nie d eoch of Waiotapu Ignimbrite, upo Vol nie Zon ,New land. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science at the University of Canterbury by Alistair B. H. Ritchie -;::;::. University of Canterbury 1996
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nie d eoch of Waiotapu Ignimbrite,
upo Vol nie Zon ,New land.
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science at the
University of Canterbury by
Alistair B. H. Ritchie -;::;::.
University of Canterbury
1996
"/ have seen the truth and it makes no sense. J!
-Anon
Frontispiece
Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Wawa Quarry about to fall on me.
Waiotapu Ignimbrite (0.710 ± 0.06 Ma) is a predominantly densely welded, purple-grey coloured, pumice rich lenticulite, which is exposed on both eastern and western flanks of Taupo Volcanic Zone. The unit is uniform in terms of lithology and mineralogy over its entire extent and has been deposited as a single flow unit. The unit contains abundant pumice clasts which are often highly attenuated (aspect ratios of c.1 :30) and are evenly distributed throughout the deposit. Lithic fragments are rare, never exceeding 1 % of total rock volume at an outcrop and no proximal facies, such as lithic lag breccias, have been identified.
The deposit is densely welded to the base and only in more distal exposure does the ignimbrite become partially welded at the top of the deposit. Post-depositional devitrification is pervasive throughout the deposit, often destroying original vitroclastic texture in the matrix. Vapour phase alteration is extensive in welded and partially welded facies of the deposit.
Pumices within Waiotapu Ignimbrite appear to have been derived from two distinct magma batches, with differing Rb concentrations, that originated along different fractionation trends. Type-A pumices have significantly lower Rb than the subordinate type-B pumices. The presence of the pumices may represent the simultaneous evisceration of two spatially discrete magma chambers or the type-B chamber may have been intruded into type-A body, the magmas subsequently mingling prior to, or during, the eruption.
The source of Waiotapu Ignimbrite is poorly constrained, largely owing to the lack of meaningful maximum lithic data, and poor exposure of the unit. The distribution of the ignimbrite suggests that it was erupted from within Kapenga volcanic centre. If so the most proximal exposures of Waiotapu Ignimbrite are approximately 10km from the vent. Intensive and voluminous silicic volcanism, beginning with the eruption of the 0.33 Ma Whakamaru Group Ignimbrite eruptions, and extensive faulting within Kapenga volcanic centre will have obscured any intra-caldera Waiotapu Ignimbrite. The mechanism of eruption suggests that the source may not have been a caldera in the strictest sense, but instead a series of near linear fissures aligned with the trend of regional faulting.
Waiotapu Ignimbrite was generated in one sustained eruption and produced an energetic and high temperature pyroclastic flow. The lack of any recognised preceding plinian deposit, coupled with the energetic nature and paucity of lithics suggests eruption by an unusual mechanism. The eruption most likely resulted from the large scale collapse of a caldera block into the underlying chamber resulting in high discharge rates, which were no conducive to the development of a convecting column, and minimal vent erosion, resulting in negligible entrainment of lithics.
The density of welding and recrystallisation textures suggest that the flow retained heat to considerable distances which allowed the ignimbrite to weld densely to the base. The deposit was most likely progressively aggraded from the base, with material being supplied from an overriding particulate flow.
list of Figures list of Tables
Chapter One: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Field Area . . . . . . . . 1.2 Regional Geology
1.2.1 The Taupo Volcanic Zone 1.2.2 Volcanic History
1.3 Geophysical and geological profile of Taupo Volcanic Zone Fig 1.4 Recognised Taupo Volcanic Zone calderas. . . .
Chapter Two: WAIOTAPU IGNIMBRITE: FIELD GEOLOGY
2 3 4 6
Fig 2.1 Certain and probable distribution of Waiotapu Ignimbrite 14 Fig 2.2 Waiotapu Ignimbrite lithics at Butchers Boundary Road 16 Fig 2.3 Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Ngapouri Ridge . . . . . . 18 Fig 2.4 Graphic log of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Ngapouri Ridge . 20 Fig Waiotapu Ignimbrite pumices. . . . . . . . . . 21 Fig 2.6 Graphic log of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Bison Road Quarry 23 Fig 2.7 Graphic log of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Rawhiti Road Quarry 24 Fig 2.8 Rawhiti Road Quarry. . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Fig 2.9 Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Lichfield Quarry . . . . . . 26 Fig 2.10 Graphic log of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Lichfield Quarry . 27 Fig 2.11 Welding textures in Waiotapu Ignimbrite. . . . . . 29 Fig 2.12 Wawa Quarry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Fig 2.13 Isopach map ofWaiotapu Ignimbrite in Tokoroa-Kinleith region. 32 Fig 2.14 Graphic log of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Wawa Quarry 33 Fig 2.15 Lower basal section at Wawa Quarry. . . . . 34 Fig 2.16 Upper basal section at Wawa Quarry. . . . . . 35 Fig 2.17 Generalised section through Wawa Quarry. . . . 36 Fig 2.18 Gas segregation structures in Waiotapu Ignimbrite . 37 Fig 2.19 Recrystallisation textures in Waiotapu Ignimbrite - western TVZ. 39 Fig 2.20 Recrystallisation textures at Ngapouri Ridge . . . . . . . 42
Chapter Three: WAIOTAPU IGNIMBRITE: PETROGRAPHIC AND GEOCHEMICAL VARIATION
Fig 3.1 Photomicrograph: Waiotapu Ignimbrite mineralogy Fig 3.2 Ab-An-Or plot of Waiotapu plagioclase . . . . Fig 3.3 Waiotapu Ignimbrite orthopyroxene compositions . Fig 3.4 Variation in Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Ngapouri Ridge Fig 3.5 Variation in Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Bison Road Quarry Fig 3.6 Variation in Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Wawa Quarry . Fig 3.7 Variation in Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Lichfield Quarry .
