" The t$o

churches are entire+' a+i<e the same suGection to

the court of Rome the same e=actions $hich are

a+$a's com)+ained of( ut( in the end( a+$a's )aid to

Vo+" 9 89

>9: Phi+oso)hica+

that ra)acious court the same dissensions( some6

$hat more or +ess %io+ent the same e=communica6



tions the same donations to mon<s the same chaos

the same mi=ture of ho+' ra)ine( su)erstition( and

ararism"

As France and En*+and( then( $ere for so +on* a

)eriod *o%erned ' the same )rinci)+es( or rather

$ithout an' )rinci)+e at a++( and mere+' ' usa*es of

a )erfect+' simi+ar character( ho$ is it that( at +en*th(

the t$o *o%ernments ha%e ecome as diBerent as

those of 0orocco and Venice

It is( )erha)s( in the Hrst )+ace to e ascried to

the circumstance of En*+and( or rather reat !rit6

ain( ein* an is+and( in conseuence of $hich the

<in* has een under no necessit' of constant+' <ee)6

in* u) a considera+e standin* arm' $hich mi*ht

more freuent+' e em)+o'ed a*ainst the nation it6

se+f than a*ainst forei*ners"

It ma' e further oser%ed( that the En*+ish a)6

)ear to ha%e in the structure of their minds some6

thin* more Hrm( more reecti%e( more )erse%erin*(

and( )erha)s( more ostinate( than some other na6

tions"

To this +atter circumstance it ma' e )roa+' at6



triuted( that( after incessant+' com)+ainin* of the

court of Rome( the' at +en*th com)+ete+' shoo< oB

its dis*racefu+ 'o<e $hi+e a )eo)+e of more +i*ht

and %o+ati+e character has continued to $ear it(

aBectin* at the same time to +au*h and dance in its

chains"

Dictionar'" >98

The insu+ar situation of the En*+ish( ' inducin*

the necessit' of ur*in* to the )articu+ar )ursuit and

)ractice of na%i*ation( has )roa+' contriuted to

the resu+t $e are here considerin*( ' *i%in* to the

nati%es a certain sternness and ru**edness of man6

ners"

These stern and ru**ed manners( $hich ha%e

made their is+and the theatre of man' a +ood' tra*6

ed'( ha%e a+so contriuted( in a++ )roai+it'( to in6

s)ire a *enerous fran<ness"

It is in conseuence of this comination of o))o6

site ua+ities that so much ro'a+ +ood has een shed

in the He+d( and on the scaBo+d( and 'et )oison( in



a++ their +on* and %io+ent domestic contentions( has

ne%er een resorted to $hereas( in other countries(

under )riest+' domination )oison has een the )re6

%ai+in* $ea)on of destruction"

The +o%e of +iert' a))ears to ha%e ad%anced( and

to ha%e characteri1ed the En*+ish( in )ro)ortion as

the' ha%e ad%anced in <no$+ed*e and in $ea+th" A++

the citi1ens of a state cannot e eua++' )o$erfu+(

ut the' ma' e eua++' free" And this hi*h )oint

of distinction and enGo'ment the En*+ish( ' their

Hrmness and intre)idit'( ha%e at +en*th attained"

To e free is to e de)endent on+' on the +a$s"

The En*+ish( therefore( ha%e e%er +o%ed the +a$s( as

fathers +o%e their chi+dren( ecause the' are( or at

+east thin< themse+%es( the framers of them"

A *o%ernment +i<e this cou+d e esta+ished on+'

at a +ate )eriod ecause it $as necessar' +on* to

>(9> Phi+oso)hica+

stru**+e $ith )o$ers $hich commanded res)ect( or



at +east( im)ressed a$e the )o$er of the )o)e( the

most terri+e of a++( as it $as ui+t on )reGudice and

i*norance the ro'a+ )o$er e%er tendin* to urst

its )ro)er oundar'( and $hich it $as reuisite(

ho$e%er diMcu+t( to restrain $ithin it the )o$er of

the arons( $hich $as( in fact( an anarch' the

)o$er of the isho)s( $ho( a+$a's mi=in* the sacred

$ith the )rofane( +eft no means unattem)ted to )re6

%ai+ o%er oth arons and <in*s"

The house of commons *radua++' ecame the im6

)re*na+e mo+e( $hich successfu++' re)e++ed those

serious and formida+e torrents"

The house of commons is( in rea+it'( the nation

for the <in*( $ho is the head( acts on+' for himse+f(

and $hat is ca++ed his )rero*ati%e" The )eers are a

)ar+iament on+' for themse+%es and the isho)s

on+' for themse+%es( in the same manner"

!ut the house of commons is for the )eo)+e( as

e%er' memer of it is de)uted ' the )eo)+e" The

)eo)+e are to the <in* in the )ro)ortion of aout

ei*ht mi++ions to unit'" To the )eers and isho)s

the' are as ei*ht mi++ions to( at most( t$o hundred"

And these ei*ht mi++ion free citi1ens are re)resented



' the +o$er house"

With res)ect to this esta+ishment or constitution

" in com)arison $ith $hich the re)u+ic of P+ato is

mere+' a ridicu+ous re%erie( and $hich mi*ht e

thou*ht to ha%e een in%ented ' Loc<e( or Ne$6

ton( or &a++e'( or Archimedes it s)ran*( in fact(

Dictionar'" >9

out of auses( of a most dreadfu+ descri)tion( and

such as are ca+cu+ated to ma<e human nature shud6

der" The ine%ita+e friction of this %ast machine

near+' )ro%ed its destruction in the da's of Fairfa=

and Crom$e++" Sense+ess fanaticism ro<e into this

no+e ediHce( +i<e a de%ourin* Hre that consumes a

eautifu+ ui+din* formed on+' of $ood"

In the time of Wi++iam the Third it $as reui+t of

stone" Phi+oso)h' destro'ed fanaticism( $hich con6

%u+ses to their centres states e%en the most Hrm and

)o$erfu+" We cannot easi+' he+) e+ie%in* that a

constitution $hich has re*u+ated the ri*hts of <in*(

+ords( and )eo)+e( and in $hich e%er' indi%idua+ Hnds



securit'( $i++ endure as +on* as human institutions

and concerns sha++ ha%e a ein*"

We cannot ut e+ie%e( a+so( that a++ states not es6

ta+ished u)on simi+ar )rinci)+es( $i++ e=)erience

re%o+utions"

The En*+ish constitution has( in fact( arri%ed at

that )oint of e=ce++ence( in conseuence of $hich a++

men are restored to those natura+ ri*hts( $hich( in

near+' a++ monarchies( the' are de)ri%ed of" These

ri*hts are( entire +iert' of )erson and )ro)ert'

freedom of the )ress the ri*ht of ein* tried in a++

crimina+ cases ' a Gur' of inde)endent men the

ri*ht of ein* tried on+' accordin* to the strict +etter

of the +a$ and the ri*ht of e%er' man to )rofess(

unmo+ested( $hat re+i*ion he chooses( $hi+e he re6

nounces oMces( $hich the memers of the An*+ican

or esta+ished church a+one can ho+d" These are de6

>9Q Phi+oso)hica+

nominated )ri%i+e*es" And( in truth( in%a+ua+e

)ri%i+e*es the' are in com)arison $ith the usa*es of



most other nations of the $or+d To e secure on

+'in* do$n that 'ou sha++ rise in )ossession of the

same )ro)ert' $ith $hich 'ou retired to rest that

'ou sha++ not e torn from the arms of 'our $ife(

and from 'our chi+dren( in the dead of ni*ht( to e

thro$n into a dun*eon( or uried in e=i+e in a desert

that( $hen risin* from the ed of s+ee)( 'ou $i++

ha%e the )o$er of )u+ishin* a++ 'our thou*hts and

that( if 'ou are accused of ha%in* either acted(

s)o<en( or $ritten $ron*+'( 'ou can e tried on+' ac6

cordin* to +a$" These )ri%i+e*es attach to e%er' one

$ho sets his foot on En*+ish *round" A forei*ner

enGo's )erfect +iert' to dis)ose of his )ro)ert' and

)erson and( if accused of an' oBence( he can de6

mand that ha+f the Gur' sha++ e com)osed of for6

ei*ners"

I $i++ %enture to assert( that( $ere the human

race so+emn+' assem+ed for the )ur)ose of ma<in*

+a$s( such are the +a$s the' $ou+d ma<e for their

securit'" Wh' then are the' not ado)ted in other

countries !ut $ou+d it not e eua++' Gudicious to

as<( $h' cocoanuts( $hich are rou*ht to maturit'

in India( do not ri)en at Rome 3ou ans$er( these

cocoanuts did not a+$a's( or for some time( come to

maturit' in En*+and that the trees ha%e not een



+on* cu+ti%ated that S$eden( fo++o$in* her e=6

am)+e( )+anted and nursed some of them for se%era+

'ears( ut that the' did not thri%e and that it is

Dictionar'" >9@

)ossi+e to )roduce such fruit in other )ro%inces(

e%en in !osnia and Ser%ia" Tr' and )+ant the tree

then"

And 'ou $ho ear authorit' o%er these eni*hted

)eo)+e( $hether under the name of )asha( eBendi( or

mo++ah( +et me ad%ise 'ou( a+thou*h an un)romisin*

suGect for ad%ice( not to act the stu)id as $e++ as

ararous )art of ri%etin* 'our nations in chains"