Chapter Four: GEOCHEMISTRY WAIOTAPU IGNIMBRITE
45 46 47 51 52 53 54
4.1 a) Total alkalis vs 8i02• b) K20 vs 8i02, Waiotapu Ignimbrite . . . . . 59
iv
Page
Fig 4.2 Selected major elements vs Si02 - Waiotapu Ignimbrite. 62 Fig Selected trace elements vs Si02 - Waiotapu Ignimbrite . 63 Fig Selected major elements vs Rb - Waiotapu Ignimbrite . 64 Fig 4.5 Selected trace elements vs Rb - Waiotapu Ignimbrite 65 Fig 4.6 Multi-element spider plot of selected Waiotapu Ignimbrite pumices 67 Fig 4.7 Sr vs Rb of TVZ ignimbrites, with Waiotapu analyses . . . . 68
Chapter Five: GEOLOGY OF THE NGAPOURI RIDGE
Fig 5.1 Ngapouri Ridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Fig 5.2 Representative cross section of Waiotapu/Ngapouri Region 73 Fig 5.3 Ngapouri Rhyolite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Fig 5.4 Oevitrification textures in Ngapouri Rhyolite. . . . . . 77 Fig 5.5 Variation diagrams comparing Waiotapu Ignimbrite with I\Igapouri Rhyolite 78 Fig 5.6 Outcrop of Unit X, Ngapouri Ridge . . . . . . . . . 79 Fig 5.7 Log of Unit X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Fig 5.8 Blocks of Waiotapu Ignimbrite on the Paeroa Fault Scarp 82 Fig 5.9 Blocks at the base of the Paeroa Fault Scarp . . . . 84
Chapter Six: RAHOPAKA IGNIMBRITE
Fig 6.1 Map of Matahana Basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fig 6.2 Pukerimu Formation capped by Rahopaka Ignimbrite, Rusa Rd Fig 6.3 Rahopaka Ignimbrite near the end of Bob Rd Fig 6.4 Density profiles of Rahopaka Ignimbrite Fig 6.5 Lithics in Rahopaka Ignimbrite . . . . .
Chapter Seven: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
86 87 90 91 94
Fig 7.1 The ignimbrite grade continuum. . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Fig 7.2 Gravity model of TVZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Fig 7.3 Temporal and spatial distribution of caldera forming activity in TVZ 101 Fig 7.4 Generalised isopach map of Waiotapu Ignimbrite 102 Fig 7.5 Eruption ofWaiotapu Ignimbrite. . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Table Thickness of Waiotapu Ignimbrite in Waiotapu Geothermal Field . 15 Table Welding facies in Waiotapu Ignimbrite. . . . . . . . .. 30
Chapter Four: GEOCHEMISTRY OF WAIOTAPU IGNIMBRITE
Table 4.1 Variation in major and trace elements in Waiotapu Ignimbrite Table 4.2 Analyses of representative Waiotapu Ignimbrite Pumices
Chapter Five: GEOLOGY OF THE NGAPOURI RIDGE
60 61
Table 5.1 Stratigraphy of the Waiotapu Region ......... 72
Chapter Six: RAHOPAKA IGNIMBRITE
Table 6.1 Generalised stratigraphy of Matahana Basin . . . . . .. 88 Table 6.2 Stratigraphy of Matahana Basin after Murphy (1977). . . .. 89 Table 6.3 Comparison of Rahopaka and Waiotapu Ignimbrite geochemistry 92 Table 6.4 Description of lithic fragments within Rahopaka Ignimbrite 93
Chapter Seven: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Table 7.1 Summary of volcanic activity at Kapenga Volcanic Centre . . . . . 100
vi
ONE
INTRODU ON
1.1 FIELD AREA
The Waiotapu Ignimbrite is exposed in two main areas of the Taupo Volcanic Zone,
one on the eastern side near Waiotapu, forming the prominent Ngapouri Ridge, and
the other on the western side where it comprises the bulk of the Tikorangi escarpment
in the Tokoroa forest, some 20 km east of Tokoroa (See Maps 1,2 and 3; in map
pocket). There are also scattered outliers in the Waikite Valley and within the
Matahana Basin. In addition it is exposed in quarries near Lichfield and to the south of
Kinleith Mill. Drillholes within the Waiotapu Geothermal Field have encountered large
thicknesses of Waiotapu Ignimbrite (Steiner, 1963). Large metre scale lithics occur
within the Kaingaroa Ignimbrite proximal lithic lag breccias which represent sub-surface
Waiotapu Ignimbrite on the eastern margin of the Reporoa Caldera.
The quality of outcrops is usually poor. At the time of field work much of the study
area within the Tokoroa forest was densely forested, consequently exposure was
restricted to three quarries, limited roadside outcrop and rare stream exposure (Figure
1.1). The areas of exposure of Waiotapu Ignimbrite south of Kinleith mapped by
Houghton et al (1987a) have now been reforested and no exposures of the ignimbrite
were found.
1.2 REGIONAL GEOLOGY
1.2.1 The Taupo Volcanic Zone
The Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) (Figure 1.2) has been the main area of volcanic
activity in New Zealand over the last c. 2 Ma; the last c. 1.6 Ma being characterised by
intense rhyolitic volcanism. TVZ is 300 km long and 60 km wide and is the result of the
oblique convergence of the Pacific and Australian lithospheric plates, and the
subsequent subduction of the Pacific plate. It is the active eastern half of a wedge
shaped area of Quaternary volcanism termed the Central Volcanic Region (CVR),
originally defined by Thompson (1964) and subsequently redefined by Stern (1987) on
the basis of geophysical data. TVZ has a total extrusive magma flux of 0.3 m3 S-1 and
is the most productive and active silicic volcanic system on Earth (Wilson et ai, 1995).
The region is the site of numerous geothermal systems producing a total heat output of
1
Figure 1.1 Typical exposure of Waiotapu Ignimbrite. Throughout TVZ Waiotapu Ignimbrite is well exposed in three quarries and one cliff section. Elsewhere outcrop is restricted to sporadic outcrops such as this one on Beale Rd, Kinleith Forest.
4200 500 MW (Bibby et ai, 1995).
Estimates of the volume of material produced over the last 2 Ma vary from 10 000
km 3 (Cole, 1990) to 15 - 20 000 km3 (Wilson et ai, 1995). Eruptive products comprise
three major types; high alumina basalts (HABs), andesites, and the volumetrically
(>90%) dominant rhyolites; in addition there is a minor suite of dacites (Graham et ai,
1995). The HABs are evenly distributed throughout central TVZ and occur as a minor
part of a bimodal assemblage with the rhyolites from the caldera volcanoes. Modern
andesitic activity is mainly exposed in the northern and southern extremities of TVZ,
within the Tongariro region and Bay of Plenty respectively, but older andesitic
volcanism has been widespread throughout the region, as evidenced by various buried
andesite cones and pyroclastic flows encountered in drillholes in central TVZ (e.g
Steiner, 1963; Brown et ai, 1992). The minor dacites also occur in the central TVZ
(Graham et ai, 1995) and are associated with andesitic volcanoes such as Ruapehu,
White Island and Whale Island.