Reect( that the hea%ier 'ou ma<e the )eo)+eJs 'o<e(

the more com)+ete+' 'our o$n chi+dren( $ho cannot

a++ of them e )ashas( $i++ e s+a%es" Sure+' 'ou

$ou+d not e so contem)ti+e a $retch as to e=)ose

'our $ho+e )osterit' to *roan in chains( for the sa<e

of enGo'in* a sua+tern t'rann' for a fe$ da's Oh(

ho$ *reat at )resent is the distance et$een an En*6

+ishman and a !osnian



SECTION VII"

The mi=ture no$ e=istin* in the *o%ernment of

En*+and this concert et$een the commons( the

+ords( and the <in* did not e=ist a+$a's" En*+and

$as +on* a s+a%e" She $as so to the Romans( the

Sa=ons( Danes( and French" Wi++iam the Con6

ueror( in )articu+ar( ru+ed her $ith a sce)tre of iron"

&e dis)osed of the )ro)erties and +i%es of his ne$

suGects +i<e an Orienta+ des)ot he )rohiited them

from ha%in* either Hre or cand+e in their houses

after ei*ht oJc+oc< at ni*ht( under )ain of death - his

oGect ein* either to )re%ent nocturna+ assem+ies

amon* them( or mere+'( ' so ca)ricious and e=tra%6

>9; Phi+oso)hica+

a*ant a )rohiition( to sho$ ho$ far the )o$er of

some men can e=tend o%er others" It is true( that

oth efore as $e++ as after Wi++iam the Conueror(

the En*+ish had )ar+iaments the' made a oast of

them as if the assem+ies then ca++ed )ar+iaments(

made u) of t'rannica+ churchmen and aronia+ ro6

ers( had een the *uardians of )u+ic freedom and



ha))iness"

The ararians( $ho( from the shores of the !a+6

tic )oured o%er the rest of Euro)e( rou*ht $ith

them the usa*e of states or )ar+iaments( aout $hich

a %ast dea+ is said and %er' +itt+e <no$n" The <in*s

$ere not des)otic( it is true and it $as )recise+' on

this account that the )eo)+e *roaned in misera+e

s+a%er'" The chiefs of these sa%a*es( $ho had

ra%a*ed France( Ita+'( S)ain( and En*+and( made

themse+%es monarchs" Their ca)tains di%ided

amon* themse+%es the estates of the %anuished

hence( the mar*ra%es( +airds( arons( and the $ho+e

series of the sua+tern t'rants( $ho often contested

the s)oi+s of the )eo)+e $ith the monarchs( recent+'

ad%anced to the throne and not Hrm+' H=ed on it"

These $ere a++ irds of )re'( att+in* $ith the ea*+e(

in order to suc< the +ood of the do%es" E%er' na6

tion( instead of one *ood master( had a hundred t'6

rants" The )riests soon too< )art in the contest"

From time immemoria+ it had een the fate of the

au+s( the ermans( and the is+anders of En*+and(

to e *o%erned ' their druids and the chiefs of

their %i++a*es( an ancient s)ecies of arons( ut +ess



Dictionar'" >9?

t'rannica+ than their successors" These druids ca++ed

themse+%es mediators et$een od and men the'

+e*is+ated( the' e=communicated( the' had the )o$er

of +ife and death" The isho)s *radua++' succeeded

to the authorit' of the druids( under the oth and

Vanda+ *o%ernment" The )o)es )ut themse+%es at

their head and( $ith riefs( u++s( and mon<s(

struc< terror into the hearts of <in*s( $hom the'

sometimes dethroned and occasiona++' caused to e

assassinated( and dre$ to themse+%es( as near+' as

the' $ere a+e( a++ the mone' of Euro)e" The im6

eci+e Ina( one of the t'rants of the En*+ish he)6

tarch'( $as the Hrst $ho( on a )i+*rima*e to Rome(

sumitted to )a' St" PeterJs )enn' $hich $as

aout a cro$n of our mone' for e%er' house $ithin

his territor'" The $ho+e is+and soon fo++o$ed this

e=am)+e En*+and *radua++' ecame a )ro%ince of

the )o)e and the ho+' father sent o%er his +e*ates(

from time to time( to +e%' u)on it his e=oritant im6

)osts" .ohn( ca++ed Lac<+and( at +en*th made a fu++

and forma+ cession of his <in*dom to his ho+iness(

' $hom he had een e=communicated the arons(

$ho did not at a++ Hnd their account in this )roceed6



in*( e=)e++ed that contem)ti+e <in*( and sustituted

in his room Louis VIII"( father of St" Louis( <in* of

France" !ut the' soon ecame dis*usted $ith the

ne$6comer( and o+i*ed him to recross the sea"

Whi+e the arons( isho)s( and )o)es $ere thus

harassin* and tearin* asunder En*+and( $here each

of the )arties stro%e ea*er+' to e the dominant one(

>92 Phi+oso)hica+

the )eo)+e( $ho form the most numerous( usefu+( and

%irtuous )ortion of a communit'( consistin* of those

$ho stud' the +a$s and sciences( merchants( arti6

sans( and e%en )easants( $ho e=ercise at once the

most im)ortant and the most des)ised of occu)a6

tions the )eo)+e( I sa'( $ere +oo<ed do$n u)on

eua++' ' a++ these comatants( as a s)ecies of e6

in*s inferior to man<ind" Far( indeed( at that time(

$ere the commons from ha%in* the s+i*htest )artici6

)ation in the *o%ernment - the' $ere %i++eins( or serfs

of the soi+ oth their +aor and their +ood e6

+on*ed to their masters( $ho $ere ca++ed #no+es"#

The *reater numer of men in Euro)e $ere $hat



the' sti++ continue to e in man' )arts of the $or+d

the serfs of a +ord( a s)ecies of catt+e ou*ht and

so+d to*ether $ith the +and" It reuired centuries to

*et Gustice done to humanit' to )roduce an ade6

uate im)ression of the odious and e=ecra+e nature

of the s'stem( accordin* to $hich the man' so$( and

on+' the fe$ rea) and sure+' it ma' e%en e con6

sidered fortunate for France that the )o$ers of these

)ett' roers $ere e=tin*uished there ' the +e*iti6

mate authorit' of <in*s( as it $as in En*+and ' that

of the <in* and nation united"

&a))i+'( in conseuence of the con%u+sions of em6

)ires ' the contests et$een so%erei*ns and no+es(

the chains of nations are more or +ess re+a=ed" The

arons com)e++ed .ohn Lac<+and and &enr' III

to *rant the famous charter( the *reat oGect oi

$hich( in rea+it'( $as to )+ace the <in* in de)endence

Dictionar'" >99

on the +ords( ut in $hich the rest of the nation $as

a +itt+e fa%ored( to induce it( $hen occasion mi*ht

reuire( to ran*e itse+f in the ran<s of its )retended



)rotectors" This *reat charter( $hich is re*arded as

the sacred ori*in of En*+ish +ierties( itse+f c+ear+'

sho$s ho$ %er' +itt+e +iert' $as understood" The

%er' tit+e )ro%es that the <in* considered himse+f

aso+ute ' ri*ht( and that the arons and c+er*'

com)e++ed him to aate his c+aim to this aso+ute

)o$er on+' ' the a))+ication of su)erior force"

These are the $ords $ith $hich 0a*na Charta e6

*ins - #We *rant( of our free $i++( the fo++o$in*

)ri%i+e*es to the archisho)s( isho)s( aots( )riors(

and arons( of our <in*dom(# etc" Throu*hout the

artic+es of it( not a $ord is said of the house of com6

mons a )roof that it did not then e=ist( or that it

e=isted $ithout )o$er" The freemen of En*+and

are s)eciHed in it( a me+ancho+' demonstration that

there $ere men $ho $ere not free" We )ercei%e(

from the thirt'6se%enth artic+e( that the )retended

freemen o$ed ser%ice to their +ord" Liert' of such

a descri)tion had ut too stron* a simi+arit' to ond6

a*e" !' the t$ent'6Hrst artic+e( the <in* ordains

that hencefor$ard his oMcers sha++ not ta<e a$a'

the horses and )+ou*hs of freemen( $ithout )a'in*

for them" This re*u+ation $as considered ' the

)eo)+e as true +iert'( ecause it freed them from a

*reater t'rann'" &enr' VII"( a successfu+ $arrior

and )o+itician( $ho )retended *reat attachment to



the arons( ut $ho cordia++' hated and feared them(

:: Phi+oso)hica+

*ranted them )ermission to a+ienate their +ands" In

conseuence of this( the %i++eins( $ho ' their in6

dustr' and s<i++ accumu+ated )ro)ert'( in the course

of time ecame )urchasers of the cast+es of the i+6

+ustrious no+es $ho had ruined themse+%es ' their

e=tra%a*ance( and( *radua++'( near+' a++ the +anded

)ro)ert' of the <in*dom chan*ed masters"

The house of commons no$ ad%anced in )o$er

e%er' da'" The fami+ies of the o+d noi+it' ecame

e=tinct in the )ro*ress of time and( as in En*+and(

correct+' s)ea<in*( )eers on+' are no+es( there

$ou+d scarce+' ha%e een an' no+es in the countr'(

if the <in*s had not( from time to time( created ne$

arons( and <e)t u) the od' of )eers( $hom the'

had former+' so much dreaded( to counteract that of

the commons( no$ ecome too formida+e" A++ the

ne$ )eers( $ho com)ose the u))er house( recei%e

from the <in* their tit+e and nothin* more( since

none of them ha%e the )ro)ert' of the +ands of $hich



the' ear the names" One is du<e of Dorset( $ith6

out )ossessin* a sin*+e foot of +and in Dorsetshire

another is an ear+ under the name of a certain %i++a*e(

'et scarce+' <no$in* $here that %i++a*e is situated"

The' ha%e )o$er in the )ar+iament( and no$here

e+se"

3ou hear no mention( in this countr'( of the hi*h(

midd+e( and +o$ courts of Gustice( nor of the ri*ht of

chase o%er the +ands of )ri%ate citi1ens( $ho ha%e no

ri*ht to Hre a *un on their o$n estates"

A man is not e=em)ted from )a'in* )articu+ar

Dictionar'" :8

ta=es ecause he is a no+e or a c+er*'man" A++ im6

)osts are re*u+ated ' the house of commons( $hich(

a+thou*h suordinate in ran<( is su)erior in credit to

that of the +ords" The )eers and isho)s ma' reGect

a i++ sent u) to them ' the commons( $hen the o6

Gect is to raise mone'( ut the' can ma<e no a+tera6

tion in it- the' must admit it or reGect it( $ithout

restriction" When the i++ is conHrmed ' the +ords(



and assented to ' the <in*( then a++ the c+asses of

the nation contriute" E%er' man )a's( not accord6

in* to his ran< $hich $ou+d e asurd ut ac6

cordin* to his re%enue" There is no aritrar' tatt+e

or ca)itation( ut a rea+ ta= on +ands" These $ere a++

%a+ued in the rei*n of the ce+erated Kin* Wi++iam"

The ta= e=ists sti++ una+tered( a+thou*h the rents of

+ands ha%e considera+' increased thus no one is

o))ressed( and no one com)+ains" The feet of the

cu+ti%ator are not ruised and muti+ated ' $ooden

shoes he eats $hite read he is $e++ c+othed" &e

is not afraid to increase his farmin*6stoc<( nor to

roof his cotta*e $ith ti+es( +est the fo++o$in* 'ear

shou+d( in conseuence( rin* $ith it an increase of

ta=ation" There are numerous farmers $ho ha%e an

income of aout H%e or si= hundred )ounds ster+in*(

and sti++ disdain not to cu+ti%ate the +and $hich has

enriched them( and on $hich the' enGo' the +essin*

of freedom"

SECTION VIII"

The reader $e++ <no$s that in S)ain( near the

coast of 0a+a*a( there $as disco%ered( in the rei*n





These )oor and hum+e( ut ne%erthe+ess ha))'(

)eo)+e( had ne%er heard an' mention of the Christian

or .e$ish re+i*ions and <ne$ %er' +itt+e aout that

of 0ahomet( not ho+din* it in an' estimation" The'

oBered u)( from time immemoria+( mi+< and fruits to

a statue of &ercu+es" This $as the amount of their

re+i*ion" As to other matters( the' s)ent their da's

in indo+ence and innocence" The' $ere at +en*th

disco%ered ' a fami+iar of the Inuisition The

Dictionar'" :

*rand inuisitor had the $ho+e of them urned" This

is the so+e e%ent of their histor'"

The ha++o$ed moti%es of their condemnation

$ere( that the' had ne%er )aid ta=es( a+thou*h( in

fact( none had e%er een demanded of them( and

the' $ere tota++' unacuainted $ith mone' that

the' $ere not )ossessed of an' !i+e( a+thou*h the'

did not understand Latin and that no )erson had

een at the )ains of a)ti1in* them" The' $ere a++

in%ested $ith the san enito( and roi+ed to death



$ith ecomin* ceremon'"

It is e%ident that this is a s)ecimen of the true

s'stem of *o%ernment nothin* can so com)+ete+'

contriute to the content( harmon'( and ha))iness of

societ'"

O/RD OR CALA!AS&"

T&IS fruit *ro$s in America on the ranches of

a tree as hi*h as the ta++est oa<s"

Thus( 0atthe$ aro( $ho is thou*ht so $ron* in

Euro)e for Hndin* fau+t $ith *ourds cree)in* on

the *round( $ou+d ha%e een ri*ht in 0e=ico" &e

$ou+d ha%e een sti++ more in the ri*ht in India(

$here cocoas are %er' e+e%ated" This )ro%es that

$e shou+d ne%er hasten to conc+usions" What od

has made( &e has made $e++( no dout and has

)+aced his *ourds on the *round in our c+imates( +est(

in fa++in* from on hi*h( the' shou+d rea< 0atthe$

aroJs nose"

The ca+aash $i++ on+' e introduced here to sho$



:Q Phi+oso)hica+

that $e shou+d mistrust the idea that a++ $as made

for man" There are )eo)+e $ho )retend that the

turf is on+' *reen to refresh the si*ht" It $ou+d

a))ear( ho$e%er( that it is rather made for the ani6

ma+s $ho ni+e it than for man( to $hom do*6*rass

and trefoi+ are use+ess" If nature has )roduced the

trees in fa%or of some s)ecies( it is diMcu+t to sa' to

$hich she has *i%en the )reference" Lea%es( and

e%en ar<( nourish a )rodi*ious mu+titude of insects -

irds eat their fruits( and inhait their ranches( in

$hich the' ui+d their industrious+' formed nests(

$hi+e the oc<s re)ose under their shades"

The author of the #S)ectac+e de +a Nature# )re6

tends that the sea has a u= and reu=( on+' to faci+i6

tate the *oin* out and comin* in of our %esse+s" It

a))ears that e%en 0atthe$ aro reasoned etter

the 0editerranean( on $hich so man' %esse+s sai+(

and $hich on+' has a tide in three or four )+aces( de6

stro's the o)inion of this )hi+oso)her"

Let us enGo' $hat $e ha%e( $ithout e+ie%in*

ourse+%es the centre and oGect of a++ thin*s"



RACE"

IN PERSONS and $or<s( *race si*niHes( not on+'

that $hich is )+easin*( ut that $hich is attracti%e

so that the ancients ima*ined that the *oddess of

eaut' ou*ht ne%er to a))ear $ithout the *races"

!eaut' ne%er dis)+eases( ut it ma' e de)ri%ed of

this secret charm( $hich in%ites us to re*ard it( and

sentimenta++' attracts and H++s the sou+" race in

Dictionar'" :@

H*ure( carria*e( action( discourse( de)ends on its at6

tracti%e merit" A eautifu+ $oman $i++ ha%e no

*race( if her mouth e shut $ithout a smi+e( and if

her e'es dis)+a' no s$eetness" The serious is not

a+$a's *racefu+( ecause unattracti%e( and a))roach6

in* too near to the se%ere( $hich re)e+s"

A $e++6made man $hose carria*e is timid or con6

strained( *ait )reci)itate or hea%'( and *estures

a$<$ard( has no *racefu+ness( ecause he has noth6

in* *ent+e or attracti%e in his e=terior" The %oice of



an orator $hich $ants e=ii+it' or softness is $ith6

out *race"

It is the same in a++ the arts" Pro)ortion and

eaut' ma' not e *racefu+" It cannot e said that

the )'ramids of E*')t are *racefu+ it cannot e

said that the Co+ossus of Rhodes is as much so as the

Venus of Cnidus" A++ that is mere+' stron* and %i*6

orous e=hiits not the charm of *race"

It $ou+d sho$ ut sma++ acuaintance $ith

0iche+an*e+o and Cara%a**io to attriute to them

the *race of A+ano" The si=th oo< of the

#Eneid# is su+ime the fourth has more *race"

Some of the *a++ant odes of &orace reathe *race6

fu+ness( as some of his e)ist+es cu+ti%ate reason"

It seems( in *enera+( that the +itt+e and )rett' of

a++ <inds are more susce)ti+e of *race than the +ar*e"

A funera+ oration( a tra*ed'( or a sermon( are ad+'

)raised( if the' are on+' honored $ith the e)ithet of

*racefu+"

It is not *ood for an' <ind of $or< to e o))osed

Vo+" 9 >:



:; Phi+oso)hica+

to *race( for its o))osite is rudeness( ararit'( and

dr'ness" The &ercu+es of Farnese shou+d not ha%e

the *racefu+ness of the A)o++o of !e+%idere and of

Antinous( ut it is neither rude nor c+ums'" The

urnin* of Tro' is not descried ' Vir*i+ $ith

the *races of an e+e*' of Tiu++us- it )+eases '

stron*er eauties" A $or<( then( ma' e de)ri%ed

of *race( $ithout ein* in the +east disa*reea+e"

The terri+e( or horri+e( in descri)tion( is not to e

*racefu+( neither shou+d it so+e+' aBect its o))osite

for if an artist( $hate%er ranch he ma' cu+ti%ate(

e=)resses on+' fri*htfu+ thin*s( and softens them

not ' a*reea+e contrasts( he $i++ re)e+"

race( in )aintin* and scu+)ture( consists in soft6

ness of out+ine and harmonious e=)ression and

)aintin*( ne=t to scu+)ture( has *race in the unison

of )arts( and of H*ures $hich animate one another(

and $hich ecome a*reea+e ' their attriutes and

their e=)ression"

races of diction( $hether in e+ouence or )oetr'(



de)end on choice of $ords and harmon' of )hrases(

and sti++ more u)on de+icac' of ideas and smi+in* de6

scri)tions" The ause of *race is aBectation( as the

ause of the su+ime is asurdit' a++ )erfection is

near+' a fau+t"

To ha%e *race a))+ies eua++' to )ersons and

thin*s" This dress( this $or<( or that $oman( is

*racefu+" What is ca++ed a *ood *race a))+ies to

manner a+one" She )resents herse+f $ith *ood

*race" &e has done that $hich $as e=)ected of

Dictionar'" :?