Cole (1990) described the TVZ in terms of an eastern volcanic front, or arc, that is
best developed around Tongariro in the south, while to the north it is represented by a
line of andesite/dacite volcanics on either side of the Whakatane graben. He
considered the 50 km wide tectonic Taupo-Rotorua basin, in the central TVZ to be an
2
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Figure 1.2 Map of the extent of Taupo Volcanic Zone. TVZ boundaries are after Davey et al (1995), Wright (1990) and Gamble et al (1993). Central Volcanic Region (CVR) after Stern (1985,1987). Inset: The setting of TVZ within North Island, New Zealand. VMFZ = Vening Meinesz Fracture Zone (after Gamble et ai, 1993). Adapted from Wilson et al (1995).
devitrification results in the development of silica-feld§par mosaics which have been
referred to as granophyric interw()wths (e.g. Lofgren, 1971; Swanson et ai, 1989).
Other workers (e.g. Shelley, 1993) prefer to avoid this term due to the confusion
with granophyric intergrowth found in granites, and instead use the term <t~~;}ti~") /1 texture. The latter terminology is employed in this thesis.
Vapour phase alteration: occurs with or following devitrification and involves the
crystallisation of tridymite, cristobalite and alkali feldspar in open pore spaces.
These phases precipitate from volatiles derived from the precipitation of secondary
minerals during devitrification, but also volatiles, juvenile glass fragments and
heated ground water percolating through the deposit shortly after emplacement.
(Cas & Wright, 1988).
1.6 METHODS
Mineralogical and textural descriptioll~Lwere made by analysing thin secticJns of
representative samples. The sections were prepared by Rob Spiers at the University of
Canterbury using Logitech equipment.
Density of samples was determined using wax-coating methods described by
Houghton et al (1988). The results were tabulated and calculated using Microsoft Excel
5.0.
Major and trace element chemistry of both whole rock and pumice samples was
determined at the University of Canterbury by X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometry.
Samples were first crushed then milled to a powder in a tungsten carbide ring mill.
Following the general methods of Norrish and Hutton (1969) the powders were made
into glass fusion beads (to analyse major elements) and pressed powder pellets (to
analyse trace elements). The samples were run through a Philips PW1400 automatic
X-Ray Spectrometer by Stephen Brown. Detection limits and analytical uncertainty for
the results are outlined in Weaver et al (1990). Data were processed and plotted using
11
NEWPET geochemical software and the final graphs were produced using
CorelDRAW 4.0.
Several samples were analysed by X-Ray Diffraction to determine the nature of any
clay alteration in samples with high loss on ignition (from XRF work) or AI20 3 contents.
Samples were analysed using a Philips PW1729 x-ray generator and a Philips
PW1710 diffractometer control at the University of Canterbury by Stephen Brown.
Mineral and glass were analysed using a JEOL 8600 "Superprobe scanning
electron microprobe at the University of Otago (Dunedin) Geology Department with the
assistance of Dr Yosuke Kawachi. Polished sections of 11 samples (including 3
mineral separates) were made by Rob Spiers at the University of Canterbury.
12
CHAPTER Two
WAIOTAPU I NIM ITE
INTRODUCTION
This chapter will discuss the general field characteristics and internal stratigraphy of
Waiotapu Ignimbrite, with additional density and petrographic data.
Waiotapu Ignimbrite (0.71±0.06 Ma; Houghton et ai, 1995) is distinctive among TVZ
ignimbrite. It is welded throughout and has a characteristic blocky nature imparted by
numerous vertical and sub-horizontal cooling joints. In outcrop the unit ranges from
pale grey to dark purple and contains many highly attenuated pumices (10s of
centimetres in length), and, in more densely welded outcrop, black, glassy fiamme. In
hand specimen it is crystal poor (c.10-15% crystals) and has a distinct hackly fracture.
The ignimbrite is remarkably uniform in character, but has a well developed zone of
lithophysae near the base at Ngapouri Ridge.
2.1 DISTRIBUTION
2.1.1 Surface exposure
Waiotapu Ignimbrite is exposed on both the eastern and western margins of TVZ, in a
band 15km wide and 55 km long between Lichfield in the west and Waiotapu in the
east (see main map in back pocket). Since the onset of the eruption of the c.0.33Ma
Whakamaru Group ignimbrites (Brown, 1994), TVZ has been the site of intense and
voluminous rhyolitic activity that has obscured much of the older deposits on both
flanks of TVZ. Exposure of Waiotapu Ignimbrite is therefore poor, but does form most
of two major landforms: the Tikorangi escarpment in the west and the Ngapouri Ridge
in the east. Figure 2.1 is a generalised map of the certain and possible distributions of
Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
2.1.2 Subsurface distribution
Lithic component analyses (LeA) of younger ignimbrites reveals much about the
nature of units that lie within the calderas formed as a result of their eruption. With
additional drillhole data inferences can be made about the distribution of Waiotapu
Ignimbrite by documenting its occurrence in lithic lag breccias surrounding the study
area.
13
..>.
~
.. ~ .
", -, . '" ......... f)RoeAeL~ ...............
N
No Waiotapu Ignimbrite lithics have been recovered from Rotoiti and Earthquake Flat Breccias (Burt et ai, in press; this study) .
o km 10
Tokoroa
~ - ~- " ... • +
!.. ... : k' ...
:. + +
\. Kinleilh ..•.. '- ~
2.1 Certain (solid line) and probable (dotted line) distribution of Waiotapu Ignimbrite (black). The certain distribution encompasses known occurrences of Waiotapu constrained by outcrop, drillhole (+) and lithic data. The probable distribution is an estimate and accounts for the absence of the unit in Okataina volcanic centre and Whakamaru caldera eruptives .
'. ·""4 ••
................
' ..
.......
...............
".
.......
...........
................................. No Waiotapu Ignimbrite lithics reported in Whakamaru Group Ignimbrites (Brown, 1994).
Butchers Boundary Road: here Kaingaroa Ignimbrite lithic
lag breccias contain. 14% Waiotapu Ignimbrite lithics upto 3m in diameter.
No Waiotapu Ignimbrite was found as lithics in Whakamaru Ignimbrite (Brown,
1994) suggesting Waiotapu Ignimbrite does not occur beneath Whakamaru Caldera.
Nor have Waiotapu Ignimbrite lithics been recovered from Earthquake Flat or Rotoiti
Breccias which lie to the north (Burt et ai, in prep and reconnaissance field work
conducted by the author).
By contrast, in the east, LCA has revealed Waiotapu Ignimbrite to be a significant
component in Kaingaroa Ignimbrite lithic lag breccias (S.W. Beresford pers. comm.
1995). At Butchers Boundary Road (U17/062999), on the eastern margin of Reporoa
Caldera, clasts (some up to 1.5m across) of Waiotapu Ignimbrite are the second most
dominant lithic type, making up 14% of the proximal lithic lag breccia in Kaingaroa
Ignimbrite (Figure 2.2). Waiotapu Ignimbrite appears to be ubiquitous throughout
Kaingaroa Ignimbrite. The sheer abundance of Waiotapu Ignimbrite fragments
suggests that, at least along the eastern margin of Reporoa Caldera, the ignimbrite
was present in considerable thicknesses.
Keall (1988) has described Waiotapu-like lithics in Te Weta and Te Kopia Ignimbrite
lag breccias in Paeroa Scarp. Due to the confusion concerning the stratigraphy of the
region at the time (see Chapter 5.1) Waiotapu Ignimbrite was considered younger than
the Paeroa Range Group Ignimbrites and therefore Keall (1988) would not have
identified them as such. The sources for Te Kopia Ignimbrite (north of Paeroa Fault)
and Te Weta Ignimbrite (south of Ngapouri Ridge) defined by Keall (1988) both lie
within the likely distribution of Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
It is not known whether Waiotapu Ignimbrite travelled beyond Reporoa Caldera. On
northern Kaingaroa Plateau a series of 3 stratigraphic drillholes were drilled on
V16/196112; Nairn, 1984). Of these cores only one (NBR2) penetrated beneath
Rangitaiki Ignimbrite to a depth of 227m, into a grey-purple ignimbrite which graded
into a purple-grey lenticulite was logged at a depth of 143m, approximately the right
stratigraphic location for Waiotapu Ignimbrite. The mineralogy (plagioclase, quartz\
amphibole) is however inconsistent with Waiotapu Ignimbrite presenting two
possibilities: either Waiotapu Ignimbrite is present at greater depth and the drillholes
Table 2.1 Thicknesses of Waiotapu Ignimbrite encountered in drillcores within the Waiotapu Geothermal field (after Steiner, 1963; Hedenquist, 1983).
Drillho/e Wt1 Wt2 Wt3 Wt4 Wt5 Wt6 Wt7 Depth to top of unit (m) 240 170 250 230 230 175 130 Depth to base of unit (m) 485+ 455+ 454+ 580 455+ 415 360 Total thickness of unit (m) 245+ 285+ 204+ 350 225+ 240 230
15
Figure Large lithic fragments of Waiotapu Ignimbrite within Kaingaroa Ignimbrite lithic lag breccias at Butchers Boundary Rd (U17/062999), Kaingaroa Forest. Here Waiotapu Ignimbrite lithics make up c.14% of the breccia and are up to 3m in size. Sledgehammer is 55cm long.
penetrated younger, as yet unrecognised ignimbrites; or Waiotapu Ignimbrite is absent
and the lenticulite may correlate with the pre-Waiotapu Ignimbrite quartz/amphibole
bearing tuffs described in the Waiotapu Geothermal Field (Grindley et ai, 1995;
C.P.Wood pers. comm. 1996).
In western TVZ, drill hole data around Tokoroa and Kinleith suggests that the deposit
is at the limits of flow, thicknesses of the unit being <1 m in places. The subsurface
distribution of Waiotapu Ignimbrite around Tokoroa/Kinleith will be discussed in detail
in section 2.4.
2.2 THICKNESS AND VOLUME
2.2.1 Thickness
Within its outcrop area Waiotapu Ignimbrite ranges in thickness from 10 to 140 m,
however within the drill holes in the Waiotapu Geothermal Field the unit is reported to
be up to 350m thick (Steiner, 1963).
In the western TVZ Waiotapu Ignimbrite is present in thickness up to 140m along
the Tikorangi Escarpment. Drillhole TIK1 (U16/768272), north of the Tikorangi
Escarpment encountered 114m of the unit whereas a drillhole at Sutton Road
16
(U16/656303) encountered 30m of Waiotapu Ignimbrite beneath the Mamaku Plateau
(Grindley and Mumme, 1991). Drillholes near Tokoroa and Kinleith contain Waiotapu
Ignimbrite ranging from 1 to 50 m in thickness (see section 2.4).
In eastern TVl the ignimbrite is at least 100m thick at the Ngapouri Ridge and then
increases in thickness toward the Waiotapu Geothermal Field (Table 2.1). Below the
Paeroa Scarp on Te Kopia Road (U17/913066) drillhole TK2 has penetrated Waiotapu
Ignimbrite 150m thick (Grindley et ai, 1995). Beneath the eastern rim of Reporoa
Caldera the deposit is present in great thicknesses (see section 2.1).
2.2.2 Aspect ratio
The thickness of the ignimbrite is variable, and is controlled by factors such as
topography and proximity to source. The overall lateral extent of the deposit is
unknown and estimates of the aspect ratio vary. The vertical component, however, has
been defined as the average thickness of the deposit, which is 54m (calculated from all
drillhole and selected outcrop data).
Four aspect ratios, with varying lateral extent have been calculated:
a) Waiotapu Ignimbrite extending from Lichfield Quarry (T16/588400) to the
eastern margin of Reporoa Caldera, c. 62.5: 1 :1157
b) Waiotapu Ignimbrite confined to the extent of outcrop. c. 55km: 1:1019
c) Lateral extent defined by a circle with a radius of 38km, the distance from
Lichfield Quarry to Ngakuru, the arbitrarily defined point source of Waiotapu
Ignimbrite within Kapenga Volcanic Centre, c.76 km: 1 :1407.
These aspect ratios are remarkably low given the extent of the deposit, this is most
likely a function of the extreme thickening of the deposit as it ponds around Waiotapu
geothermal field and Reporoa caldera.
2.2.3 Volume
The limited outcrop of Waiotapu Ignimbrite precludes an accurate estimate of the
volume of the deposit. An estimate can be made by determining the volume of a series
of concentric cylinders whose radii were defined by the distance from the source
location of Ngakuru. The resulting estimate of 174 km 3 is a minimum figure as it fails to
account for any caldera-fill ignimbrite that may lie within the source region. In addition
the thickness of the unit east and south of Waiotapu is unknown, but is likely to be
considerable.
17
Figure Cliff forming Waiotapu Ignimbrite at the south end of Ngapouri Ridge (U171013099). Note the lithophysae zone near the base of the photo.