him $ith a *ood *race" To )ossess the *races - This

$oman has *race in her carria*e( in a++ that she sa's

and does"

To otain *race is( ' a meta)hor( to otain )ar6

don( as to *rant *race is to *rant )ardon" We ma<e

*race of one thin* ' ta<in* a$a' a++ the rest" The

commissioners too< a++ his eBects and made him a

*ift a *race of his mone'" To *rant *races( to

diBuse *races( is the Hnest )ri%i+e*e of the so%6



erei*nt' it is to do *ood ' somethin* more than

Gustice" To ha%e oneJs *ood *races is usua++' said

in re+ation to a su)erior- to ha%e a +ad'Js *ood

*races( is to e her fa%orite +o%er" To e in *race( is

said of a courtier $ho has een in dis*race- $e

shou+d not a++o$ our ha))iness to de)end on the one(

nor our miser' on the other" races( in ree<( are

#charities# a term $hich si*niHes amia+e"

The *races( di%inities of antiuit'( are one of the

most eautifu+ a++e*ories of the ree< m'tho+o*'"

As this m'tho+o*' a+$a's %aried accordin* either to

the ima*ination of the )oets( $ho $ere its theo+o6

*ians( or to the customs of the )eo)+e( the numer(

names( and attriutes of the *races often chan*e

ut it $as at +ast a*reed to H= them as three( A*+aia(

Tha+ia( and Eu)hros'ne( that is to sa'( s)ar<+in*(

+oomin*( mirthfu+" The' $ere a+$a's near Venus"

No %ei+ shou+d co%er their charms" The' )reside

o%er fa%ors( concord( reGoicin*s( +o%e( and e%en e+o6

uence the' $ere the sensi+e em+em of a++ that

can render +ife a*reea+e" The' $ere )ainted danc6

:2 Phi+oso)hica+



in* and ho+din* hands and e%er' one $ho entered

their tem)+es $as cro$ned $ith o$ers" Those $ho

ha%e condemned the fau+ous m'tho+o*' shou+d at

+east ac<no$+ed*e the merit of these +i%e+' Hctions(

$hich announce truths intimate+' connected $ith the

fe+icit' of man<ind"

RACE OF"

SECTION I"

T&IS term( $hich si*niHes fa%or or )ri%i+e*e( is

em)+o'ed in this sense ' theo+o*ians" The' ca++

*race a )articu+ar o)eration of od on man<ind( in6

tended to render them Gust and ha))'" Some ha%e

admitted uni%ersa+ *race( that $hich od *i%es to

a++ men( thou*h man<ind( accordin* to them( $ith

the e=ce)tion of a %er' sma++ numer( $i++ e de6

+i%ered to eterna+ ames- others admit *race to6

$ards Christians of their communion on+' and

+ast+'( others on+' for the e+ect of that communion"

It is e%ident that a *enera+ *race( $hich +ea%es the

uni%erse in %ice( error( and eterna+ miser'( is not a

*race( a fa%or( or )ri%i+e*e( ut a contradiction in



terms"

Particu+ar *race( accordin* to theo+o*ians( is

either in the Hrst )+ace #suMcin*(# $hich if resisted(

suMces not resem+in* a )ardon *i%en ' a <in*

to a crimina+( $ho is ne%erthe+ess de+i%ered o%er to

the )unishment or #eMcacious# $hen it is not re6

sisted( a+thou*h it ma' e resisted in this case( the'

Gust resem+e famished *uests to $hom are )re6

Dictionar'" :9

sented de+icious %iands( of $hich the' $i++ sure+'

eat( thou*h( in *enera+( the' ma' e su))osed at +i6

ert' not to eat or #necessar'(# that is( una%oida+e(

ein* nothin* more than the chain of eterna+ decrees

and e%ents" We sha++ ta<e care not to enter into the

+on* and a))a++in* detai+s( sut+eties( and so)hisms(

$ith $hich these uestions are emarrassed" The

oGect of this dictionar' is not to e the %ain echo

of %ain dis)utes"

St" Thomas ca++s *race a sustantia+ form( and

the .esuit !ouhours names it a Ge ne sais uoi this



is )erha)s the est deHnition $hich has e%er een

*i%en of it"

If the theo+o*ians had $anted a suGect on $hich

to ridicu+e Pro%idence( the' need not ha%e ta<en

an' other than that $hich the' ha%e chosen" On

one side the Thomists assure us that man( in re6

cei%in* eMcacious *race( is not free in the com6

)ound sense( ut that he is free in the di%ided sense

on the other( the 0o+inists in%ent the medium doc6

trine of od and con*ruit'( and ima*ine e=6

citin*( )re%entin*( concomitant( and co6o)eratin*

*race"

Let us uit these ad ut serious+' constructed

Go<es of the theo+o*ians +et us +ea%e their oo<s(

and each consu+t his common sense $hen he $i++ see

that a++ these reasoners ha%e sa*acious+' decei%ed

themse+%es( ecause the' ha%e reasoned u)on a )rin6

ci)+e e%ident+' fa+se" The' ha%e su))osed that od

acts u)on )articu+ar %ie$s no$( an eterna+ od(

8: Phi+oso)hica+



$ithout *enera+( immuta+e( and eterna+ +a$s( is an

ima*inar' ein*( a )hantom( a *od of fa+e"

Wh'( in a++ re+i*ions on $hich men )iue them6

se+%es on reasonin*( ha%e theo+o*ians een forced

to admit this *race $hich the' do not com)rehend

It is that the' $ou+d ha%e sa+%ation conHned to

their o$n sect( and further( the' $ou+d ha%e this

sa+%ation di%ided amon* those $ho are the most

sumissi%e to themse+%es" These )articu+ar the6

o+o*ians( or chiefs of )arties( di%ide amon* them6

se+%es" The 0ussu+man doctors entertain simi+ar

o)inions and simi+ar dis)utes( ecause the' ha%e the

same interest to actuate them ut the uni%ersa+

theo+o*ian( that is to sa'( the true )hi+oso)her( sees

that it is contradictor' for nature to act on )articu+ar

or sin*+e %ie$s that it is ridicu+ous to ima*ine od

occu)'in* &imse+f in forcin* one man in Euro)e

to oe' &im( $hi+e &e +ea%es a++ the Asiatics in6

tracta+e to su))ose &im $rest+in* $ith another

man $ho sometimes sumits( and sometimes disarms

&im( and )resentin* to another a he+)( $hich is ne%6

erthe+ess use+ess" Such *race( considered in a true

)oint of %ie$( is an asurdit'" The )rodi*ious mass

of oo<s com)osed on this suGect is often an e=6

ercise of inte++ect( ut a+$a's the shame of reason"



SECTION II"

A++ nature( a++ that e=ists( is the *race of od

&e esto$s on a++ anima+s the *race of form and

nourishment" The *race of *ro$in* se%ent' feet

Dictionar'" 88

hi*h is *ranted to the Hr( and refused to the reed"

&e *i%es to man the *race of thin<in*( s)ea<in*(

and <no$in* him &e *rants me the *race of not

understandin* a $ord of a++ that Tourne++i( 0o+ina(

and Soto( ha%e $ritten on the suGect of *race"

The Hrst $ho has s)o<en of eMcacious and *ratu6

itous *race is( $ithout contradiction( &omer" This

ma' e astonishin* to a ache+or of theo+o*'( $ho

<no$s no author ut St" Au*ustine ut( if he read

the third oo< of the #I+iad(# he $i++ see that Paris

sa's to his rother &ector - #If the *ods ha%e *i%en

'ou %a+or( and me eaut'( do not re)roach me $ith

the )resents of the eautifu+ Venus no *ift of the

*ods is des)ica+e it does not de)end u)on man to



otain them"#

Nothin* is more )ositi%e than this )assa*e" If

$e further remar< that .u)iter( accordin* to his

)+easure( *a%e the %ictor' sometimes to the ree<s(

and at others to the TroGans( $e sha++ see a ne$

)roof that a++ $as done ' *race from on hi*h"

Sar)edon( and after$ards Patroc+us( are ararians

to $hom ' turns *race has een $antin*"

There ha%e een )hi+oso)hers $ho $ere not of

the o)inion of &omer" The' ha%e )retended that

*enera+ Pro%idence does not immediate+' interfere

$ith the aBairs of )articu+ar indi%idua+s that it

*o%erns a++ ' uni%ersa+ +a$s that Thersites and

Achi++es $ere eua+ efore it( and that neither Cha+6

cas nor Ta+th'ius e%er had %ersati+e or con*ruous

*races"

8> Phi+oso)hica+

Accordin* to these )hi+oso)hers( the do*6*rass

and the oa<( the mite and the e+e)hant( man( the

e+ements and stars( oe' in%aria+e +a$s( $hich od(



as immuta+e( has esta+ished from a++ eternit'"

SECTION III"

If one $ere to come from the ottom of he++( to

sa' to us on the )art of the de%i+ ent+emen( I

must inform 'ou that our so%erei*n +ord has ta<en

a++ man<ind for his share( e=ce)t a sma++ numer

of )eo)+e $ho +i%e near the Vatican and its de6

)endencies $e shou+d a++ )ra' of this de)ut' to in6

scrie us on the +ist of the )ri%i+e*ed $e shou+d

as< him $hat $e must do to otain this *race"

If he $ere to ans$er( 3ou cannot merit it( m'

master has made the +ist from the e*innin* of

time he has on+' +istened to his o$n )+easure( he

is continua++' occu)ied in ma<in* an inHnit' of )ots6

de6chamre and some do1en *o+d %ases if 'ou

are )ots6de6chamre so much the $orse for 'ou"