2.3 PHYSICAL CHARACTER
Waiotapu Ignimbrite shows minimal variation in character over the extent of its surficial
outcrop. Most variation, e.g lithophysae development, results from post depositional
phenomena. This section outlines the nature of key components of Waiotapu
Ignimbrite and their relationship to each other with a view to outlining possible eruptive
and depositional mechanisms for the unit.
2.3.1 Eastern TVZ
The bulk of the exposure of Waiotapu Ignimbrite in eastern TVZ is at Ngapourl Ridge
where it is at least 100m thick. Here the unit comprises the bulk of a ridge which
18
bifurcates to the south. At the southern end the ignimbrite is a major cliff forming unit,
forming exposures some 40m high (Figure 2.3). To the north the topography is steep
but exposure of the unit is restricted to isolated and small outcrops distributed across
the hill side. Within the core of the ridge are the eroded remains of a pre 0.75 Ma
rhyolite dome, the Ngapouri Rhyolite.
Here the ignimbrite shows the most variation in outcrop character than at any other
exposure (Figure 2.4). It is welded throughout (1.79-2.16 g cm -3) and has a uniform
dark purple colour. The unit is vertically and horizontally jointed, the intensity of jointing
being more marked at the southern end of the ridge. Horizontal jointing ranges from
<1 m to c.5m while vertical joining is commonly 1 m or greater. The apparent decrease
in jointing to the north of the ridge is most likely a function of small outcrop size.
Pumices are common and show considerable variation in size and aspect ratio, but
all are attenuated to some degree (Figure 2.5). The degree of attenuation of pumices
can be extreme, with aspect ratios varying from 1:S to 1:37, the mean being
approximately 1: 10. The majority of pumices are cream coloured, sparsely crystalline
and poorly vesicular (which probably reflects flattening), with most having grey rinds up
to Smm thick. Rare dark grey to black fiamme occur.
Throughout the entire ridge isolated lithophysae occur but at the south end they are
concentrated in two zones several metres thick. The zones are of variable thickness
and are typically lensoidal, occurring at the base of the cliff section and approximately
S m below the top of the ridge. Lithophysae are often elongate parallel to the
orientation offoliation within the ignimbrite, and are sometimes in excess of 10cm long,
although they are usually <Scm.
2.3.2 Western TVZ
Waiotapu Ignimbrite is exposed in three key localities in western TVZ; along Tikorangi
Escarpment, in Wawa Quarry and at Lichfield Quarry. Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Wawa
Quarry will be discussed in detail in section 2.4.
Along Tikorangi escarpment, Waiotapu Ignimbrite is up to 140m thick. The greatest
stratigraphic thickness of the ignimbrite is exposed in Bison Road and Rawhiti Road
Quarries; elsewhere outcrop is restricted to isolated exposures on the Waiotapu
Ignimbrite surface, in isolated cliffs in the upper section of the escarpment, to the west
of the scarp, or in streams to the south of the escarpment The unit is characterised by
numerous closely spaced (commonly <O.Sm) vertical and sub-horizontal joints, which
imparts a blocky nature to most outcrops. The sub-horizontal joints are more numerous
19
N o
I !!!. (0
;:r OJ cr o < CD
50
g- 25 I/J CD
~ o S. C'l a '0
]:
=--
-=
- I .
-=--'=" D
~-=
=:= ~
~
-o ,....
i 1
1:20 1:40 1.6 2.0 2.4 Pumice Aspect Ratio Density (g cmOs)
Uthophysae zone; numerous, highly elongate cavities, 15 cm in length.
Densely welded, dark purple, crystal-lithic poor, pumiceous ignimbrite.Occasionallithophysae.
Uthophysae zone; concentration of elongate cavities 1-20 cm long.
Figure 2.5 Pumices within Waiotapu Ignimbrite from Ngapouri Ridge. a) From near the base of the unit (U 16/023127). Note the varying degree of development of the black rinds. Hammer head is 17.5 cm long. b) Large pumice from the north end of Ngapouri Ridge (U17/018098). Pencil is 14cm long.
21
than the vertical joints. Grey rinds on pumices in western TVZ are less developed than
at Ngapouri Ridge, and are generally <2mm thick.
Figures 2.6 and are graphic logs of Bison Road and Rawhiti Road Quarries.
Bison Road Quarry is uniform in nature throughout, showing little variation in density
and pumice aspect ratio. At the intersection of Bison Road and Tikorangi Road
(U161771207) 3m+ thick succession of non-welded, highly altered, buff coloured
material underlies Waiotapu Ignimbrite, this deposit is also exposed in the Tikorangi
Escarpment. This was originally interpreted by Murphy (1977) as one of the Marshall
Ignimbrites but Houghton et al (1987a) disagreed saying it was the unwelded base of
Waiotapu Ignimbrite. Mineralogically the deposit resembles Waiotapu Ignimbrite
(plag>px>mag>ilm), yet mineral chemistry reveals two pyroxene populations, both of
which differ greatly from Waiotapu Ignimbrite pyroxenes. The unit is consequently
considered to be unrelated to Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
At Rawhiti Road (Figure 2.8) the unit shows marked variation in colour, ranging from
a pale grey to a very dark purple. The colour shows no systematic variation with height
and degree of welding although in places colour change is clearly associated with soft
veins within the deposit. This may reflect varying degrees of vapour phase activity.
At Lichfield Quarry (Figure 2.9) the unit is uniform in character, again showing little
variation in density and pumice aspect ratio (Figure 10). Pumices are still common
although recorded aspect ratios are not as extreme. Rare black fiamme are present
towards the base of the deposit. Sub-horizontal jointing is poorly developed and the
ignimbrite has a more coherent appearance. Although the actual contact is not
observed, the ignimbrite overlies Ahuroa and Ongatiti Ignimbrites (1.18±0.02 Ma and
1.21±O.04 Ma respectively; Houghton et ai, 1995), and has apparently flowed over, or
around a paleohigh with a slope of c. 30°. Two ignimbrite facies normally result from
the interaction of a pyroclastic flow with changes in topography: Valley Ponded
Ignimbrite and Ignimbrite Veneer Deposit (Wilson and Walker, 1982), but there is no
variation in Waiotapu Ignimbrite between the top of the paleohigh and the valley
bottom.
2.3.3 lithic fragments
There are very few lithics in Waiotapu Ignimbrite. The largest lithic clast measured was
6cm at the north end of Ngapouri Ridge (U16/023127). Elsewhere rare lithic fragments
have been recorded in outcrop, not usually exceeding 1 cm. Most fragments are
rhyolite or greywacke, with rare dacite and possible trachyte. The problem is
exacerbated by the nature of outcrop of Waiotapu Ignimbrite, which makes it difficult to
N W
I (1)
tCi" ;:! 0> 0-0 < (1)
0-0> If) Cl)
9., 0 c:.
§ "0
]:
40
~
-='='"
20
~
-=
0"'------1 :20 1:40 1.6 2.0 2.4
Pumice Aspect Ratio Density (g em·:I)
Densely welded, purple coloured, crystal-lithic poor, pumiceous ignimbrite. No variation in character throughout exposure. Sub-horizontal jointing is intense and blocky character.
distinctive
Figure 2.6 Graphic log of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Bison Rd Quarry, Kinleith Forest (U16/771211).
N .$:>.
Ol c-o <: (j)
c-Ol
'" (j)
a 0 c 0 0 "0
:[
8
4
o
0 ---
..c:::J -='" i
= ~
=l -=-----=~
~
I
1:20 1:40 PumiceAspect Ratio
1.6 2.0
(g
2.4
Figure 2.7 Graphic log of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at
Light grey to purple grey coloured, crystal-lithic poor, pumiceous ignimbrite. Shows considerable, but not systematic variation in colour throughout the exposure.
Figure 2.10 Graphic Lag of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Uchfield Quarry (T16/588400).
identify lithics. During point counting of samples of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Wawa
Quarry, Dyah Hastuti (1992) noted that the percentage of lithics at that locality did not
exceed 0.4%.
The occurrence of coarse breccias in close proximity to ignimbrite source vents was
first reported by Wright and Walker (1977) in the Acaltan Ignimbrite, Mexico. Since
then such breccias have been recognised as the usual proximal facies of many
ignimbrites (e.g. Walker, 1985; Nairn et ai, 1994). It is likely the most proximal
Waiotapu Ignimbrite exposed is at least 10km from the source and lag breccias are
unlikely to be deposited at this distance from the vent. The lack of exposure of
proximal facies does not, however, explain the marked paucity of lit~lics elsewhere in
the deposit. It is possible that the flow did not incorporate large quantities of lithic
fragments. at the source. This may be due to limited fragmentation around the vent, the
lack of a caldera associated with the Waiotapu eruption (unlikely given the volume of
material erupted), or that caldera collapse was not syn-eruptive but followed the
generation of the pyroclastic flow.
2.4 WELDING AND DENSITY VARIATION
Whole rock density has been suggested as a reliable method of quantifying the
welding state of ignimbrites (Houghton et ai, 1988). Syn- and post-depositional
processes operating in ignimbrites produce characteristic textures in the ground mass
and, on hand specimen scale, in pumices. Consequently distinct welding facies can
usually be recognised in ignimbrites (e.g. Streck and Grunder, 1995). This section
aims to present bulk density data determined for Waiotapu Ignimbrite and relate it to
variations in groundmass texture, observed under the microscope, and the aspect ratio
and character of pumices in the deposit.
Syn- and post-depositional compaction and deformation are the most likely causes
of density variation in the deposit. However other post-depositional processes, such as
the preCipitation of vapour phase minerals into open pore space, will also increase the
density of the deposit. It has been suggested (Moon, 1994) that induration is a more
applicable term for the description of ignimbrite density and hardness, as welding
(sensu Smith, 1960a: "promotes the union or cohesion of glassy fragments in a
viscous state") is not readily observed. For the purposes of this thesis shard texture
and pumice deformation will be considered to be a result of depositional processes.
Density variation will reflect these process but will also have been affected by
recrystallisation.
Three welding facies are distinguishable in Waiotapu Ignimbrite and are
28
N to
Figure 2.11 Welding textures in Waiotapu Ignimbrite. All ppl, field of view 3mm. a) Partially welded. Shards are slightly deformed but
original morphology is still Welded. Shards are attenuated and are beginning
to deform around crystals. Densely welded. Shards are highly attenuated and are deforminq stronqlv around
Table 2.2 Welding facies recognised in Waiotapu Ignimbrite. Density values are the estimated range for each facies and are only a guide as the transition between facies is highly gradational.
Partially welded <1.60-1.75 Moderate Slight Light pink to purple
Welded 1.75-1.95 Moderate to extreme Moderate Purple to dark purple
Densely welded 1.95-2.30 Moderate to extreme Strong Dark purple or medium grey
summarised in Table 2.2. Classification is based on clast density, pumice deformation
(reflected by aspect ratio) and deformation of glass shards. In partially welded facies
(density:: 1.60-1.75 g cm-3) (Figure 2.11a) pumice aspect ratios are low, rarely
exceeding 1:10. Deformation of glass shards is slight and their original cuspate
morphologies are still evident. Shards do not deform around crystals. In welded facies
(1.75-1.95 g cm-3) (Figure 2.11b) the degree of pumice deformation is greater and
aspect ratios in excess of 1 :30 have been measured in outcrop. Deformation of shards
in the groundmass increases, although their original cuspate morphology is still
evident. Shards are beginning to deform around crystals. In densely welded ignimbrite
(1.95-2.30 g cm-3) (Figure 2;11 c) shards are increasingly attenuated and are strongly
deformed around crystals, often to the point where original shard texture is completely
obscured. There is no discernible increase in the degree of deformation of pumices
although black, glassy fiamme are more common and eventually dominate the pumice
population in samples with densities in excess of c.2.1 0 g cm-3. Hackly fracture is best
developed in samples with densities between 1.80 and 2.05 g cm-3.
2.5 WAWA QUARRY
The only exposure of Waiotapu Ignimbrite which offers a complete section from the
base of the unit to its eroded top is at Wawa Quarry (T16/627174) (Figure 2.12). Here
the ignimbrite has ponded in a valley or depression to a thickness of c.30m. This is
consistent with the topography prior to the eruption of Waiotapu Ignimbrite, evidenced
mainly by drillhole data, in which there is a marked erosional surface on Unit X, Ahuroa
Ignimbrite and Marshall Ignimbrite, in the Wawa Quarry area, and Ongatiti and Ahuroa
Ignimbrite to the north near Lichfield Quarry (Figure 2.13). Figure 2.14 is a graphic log
of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Wawa Quarry.
The basal contact of the ignimbrite is sharp (Figure 2.15a) and is observed at two
locations in the quarry (Figure 2.15b and 2.16). The ignimbrite is densely welded to the
30
2 Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Wawa Quarry 6/771215). are exposed, at the bottom right and on the next bench up, to the left of the front end loader.