At these Hne $ords $e shou+d use our )itchfor<s

to send the amassador ac< to his master" This is(

ho$e%er( $hat $e ha%e dared to im)ute to od

to the eterna+ and so%erei*n+' *ood ein*

0an has een a+$a's re)roached $ith ha%in*



made od in his o$n ima*e( &omer has een con6

demned for ha%in* trans)orted a++ the %ices and fo+6

+ies of earth into hea%en" P+ato( $ho has thus Gust+'

re)roached him( has not hesitated to ca++ him a +as6

)hemer $hi+e $e( a hundred times more thou*ht6

Dictionar'" 8

+ess( hard'( and +as)hemin* than this ree<( $ho

did not understand con%entiona+ +an*ua*e( de%out+'

accuse od of a thin* of $hich $e ha%e ne%er ac6

cused the $orst of men"

It is said that the <in* of 0orocco( 0u+e'

Ismae+( had H%e hundred chi+dren" What $ou+d 'ou

sa' if a maraout of 0ount At+as re+ated to 'ou

that the $ise and *ood 0u+e' Ismae+( dinin* $ith

his fami+'( at the c+ose of the re)ast( s)o<e thus -

#I am 0u+e' Ismae+( $ho has for*otten 'ou for

m' *+or'( for I am %er' *+orious" I +o%e 'ou %er'

tender+'( I she+ter 'ou as a hen co%ers her chic<ens

I ha%e decreed that one of m' 'oun*est chi+dren

sha++ ha%e the <in*dom of TaH+et( and that another



sha++ )ossess 0orocco and for m' other dear chi+6

dren( to the numer of four hundred and ninet'6

ei*ht( I order that one6ha+f sha++ e tortured( and

the other ha+f urned( for I am the Lord 0u+e'

Ismae+"#

3ou $ou+d assured+' ta<e the maraout for the

*reatest foo+ that Africa e%er )roduced ut if three

or four thousand maraouts( $e++ entertained at 'our

e=)ense( $ere to re)eat to 'ou the same stor'( $hat

$ou+d 'ou do Wou+d 'ou not e tem)ted to ma<e

them fast u)on read and $ater unti+ the' reco%ered

their senses

3ou $i++ a++e*e that m' indi*nation is reasona+e

enou*h a*ainst the su)ra+a)sarians( $ho e+ie%e that

the <in* of 0orocco e*ot these H%e hundred chi+6

dren on+' for his *+or' and that he had a+$a's the

8Q Phi+oso)hica+

intention to torture and urn them( e=ce)t t$o( $ho

$ere destined to rei*n"



!ut I am $ron*( 'ou sa'( a*ainst the infra+a)6

sarians( $ho a%o$ that it $as not the Hrst intention

of 0u+e' Ismae+ to cause his chi+dren to )erish

ut that( ha%in* foreseen that the' $ou+d e of no

use( he thou*ht he shou+d e actin* as a *ood father

in *ettin* rid of them ' torture and Hre"

Ah( su)ra+a)sarians( infra+a)sarians( free6*ra6

cians( suMcers( eMcacians( GansenJists( and mo+inists

ecome men( and no +on*er trou+e the earth $ith

such asurd and aomina+e foo+eries"

SECTION IV"

&o+' ad%isers of modern Rome( i++ustrious and

infa++i+e theo+o*ians( no one has more res)ect for

'our di%ine decisions than I ut if Pau+us mi+ius(

Sci)io( Cato( Cicero( Caesar( Titus( TraGan( or

0arcus Aure+ius( re%isited that Rome to $hich the'

former+' did such credit( 'ou must confess that the'

$ou+d e a +itt+e astonished at 'our decisions on

*race" What $ou+d the' sa' if the' heard 'ou

s)ea< of hea+thfu+ *race accordin* to St" Thomas(

and medicina+ *race accordin* to CaGetan of e=6

terior and interior *race( of free( sanctif'in*( co6

o)eratin*( actua+( haitua+( and eMcacious *race(



$hich is sometimes ineMcacious of the suMcin*

$hich sometimes does not suMce( of the %ersati+e

and con*ruous $ou+d the' rea++' com)rehend it

more than 'ou and I

Dictionar'" 8@

What need $ou+d these )oor )eo)+e ha%e of 'our

instructions I fanc' I hear them sa' - #Re%erend

fathers( 'ou are terri+e *enii $e foo+ish+' thou*ht

that the Eterna+ !ein* ne%er conducted &imse+f '

)articu+ar +a$s +i<e %i+e human ein*s( ut ' *en6

era+ +a$s( eterna+ +i<e &imse+f" No one amon* us

e%er ima*ined that od $as +i<e a sense+ess master(

$ho *i%es an estate to one s+a%e and refuses food to

another $ho orders one $ith a ro<en arm to

<nead a +oaf( and a cri))+e to e his courier"

A++ is *race on the )art of od &e has *i%en

to the *+oe $e inhait the *race of form to the

trees the *race of ma<in* them *ro$ to anima+s

that of feedin* them ut $i++ 'ou sa'( ecause one

$o+f Hnds in his road a +am for his su))er( $hi+e

another is d'in* $ith hun*er( that od has *i%en



the Hrst $o+f a )articu+ar *race Is it a )re%enti%e

*race to cause one oa< to *ro$ in )reference to an6

other in $hich sa) is $antin* If throu*hout na6

ture a++ ein* is sumitted to *enera+ +a$s( ho$ can

a sin*+e s)ecies of anima+s a%oid conformin* to

them

Wh' shou+d the aso+ute master of a++ e more

occu)ied in directin* the interior of a sin*+e man

than in conductin* the remainder of entire nature

!' $hat ca)rice $ou+d &e chan*e somethin* in the

heart of a Cour+ander or a !isca'an( $hi+e &e

chan*es nothin* in the *enera+ +a$s $hich &e has

im)osed u)on a++ the stars"

What a )it' to su))ose that &e is continua++'

8; Phi+oso)hica+

ma<in*( defacin*( and rene$in* our sentiments

And $hat audacit' in us to e+ie%e ourse+%es e=6

ce)ted from a++ ein*s And further( is it not on+'

for those $ho confess that these chan*es are im6

a*ined A Sa%o'ard( a !er*amas<( on 0onda'(



$i++ ha%e the *race to ha%e a mass said for t$e+%e

sous on Tuesda' he $i++ *o to the ta%ern and ha%e

no *race on Wednesda' he $i++ ha%e a co6o)6

eratin* *race( $hich $i++ conduct him to confession(

ut he $i++ not ha%e the eMcacious *race of )erfect

contrition on Thursda' there $i++ e a suMcin*

*race $hich $i++ not suMce( as has een a+read' said"

od $i++ +aor in the head of this !er*amas< some6

times stron*+'( sometimes $ea<+'( $hi+e the rest of

the earth $i++ no $a' concern &im &e $i++ not

dei*n to medd+e $ith the interior of the Indians

and Chinese If 'ou )ossess a *rain of reason( re%6

erend fathers( do 'ou not Hnd this s'stem )ro6

di*ious+' ridicu+ous

Poor( misera+e man eho+d this oa< $hich rears

its head to the c+ouds( and this reed $hich ends at

its feet 'ou do not sa' that eMcacious *race has

een *i%en to the oa< and $ithhe+d from the reed"

Raise 'our e'es to hea%en see the eterna+ Demi6

our*os creatin* mi++ions of $or+ds( $hich *ra%itate

to$ards one another ' *enera+ and eterna+ +a$s"

See the same +i*ht reected from the sun to Saturn(

and from Saturn to us and in this *rant of so man'

stars( ur*ed on$ard in their ra)id course in this

*enera+ oedience of a++ nature( dare to e+ie%e( if



Dictionar'" 8?

'ou can( that od is occu)ied in *i%in* a %ersati+e

*race to Sister Theresa( or a concomitant one to

Sister A*nes"

Atom to $hich another foo+ish atom has said

that the Eterna+ has )articu+ar +a$s for some atoms

of th' nei*horhood that &e *i%es &is *race to

that one and refuses it to this that such as had not

*race 'esterda' sha++ ha%e it to6morro$ re)eat not

this fo++'" od has made the uni%erse( and creates

not ne$ $inds to remo%e a fe$ stra$s in one corner

of the uni%erse" Theo+o*ians are +i<e the com6

atants in &omer( $ho e+ie%ed that the *ods $ere

sometimes armed for and sometimes a*ainst them"

&ad &omer not een considered a )oet( he $ou+d

e deemed a +as)hemer"

It is 0arcus Aure+ius $ho s)ea<s( and not I for

od( $ho ins)ires 'ou( has *i%en me *race to e+ie%e

a++ that 'ou sa'( a++ that 'ou ha%e said( and a++ that

'ou $i++ sa'"



RAVE RAVIT3"

RAVE( in its mora+ meanin*( a+$a's corres)onds

$ith its )h'sica+ one it e=)resses somethin* of

$ei*ht thus( $e sa' a )erson( an author( or a

ma=im of $ei*ht( for a *ra%e )erson( author( or

ma=im" The *ra%e is to the serious $hat the +i%e+'

is to the a*reea+e" It is one de*ree more of the

same thin*( and that de*ree a considera+e one" A

man ma' e serious ' tem)erament( and e%en from

$ant of ideas" &e is *ra%e( either from a sense of de6

8 2 Phi+oso)hica+

corum( or from ha%in* ideas of de)th and im)or6

tance( $hich induce *ra%it'" There is a diBerence

et$een ein* *ra%e and ein* a *ra%e man" It is

a fau+t to e unseasona+' *ra%e" &e $ho is *ra%e

in societ' is se+dom much sou*ht for ut a *ra%e

man is one $ho acuires inuence and authorit'

more ' his rea+ $isdom than his e=terna+ carria*e"

Turn )ietate *ra%em ac meritis si forte %irum uern



Cons)e=ere( si+ent( adrectisue aurius adstant"

VIRILJS Eneid( i" 8@8"

If then some *ra%e and )ious man a))ear(

The' hush their noise( and +end a +istenin* ear"

DR3DEN"

A decorous air shou+d e a+$a's )reser%ed( ut

a *ra%e air is ecomin* on+' in the function of some

hi*h and im)ortant oMce( as( for e=am)+e( in coun6

ci+" When *ra%it' consists( as is freuent+' theJ

case( on+' in the e=terior carria*e( fri%o+ous remar<s

are de+i%ered $ith a )om)ous so+emnit'( e=citin* at

once ridicu+e and a%ersion" We do not easi+' )ardon

those $ho $ish to im)ose u)on us ' this air of

conseuence and se+f6suMcienc'"

The du<e de La Rochefoucau+d said #ra%it' is a

m'steriousness of od' assumed in order to concea+

defects of mind"# Without in%esti*atin* $hether

the )hrase #m'steriousness of od'# is natura+ and

Gudicious( it is suMcient to oser%e that the remar<

is a))+ica+e to a++ $ho aBect *ra%it'( ut not to

those $ho mere+' e=hiit a *ra%it' suita+e to the



oMce the' ho+d( the )+ace $here the' are( or the

usiness in $hich the' are en*a*ed"

Dictionar'" 89

A *ra%e author is one $hose o)inions( re+ate to

matters o%ious+' dis)uta+e" We ne%er a))+' the

term to one $ho has $ritten on suGects $hich admit

no dout or contro%ers'" It $ou+d e ridicu+ous

to ca++ Euc+id and Archimedes *ra%e authors"

ra%it' is a))+ica+e to st'+e" Li%' and de Thou

ha%e $ritten $ith *ra%it'" The same oser%ations

cannot $ith )ro)riet' e a))+ied to Tacitus( $hose

oGect $as re%it'( and $ho has dis)+a'ed ma6

+i*nit' sti++ +ess can it e a))+ied to Cardina+ de

Ret1( $ho sometimes infuses into his $ritin*s a mis6

)+aced *a'et'( and sometimes e%en for*ets decenc'"

The *ra%e st'+e dec+ines a++ sa++ies of $it or

)+easantr' if it sometimes reaches the su+ime( if

on an' )articu+ar occasion it is )athetic( it s)eedi+'

returns to the didactic $isdom and no+e sim)+icit'

$hich haitua++' characteri1es it it )ossesses



stren*th $ithout darin*" Its *reatest diMcu+t' is to

a%oid monoton'"

A *ra%e aBair aBaire( a *ra%e case cas( is

used concernin* a crimina+ rather than a ci%i+

)rocess" A *ra%e disease im)+ies dan*er"

REAT REATNESS"

Of the 0eanin* of These Words"

REAT is one of those $ords $hich are most fre6

uent+' used in a mora+ sense( and $ith the +east

consideration and Gud*ment" reat man( *reat

*enius( *reat ca)tain( *reat )hi+oso)her( *reat )oet

$e mean ' this +an*ua*e #one $ho has far e=6

>: Phi+oso)hica+

ceeded ordinar' +imits"# !ut( as it is diMcu+t to de6

Hne those +imits( the e)ithet #*reat# is often a))+ied

to those $ho )ossess on+' mediocrit'"

This term is +ess %a*ue and doutfu+ $hen a)6

)+ied to materia+ than to mora+ suGects" We <no$

$hat is meant ' a *reat storm( a *reat misfortune(



a *reat disease( *reat )ro)ert'( *reat miser'"

The term #+ar*e# *ros is sometimes used $ith

res)ect to suGects of the +atter descri)tion( that is(

materia+ ones( as eui%a+ent to *reat( ut ne%er $ith

res)ect to mora+ suGects" We sa' +ar*e )ro)ert'

for *reat $ea+th( ut not a +ar*e ca)tain for a *reat

ca)tain( or a +ar*e minister for a *reat minister"

reat Hnancier means a man eminent+' s<i+fu+ in

matters of nationa+ Hnance ut *ros Hnancier e=6

)resses mere+' a man $ho has ecome $ea+th' in

the de)artment of Hnance"

The *reat man is more diMcu+t to e deHned than

the *reat artist" In an art or )rofession( the man

$ho has far distanced his ri%a+s( or $ho has the

re)utation of ha%in* done so( is ca++ed *reat in his

art( and a))ears( therefore( to ha%e reuired merit

of on+' one descri)tion in order to otain this emi6

nence ut the *reat man must comine diBerent

s)ecies of merit" onsa+%o( surnamed the reat

Ca)tain( $ho oser%ed that #the $e of honor $as

coarse+' $o%en(# $as ne%er ca++ed a *reat man" It

is more eas' to name those to $hom this hi*h dis6

tinction shou+d e refused than those to $hom it

shou+d e *ranted" The denomination a))ears to



Dictionar'" 88

im)+' some *reat %irtues" A++ a*ree that Crom$e++

$as the most intre)id *enera+( the most )rofound

statesman( the man est ua+iHed to conduct a )art'(

a )ar+iament( or an arm'( of his da' 'et no $riter

e%er *i%es him the tit+e of *reat man ecause( a+6

thou*h he )ossessed *reat ua+ities( he )ossessed

not a sin*+e *reat %irtue"

This tit+e seems to fa++ to the +ot on+' of the sma++

numer of men $ho ha%e een distin*uished at once

' %irtues( e=ertions( and success" Success is es6

sentia+( ecause the man $ho is a+$a's unfortunate

is su))osed to e so ' his o$n fau+t"

reat *rand( ' itse+f( e=)resses some di*nit'"

In S)ain it is a hi*h and most distin*uishin* a))e+6

+ati%e *randee, conferred ' the <in* on Jthose

$hom he $ishes to honor" The *randees are co%6

ered in the )resence of the <in*( either efore s)ea<6

in* to him or after ha%in* s)o<en to him( or $hi+e

ta<in* their seats $ith the rest"



Char+es the Fifth conferred the )ri%i+e*es of

*randeeshi) on si=teen )rinci)a+ no+emen" That

em)eror himse+f after$ards *ranted the same honors

to man' others" &is successors( each in his turn(

ha%e added to the numer" The S)anish *randees

ha%e +on* c+aimed to e considered of eua+ ran<

and di*nit' $ith the e+ectors and the )rinces of

Ita+'" At the court of France the' ha%e the same

honors as )eers"

The tit+e of #*reat# has een a+$a's *i%en( in

France( to man' of the chief oMcers of the cro$n

Vo+" 9 >8

>> Phi+oso)hica+

as *reat senescha+( *reat master( *reat chamer+ain(

*reat euerr'( *reat )ant+er( *reat huntsman( *reat

fa+coner" These tit+es $ere *i%en them to distin6

*uish their )re6eminence ao%e the )ersons ser%in*

in the same de)artments under them" The distinc6

tion is not *i%en to the consta+e( nor to the chan6



ce++or( nor to the marsha+s( a+thou*h the consta+e

is the chief of a++ the househo+d oMcers( the chan6

ce++or the second )erson in the state( and the marsha+

the second oMcer in the arm'" The reason o6

%ious+' is( that the' had no de)uties( no %ice6consta6

+es( %ice6marsha+s( %ice6chance++ors( ut oMcers

under another denomination $ho e=ecuted their

orders( $hi+e the *reat ste$ard( *reat chamer+ain(

and *reat euerr'( etc"( had ste$ards( chamer6

+ains( and euerries under them"

reat *rand in connection $ith sei*neur(

#*reat +ord(# has a si*niHcation more e=tensi%e and

uncertain" We *i%e this tit+e of #*rand sei*neur#

sei*nor to the Tur<ish su+tan( $ho assumes that

of )asha( to $hich the e=)ression *rand sei*nor does

not corres)ond" The e=)ression #un *rand(# a

#*reat man(# is used in s)ea<in* of a man of distin6

*uished irth( in%ested $ith di*nities( ut it is used

on+' ' the common )eo)+e" A )erson of irth or

conseuence ne%er a))+ies the term to an' one" As

the $ords #*reat +ord# *rand sei*neur are com6

mon+' a))+ied to those $ho unite irth( di*nit'( and

riches( )o%ert' seems to de)ri%e a man of the ri*ht

to it( or at +east to render it ina))ro)riate or ridic6



Dictionar'" >

u+ous" Accordin*+'( $e sa' a )oor *ent+eman( ut

not a )oor *rand sei*neur"

reat *rand is diBerent from mi*ht' )uis6

sant" A man ma' at the same time e oth one

and the other( ut )uissant im)+ies the )ossession of

some oMce of )o$er and conseuence" #rand# in6

dicates more sho$ and +ess rea+it' the #)uissant#

commands( the #*rand# )ossesses honors"