W ->.
Thickness in metres
30
60
Tokoroa
10
10 Scale 1 :50 000
o
o 1 2 3
km
Figure 2.13 Isopach map of Waiotapu Ignimbrite in the Tokoroa-Kinleith region. The thickness of the deposit varies considerably over short distances, reflecting the nature of the pre-Waiotapu Ignimbrite erosion surface in the underlying Marshall, Ahuroa and Ongatiti Ignimbrites. Drillhole data compiled from Houghton et al (1987a) and unpublished data used with permission of Carter Holt Harvey Ltd.
i Grey, densely welded, crystal-lithic poor, lenticulite.
1 +
o Dark grey, densely welded, crystal-lithic poor, lenticulite. 1 :20 1 :40 1.4 1.8 2.2
Pumice Aspect Ratio Density (9 cm·3)
Figure 2.14 Graphic log of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Wawa Quarry, Kinleith Forest 6/627174}.
w ..p".
I ro IB' ;r 0.25 ru 0-o ii 020 or ~ @ 0.15 g. c ~ 010
~ - 0.05
000
1.j 1 5 1 3 Z 0 2.2 2.4
DonsHy (9Icm')
Figure 2.15 The lower section of Waiotaou lanimbrite Wawa Quarry (T16/627174).
Close up of sharp contact with the underlvina non-welded ignimbrite. Marker pen is 12.5 cm b) basal section with density profiles illustrating welded nature of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at its base. intense in the first metre above the base (spacings of c.20cm) become more widely spaced with increasing height.
0.30
" g-O.15 " :;: s. ~ 010
g 05
000 " '::">-:'
1 B 2.0 22
Densily (Stem3)
w (J1
2.16 The upper exposure
Waiotapu Ignimbrite Basal Density Profile (3}
Wawa Quarrv (T16/627174)
0.20 Eli
I CD <3' 0.15 .. ;::: OJ c-o <: CD
g 0.10 (f)
CD 0 -. c 2. ~ 0.05 E-
0.00 . .11>
2.0 2.2 2.4
Density (g/cm3)
at Wawa Quarry.
26., .", J
:: 1 8~ :::r: 20 ./8 (1)
<0' 18 i ;:?;
Il> 16 ~ \ o::r
0 < 14j " CD \ o::r Il>
~~ 1 (II
.~ (1)
g, c
./" ~ :[ 6 J
: j I .------
o i ~ , ' j I e-
Upper Basal Section
Lower Basal Section 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
Density (g/cm3)
Figure 2.17 Generalised cross-section through Wawa Quarry showing the relative location of the base of the ignimbrite and bench surfaces.
base at both outcrops and becomes less welded with increasing height. Density
profiles at Wawa Quarry have previously been interpreted to infer the presence of 3
flow units within the ignimbrite (Dyah Hastuti, 1992), because of increases in welding
at c. 9 and 21 metres. However recent expansion of the quarry has revealed that the
welding increase at 9m was due to the proximity of the base (Figure 2.17). It is
therefore likely that welding variation may simply reflect the proximity of the base
rather than the presence of multiple flow units.
The density of welding at the base of the unit is anomalous. Density measurements
at the basal contact areiolflusually high, ranging from 1.80 to 2.20 g cm-3 (see Figures
2.1Sb and 2.16). Densities then increase in the next metre (1.87-2.27 g cm-3) before
gradually decreasing with increasing height. This increase in welding toward the base
is unusual as in classically zoned ignimbrites (e.g. Smith, 1960b) welding is usually
densest in the middle of the deposit and decreases towards the base. Groundmass
textures (see Figure 2.11) confirm that this is a primary phenomena, rather than being
produced by intense vapour phase alteration or diagenetic processes.
Elongate fines depleted pods have been identified in float blocks in the quarry
(Figure 2.18), but despite a search were not observed in the quarry wall. These have
been interpreted to represent small scale, localised gas segregation structures.
Gasses escaping through these structures are most probably from the combustion of
vegetation, or evaporation of water.
36
Figure 2.18 Gas segregation structures in Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Wawa Quarry. These structures are fines depleted and crystal enriched, lithics are exceedingly rare.
2.6 POST-DEPOSITIONAL RECRYSTALUSATION
2.6.1 Introduction
Glassy material in Waiotapu Ignimbrite (both shards and pumice) has undergone
pervasive devitrification and has almost certainly experienced vapour phase alteration.
The density of welding, and corresponding low porosity of the ignimbrite, has led to
lack of open space within the unit that means vapour phase alteration may have been
restricted in the more densely welded portions of the unit. Where the degree of welding
is below c.2.0 g cm-3 the intensity of recrystallisation in pumices (which are most likely
to contain vapour phase assemblages) increases but it is frequently not possible by
optical methods to distinguish between recrystallisation due to devitrification and that
37
caused by vapour phase alteration. The development of spherulitic and axiolitic
texture, however, can be considered to have resulted from devitrification alone.
Recrystallisation zones are defined on the degree of recrystallisation of pumice and
fiamme within the deposit and, to a lesser extent, recrystaliisation within the shard
matrix. The boundary between zones is gradational, for example spherulites may
develop in pumices to the extent that they are difficult to distinguish from felsitic texture
without the aid of a sensitive tint plate.
Recrystallisation within Waiotapu Ignimbrite differs between sections in western
(Bison Road Quarry, Wawa Quarry, and Lichfield Quarry) and eastern lYZ (Ngapouri
Ridge) and are described in the sections below.
2.6.2 Western TVZ
Two broad recrystallisation zones have been identified in western lYZ and are as
follows:
Spheru/itic Fiamme Zone: Oevitrification within fiamme is dominated by the
growth of spherulites (Figure 2.19a). Spherulites commonly nucleate on the
fiamme wall leading to the development of mosaics of incomplete spherulites.
Occasionally recrystallisation appears to have nucleated on crystals within the
fiamme and circular spherulites develop within the mosaic. Spherulite
development often fails to extend into the centre of the fiamme and relics of
the original fiamme texture may be retained. Within the shard matrix
vitroclastic texture is perfectly preserved and devitrification is restricted to the
development of weak axiolitic texture within shards, which do not extend
beyond shard walls.