There is *reatness *randeur in mind( in senti6

ments( in manners( and in conduct" The e=)ression

is not used in s)ea<in* of )ersons in the midd+in*

c+asses of societ'( ut on+' of those $ho( ' their

ran<( are ound to sho$ noi+it' and e+e%ation" It

is )erfect+' true that a man of the most oscure irth

and connections ma' ha%e more *reatness of mind

than a monarch" !ut it $ou+d e inconsistent $ith

the usua+ )hraseo+o*' to sa'( #that merchant or

that farmer acted *reat+'# a%ec *randeur un+ess(

indeed( in %er' )articu+ar circumstances( and )+acin*

certain characters in stri<in* o))osition( $e shou+d(



for e=am)+e( ma<e such a remar< as the fo++o$in* -

#The ce+erated merchant $ho entertained Char+es

the Fifth in his o$n house( and +i*hted a Hre of cin6

namon $ood $ith that )rinceJs ond to him for Hft'

thousand ducats( dis)+a'ed more *reatness of sou+

than the em)eror"#

The tit+e of #*reatness# *randeur $as for6

mer+' *i%en to %arious )ersons )ossessin* stations

of di*nit'" French c+er*'men( $hen $ritin* to

isho)s( sti++ ca++ them #'our *reatness"# Those

>Q Phi+oso)hica+

tit+es( $hich are +a%ished ' s'co)hanc' and cau*ht

at ' %anit'( are no$ +itt+e used"

&au*htiness is often mista<en for *reatness

*randeur" &e $ho is ostentatious of *reatness

dis)+a's %anit'" !ut one ecomes $ear' and e=6

hausted $ith $ritin* aout *reatness" Accordin*

to the +i%e+' remar< of 0ontai*ne( #$e cannot o6

tain it( +et us therefore ta<e our re%en*e ' aus6

in* it"#



REEK"

Oser%ations /)on the JE=tinction of the ree<

Lan*ua*e at 0arsei++es"

IT is e=ceedin*+' stran*e that( as 0arsei++es $as

founded ' a ree< co+on'( scarce+' an' %esti*e of

the ree< +an*ua*e is to e found in Pro%ence("

Lan*uedoc( or an' district of France for $e cannot

consider as ree< the terms $hich $ere ta<en( at a

com)arati%e+' modern date( from the Latins( and

$hich had een ado)ted ' the Romans themse+%es

from the ree<s so man' centuries efore" We re6

cei%ed those on+' at second hand" We ha%e no ri*ht

to sa' that $e aandoned the $ord ot for that of

Theos( rather than that of Deus( from $hich( ' a

ararous termination( $e ha%e made Dieu"

It is c+ear that the au+s( ha%in* recei%ed the

Latin +an*ua*e $ith the Roman +a$s( and ha%in*

after$ards recei%ed from those same Romans the

Christian re+i*ion( ado)ted from them a++ the terms

$hich $ere connected $ith that re+i*ion" These



Dictionar'" >@

same au+s did not acuire( unti+ a +ate )eriod( the

ree< terms $hich re+ate to medicine( anatom'( and

sur*er'"

After deductin* a++ the $ords ori*ina++' ree<

$hich $e ha%e deri%ed throu*h the Latin( and a++

the anatomica+ and medica+ terms $hich $ere( in

com)arison( so recent+' acuired( there is scarce+'

an'thin* +eft for sure+'( to deri%e #are*er# from

#ra<us(# rather than from #are%iare# #acier#

from #a=i# rather than from #acies# #acre# from

#a*ros# rather than from #a*er# and #ai+e# from

#i+'# rather than from #aa# this( I sa'( $ou+d

sure+' e )erfect+' ridicu+ous"

Some ha%e e%en *one so far as to sa' that #ome6

+ette# comes from #omei+aton(# ecause #me+i# in

ree< si*niHes hone'( and #oon# an e**" In the

#arden of ree< Roots# there is a more curious

deri%ation sti++ it is )retended that #dmer# din6

ner comes from #dei)nein(# $hich si*niHes su))er"

As some ma' e desirous of )ossessin* a +ist of



the ree< $ords $hich the 0arsei++es co+on' ma'

ha%e introduced into the +an*ua*e of the au+s(

inde)endent+' of those $hich came throu*h the

Romans( $e )resent the fo++o$in* one -

Ao'er( )erha)s from au1ein"

ABre( aBreu=( from afronos"

A*acer( )erha)s from ana=ein"

A+a+i( a ree< $ar6cr'"

!ai++er( )erha)s from aa1o"

!a++e( from a++o"

>; Phi+oso)hica+

!as( from at's"

!+esser( from the aorist of +a)to"

!outei++e( from outtis"



!ride( from r'ter"

!riue( from r'<a"

Coin( from *onia"

Co+ere( from cho+e"

Co++e( from co++a"

Cou)er( from co)to"

Cuisse( )erha)s from ischis"

Entrai++e( from entera"

Ermite( from eremos"

Fier( from Haros"

ar*ari1er( from *ar*ari1ein"

Idiot( from idiotes"

0araud( from miaros"



0ouer( from mo<euo"

0oustache( from musta="

Or*uei+( from or*e"

Pa*e( from )ais"

SiUer( )erha)s from si0oo"

Tuer( thuein"

I am astonished to Hnd so fe$ $ords remainin*

of a +an*ua*e s)o<en at 0arsei++es( in the time of

Au*ustus( in a++ its )urit' and I am )articu+ar+'

astonished to Hnd the *reater numer of the ree<

$ords )reser%ed in Pro%ence( si*nif'in* thin*s of

+itt+e or no uti+it'( $hi+e those used to e=)ress thin*s

of the Hrst necessit' and im)ortance are utter+' +ost"

We ha%e not a sin*+e one remainin* that si*niHes

Dictionar'" >?



+and( sea( s<'( the sun( the moon( ri%ers( or the )rin6

ci)a+ )arts of the human od' the $ords used for

$hich mi*ht ha%e een e=)ected to e transmitted

do$n from the e*innin* throu*h e%er' succeedin*

a*e" Perha)s $e must attriute the cause of this to

the Visi*oths( the !ur*undians( and the Fran<s to

the horri+e ararism of a++ those nations $hich +aid

$aste the Roman Em)ire( a ararism of $hich so

man' traces 'et remain"

/ARANTEE"

A /ARANTEE is a )+ed*e ' $hich a )erson ren6

ders himse+f res)onsi+e to another for somethin*(

and inds himse+f to secure him in the enGo'ment

of it" The $ord *arant is deri%ed from the Ce+tic

and Teutonic #$arrant"# In a++ the $ords $hich $e

ha%e retained from those ancient +an*ua*es $e ha%e

chan*ed the $ into *" Amon* the *reater numer

of the nations of the North #$arrant# sti++ si*niHes

assurance( *uarant' and in this sense it means( in

En*+ish( an order of the <in*( as si*nif'in* the

)+ed*e of the <in*" When in the midd+e a*es <in*s

conc+uded treaties( the' $ere *uaranteed on oth

sides ' a considera+e numer of <ni*hts( $ho

ound themse+%es ' oath to see that the treat' $as



oser%ed( and e%en( $hen a su)erior education ua+6

iHed them to do so( $hich sometimes ha))ened(

si*ned their names to it" When the em)eror Fred6

eric< !ararossa ceded so man' ri*hts to Po)e

A+e=ander III" at the ce+erated con*ress of Venice(

>2 Phi+oso)hica+

in 888?( the em)eror )ut his sea+ to the instrument

$hich the )o)e and cardina+s si*ned" T$e+%e

)rinces of the em)ire *uaranteed the treat' ' an

oath u)on the *os)e+ ut none of them si*ned it"

It is not said that the do*e of Venice *uaranteed

that )eace $hich $as conc+uded in his )a+ace" When

Phi+i) Au*ustus made )eace in 8>:: $ith Kin*

.ohn of En*+and( the )rinci)a+ arons of France and

Normand' s$ore to the due oser%ance of it( as

cautionar' or *uaranteein* )arties" The French

s$ore that the' $ou+d ta<e arms a*ainst their <in*

if he %io+ated his $ord( and the Normans( in +i<e

manner( to o))ose their so%erei*n if he did not ad6

here to his" One of the consta+es of the 0ontmo6

renc' fami+'( after a ne*otiation $ith one of the

ear+s of 0arch( in 8>>?( s$ore to the oser%ance of



the treat' u)on the sou+ of the <in*"

The )ractice of *uaranteein* the states of a third

)art' $as of *reat antiuit'( a+thou*h under a dif6

ferent name" The Romans in this manner *uar6

anteed the )ossessions of man' of the )rinces of Asia

and Africa( ' ta<in* them under their )rotection

unti+ the' secured to themse+%es the )ossession of the

territories thus )rotected" We must re*ard as a

mutua+ *uarant' the ancient a++iance et$een

France and Casti+e( of <in* to <in*( <in*dom to

<in*dom( and man to man"

We do not Hnd an' treat' in $hich the *uarant'

of the states of a third )art' is e=)ress+' sti)u+ated

for efore that $hich $as conc+uded et$een S)ain

Dictionar'" >9

and the states6*enera+ in 8;:9( ' the mediation of

&enr' IV" &e )rocured from Phi+i) III"( <in* of

S)ain( the reco*nition of the /nited Pro%inces as

free and so%erei*n states" &e si*ned the *uarant'

of this so%erei*nt' of the se%en )ro%inces( and o6



tained the si*nature of the same instrument from the

<in* of S)ain and the re)u+ic ac<no$+ed*ed that

it o$ed its freedom to the interference of the French

monarch" It is )rinci)a++' $ithin our o$n times that

treaties of *uarant' ha%e ecome com)arati%e+' fre6

uent" /nfortunate+' these en*a*ements ha%e occa6

siona++' )roduced ru)tures and $ar and it is

c+ear+' ascertained that the est of a++ )ossi+e *uar6

anties is )o$er"

REOR3 VII"

!A3LE himse+f( $hi+e admittin* that re*or'

$as the Hrerand of Euro)e( concedes to him the de6

nomination of a *reat man" #That o+d Rome(# sa's

he( #$hich )+umed itse+f u)on conuests and mi+i6

tar' %irtue( shou+d ha%e rou*ht so man' other na6

tions under its dominion( redounds( accordin* to

the *enera+ ma=ims of man<ind( to her credit and

*+or' ut( u)on the s+i*htest reection( can e=cite

+itt+e sur)rise" On the other hand( it is a suGect of

*reat sur)rise to see ne$ Rome( $hich )retended to

%a+ue itse+f on+' on an a)osto+ic ministr'( )ossessed

of an authorit' under $hich the *reatest monarchs

ha%e een constrained to end" Caron ma' oser%e(

$ith truth( that there is scarce+' a sin*+e em)eror





the trium)hs( I sa'( of a++ these o%er the )o+ic' of

the Roman court are )erfect+' satisfactor' testi6

monies that it ma' e easi+' and successfu++' re6

sisted( oth in aBairs of re+i*ion and *o%ernment"

>" The sac<in* of Rome ' the troo)s of Char+es

the Fifth the )o)e C+ement VII" a )risoner in

the cast+e of St" An*e+o Louis 7IV" com)e++in*

Po)e A+e=ander VII" to as< his )ardon( and erectin*

e%en in Rome itse+f a monument of the )o)eJs su6

mission and( $ithin our o$n times( the eas' su6

%ersion of that stead'( and a))arent+' most formid6

a+e su))ort of the )a)a+ )o$er( the societ' of

Dictionar'" 8

.esuits in S)ain( in France( in Na)+es( in oa( and in

Para*ua' a++ this furnishes decisi%e e%idence( that(

$hen )otent )rinces are in hosti+it' $ith Rome( the

uarre+ is not terminated in their confusion the'

ma' occasiona++' end efore the storm( ut the'

$i++ not e%entua++' e o%erthro$n"

When the )o)es $a+<ed on the heads of <in*s(



$hen the' conferred cro$ns ' a )archment u++( it

a))ears to me( that at this e=treme hei*ht of their

)o$er and *randeur the' did no more than the ca6

+i)hs( $ho $ere the successors of 0ahomet( did in

the %er' )eriod of their dec+ine" !oth of them( in

the character of )riests( conferred the in%estiture of

em)ires( in so+emn ceremon'( on the most )o$erfu+

of contendin* )arties"

" 0aimour* sa's - #What no )o)e e%er did

efore( re*or' VIII" did( de)ri%in* &enr' IV" of

his di*nit' of em)eror( and of his <in*doms of

erman' and Ita+'"#

0aimour* is mista<en" Po)e 4achar' had( +on*

efore that( )+aced a cro$n on the head of the Aus6

trasian Pe)in( $ho usur)ed the <in*dom of the

Fran<s and Po)e Leo III" had dec+ared the son of

that Pe)in em)eror of the West( and there' de6

)ri%ed the em)ress Irene of the $ho+e of that em6

)ire and from that time( it must e admitted( there

has not een a sin*+e )riest of the Romish church

$ho has not ima*ined that his isho) enGo'ed the

dis)osa+ of a++ cro$ns"

This ma=im $as a+$a's turned to account $hen



> Phi+oso)hica+

it $as )ossi+e to e so" It $as considered as a con6

secrated $ea)on( de)osited in the sacrist' of St"

.ohn of Lateran( $hich mi*ht e dra$n forth in

so+emn and im)ressi%e ceremon' on e%er' occasion

that reuired it" This )rero*ati%e is so command6

in* it raises to such a hei*ht the di*nit' of an

e=orcist orn at Ve++etri or Ci%ita Vecchia( that if

Luther( CEco+am)adius( .ohn Ca+%in( and a++ the

)ro)hets of the Ce%ennes( had een nati%es of an'

misera+e %i++a*e near Rome( and under*one the ton6

sure there( the' $ou+d ha%e su))orted that church

$ith the same ra*e $hich the' actua++' manifested

for its destruction"

Q" E%er'thin*( then( de)ends on the time and

)+ace of a manJs irth( and the circumstances '

$hich he is surrounded" re*or' VII" $as orn in

an a*e of ararism( i*norance( and su)erstition

and he had to dea+ $ith a 'oun*( deauched( ine=)e6

rienced em)eror( deHcient in mone'( and $hose

)o$er $as contested ' a++ the )o$erfu+ +ords of



erman'"

We cannot e+ie%e( that( from the time of the

Austrasian Char+ema*ne( the Roman )eo)+e e%er

)aid %er' $i++in* oedience to Fran<s or Teutonians -

the' hated them as much as the *enuine o+d Ro6

mans $ou+d ha%e hated the Cimri( if the Cimri

had otained dominion in Ita+'" The Othos had +eft

ehind them in Rome a memor' that $as e=ecrated(

ecause the' had enGo'ed *reat )o$er there and(

Dictionar'"

after the time of the Othos( Euro)e it is $e++ <no$n

ecame in%o+%ed in fri*htfu+ anarch'"

This anarch' $as not more eBectua++' restrained

under the em)erors of the house of Franconia" One6

ha+f of erman' $as in insurrection a*ainst &enr'

IV" The countess 0athi+da( *rand duchess( his

cousin6*erman( more )o$erfu+ than himse+f in Ita+'(

$as his morta+ enem'" She )ossessed( either as Hefs

of the em)ire( or as a++odia+ )ro)ert'( the $ho+e

duch' of Tuscan'( the territor' of Cremona( Fer6



rara( 0antua( and Parma a )art of the 0arches of

Ancona( Re**io( 0odena( S)o+eto( and Verona

and she had ri*hts( that is to sa' )retensions( to the

t$o !ur*undies for the im)eria+ chancer' c+aimed

those territories( accordin* to its re*u+ar )ractice of

c+aimin* e%er'thin*"

We admit( that re*or' VII" $ou+d ha%e een

+itt+e +ess than an idiot had he not e=erted his stron*6

est eBorts to secure a com)+ete inuence o%er this

)o$erfu+ )rincess and to otain( ' her means( a

)oint of su))ort and )rotection a*ainst the ermans"

&e ecame her director( and( after ein* her di6

rector( her heir"

I sha++ not( in this )+ace( e=amine $hether he $as

rea++' her +o%er( or $hether he on+' )retended to e

so or $hether his enemies mere+' )retended it or

$hether( in his id+e moments( the assumin* and ar6

dent +itt+e director did not occasiona++' ause the in6

uence he )ossessed $ith his )enitent( and )re%ai+

Q Phi+oso)hica+



o%er a fee+e and ca)ricious $oman" In the course

of human e%ents nothin* can e more natura+ or

common ut as usua++' no re*isters are <e)t of such

cases as those interestin* intimacies et$een the

directors and directed do not ta<e )+ace efore $it6

nesses( and as re*or' has een re)roached $ith

this im)utation on+' ' his enemies( $e ou*ht not to

confound accusation $ith )roof" It is uite enou*h

that re*or' c+aimed the $ho+e of his )enitentJs

)ro)ert'"

@" The donation $hich he )rocured to e made

to himse+f ' the countess 0athi+da( in the 'ear 8:??(

is more than sus)ected" And one )roof that it is not

to e re+ied u)on is that not mere+' $as this deed

ne%er sho$n( ut that( in a second deed( the Hrst is

stated to ha%e een +ost" It $as )retended that the

donation had een made in the fortress of Canossa(

and in the second act it is said to ha%e een made

at Rome" These circumstances ma' e considered

as conHrmin* the o)inion of some antiuaries( a +itt+e

too scru)u+ous( $ho maintain that out of a thousand

*rants made in those times and those times $ere

of +on* duration there are more than nine hundred

e%ident+' counterfeit"



There ha%e een t$o sorts of usur)ers in our

uarter of the $or+d( Euro)e roers and for*ers"

;" !a'+e( a+thou*h a++o$in* the tit+e of reat to

re*or'( ac<no$+ed*es at the same time that this

turu+ent man dis*raced his heroism ' his )ro)he6

cies" &e had the audacit' to create an em)eror( and

Dictionar'" @

in that he did $e++( as the em)eror &enr' IV" had

made a )o)e" &enr' de)osed him( and he de)osed

&enr'" So far there is nothin* to $hich to oGect

oth sides are eua+" !ut re*or' too< it into his

head to turn )ro)het he )redicted the death of

&enr' IV" for the 'ear 8:2: ut &enr' IV" con6

uered( and the )retended em)eror Rudo+)h $as

defeated and s+ain in Thurin*ia ' the famous od6

fre' of !oui++on( a man more tru+' *reat than a++ the

other three" This )ro%es( in m' o)inion( that re*6

or' had more enthusiasm than ta+ent"

I suscrie $ith a++ m' heart to the remar< of

!a'+e( that #$hen a man underta<es to )redict the



future( he is )ro%ided a*ainst e%er'thin* ' a face of

rass( and an ine=hausti+e ma*a1ine of eui%oca6

tions"# !ut 'our enemies deride 'our eui%ocations

the' a+so ha%e a face of rass +i<e 'ourse+f and the'

e=)ose 'ou as a <na%e( a ra**art( and a foo+"

?" Our *reat man ended his )u+ic career $ith

$itnessin* the ta<in* of Rome ' assau+t( in the

'ear 8:2" &e $as esie*ed in the cast+e( since

ca++ed St" An*e+o( ' the same em)eror &enr' IV"(

$hom he had dared to dis)ossess( and died in miser'

and contem)t at Sa+erno( under the )rotection of

Voltaire IX

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