Fe/sinc Pumice Zone: Within the felsitic pumice zone (Figure 2.19b) there is a
higher degree of de vitrification within both pumices and matrix. Pumices have
a felsitic texture consisting of intergrown silica and feldspar crystals which
have obliterated all original structures. Spherulites are rare, and when present
comprise relatively coarse radiating crystals. Within the shard matrix
vitroclastic texture is still present however there is greater devitrification and it
is variable. Variation ranges from almost complete preservation of shard
texture, to the destruction of the fine ash population leaving only larger shards
intact. Axiolitic texture in surviving shards remains within the confines of
fragments. In some examples patchy felsitic texture has begun to develop
within the matrix and in these areas «5mm across) vitroclastic texture has
been completely destroyed.
38
Figure 2.19 Recrystallisation textures in western TVZ. a) Spherulitic pumice zone. Most spherulites have nucleated on the pumice wall, although some do lie within the pumice and are completely spherical (ppl). b) Felsitic pumice zone. Pumices have completely recrystaliised, destroying all primary textures. Note the increased development ofaxiolitic texture in glass shards (cpl). Both samples are from Wawa Quarry. Field of view 3mm.
39
Bison Road Quarry
Waiotapu Ignimbrite exposed in Bison Road Quarry has undergone felsitic pumice
devitrification and shows little variation in recrystallisation texture with height. Some of
the pumices within the ignimbrite have O.5mm thick rims which appear to have resulted
from the development of coarse axiolitic texture, nucleating on the rim of the pumice.
The centre of these pumices is characterised by felsitic devitrification.
Within the matrix vitroclastic texture is well preserved, although in some areas the
texture within the fine ash fraction of the matrix has been recrystallised.
Wawa Quarry
Wawa Quarry is the only section to have both spherulitic fiamme and felsic pumice
zones. Up to 1 m above the base of the deposit the unit has undergone spherulitic
fiamme recrystallisation. Original fiamme textures are preserved in the cores of the
fiamme, but spherulite growth has completely overprinted such textures towards the
edge of the fiamme. Vitroclastic texture is almost perfectly preserved with only minor
development ofaxiolitic texture within shards.
Above the spherulitic fiamme zone the unit is characterised by felsitic pumice
recrystallisation~ All pumice textures have been destroyed and only the overall original
morphology of the pumice is retained. Within the matrix axiolitic texture (again confined
to within shard walls) is better developed and in places the fine ash fraction has been
destroyed by recrystallisation. In places devitrification has led to the development of
patchy felsitic texture in the matrix which obscures all original vitroclastic texture.
Variation within the felsitic pumice zone shows no systematic variation with height or
degree of welding.
Lichfield Quarry
As at Bison Road Quarry devitrification in Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Lichfield Quarry is
felsitic and shows no systematic variation with height. Here the matrix has experienced
a greater degree of devitrification and patchy felsic texture is more prevalent.
2.6.3 Eastern TVZ
At Ngapouri Ridge recrystallisation textures are significantly different to those on the
western margin of TVZ, reflecting increased recrystallisation following deposition of the
ignimbrite. Two recrystallisation zones have been recognised:
Fe/sitic pumice zone: texturally this zone is very similar to the felsitic pumice
zone of the western TVZ recrystallisation of pumices is more variable.
40
Pumices may show felsitic texture or a more complex arrangement of felsitic
crystallisation and well developed spherulites within the crystal mosaic (Figure
2.20a). In addition pumices may have a coarse axiolitic margin, up to 1 mm
thick, surrounding a felsitic core, which may contain further layers of differing
crystal size (Figure 2.20b).
Lithophysae zone: this zone is characterised by the development of large (c
7mm) lithophysae. Spherulites (up to 5mm in size) are also present. The
remainder of the matrix in this zone has either undergone total felsitic
recrystallisation, in which the vitroclastic texture is completely overprinted, or
very little, and the larger shards have remained intact.
The Ngapouri Ridge is characterised by felsitic texture at the base and in the top
half of the section. The lithophysae zone occurs near the base of the unit, within the
lower third, and is approximately 10m thick, although the thickness varies along the
cliff at the south end of the ridge. Isolated lithophysae occur elsewhere in the unit.
2.6.4 Discussion
The density of welding in Waiotapu Ignimbrite has limited the development of vapour
phase alteration in the deposit due to the limited availability of open pore space.
Pumices (as opposed to fiamme, which have extremely limited pore space) will contain
the most open space and are therefore the most likely to contain vapour phase
assemblages. Waiotapu Ignimbrite has almost certainly undergone vapour phase
alteration, as evidenced by the colour change in hand specimen and the considerably
degraded nature of several pumices recovered from Wawa Quarry. SEM work by Dyah
Hastuti (1992) also identified crystalline aggregates of minerals within pore space in
pumices that were interpreted to be the result of vapour phase preCipitation.
In western TVZ devitrification can be broadly classified on the basis of the nature of
recrystallisation in pumices and fiamme. In densely welded basal ignimbrite (above
c2.1 g cm -3) devitrification was hindered relative to the overlying material and
subsequently devitrification is in the spherulitic stage of Lofgren (1971). Throughout
the remainder of the unit the pumices are completely recrystallised and devitrification
in the matrix becomes more pronounced so that in places all original textures have
been destroyed. In both zones spherulites have circular morphologies suggesting that
the recrystallisation was occurring at temperatures below 400°C.
Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Ngapouri Ridge, in the eastern TVZ, has a longer
devitrification history than its western counterparts. Lithophysae have developed
41
Figure 2.20 Recrystallisation textures at Ngapouri Ridge. a) Spherulite within felsitic pumice (cpl). b) Layered pumice: spherulitic core (left), felsitic inner rim and thin coarsely recrystallised outer rim. Sensitive tint plate used to accentuate textures. Field of view 3mm.
42
across all other textures and must therefore post-date devitrification. The unit has
undergone considerable lithophysae formation in a c. 10m thick zone near the base.
Within the Kaingaroa ignimbrite lithic lag breccia, large numbers of lithophysae-rich
Waiotapu Ignimbrite lithics suggest that they comprise a significant portion of Waiotapu
Ignimbrite beneath Reporoa Caldera. Steiner (1963) reported lithophysae rich zones in
Waiotapu Geothermal Field drillcores. This abundance of lithophysae occurs only in
the eastern TVZ. This may reflect a greater supply of volatiles necessary for
lithophysae formation and growth, which involves the nucleation of spherulites on
vesicles (McPhie et ai, 1993). The abundance of lithophysae at the base of the section
suggests a process was operating, possibly geothermal activity, that concentrated the
volatiles necessary for lithophysae development. It also suggests that the unit retained
heat for longer as devitrification textures are advanced, but the unit was still hot
enough for glass to deform plastically during lithophysae formation.
43
INTRODUCTION
WAI HI
CHAPTERTH
I NIM AND EOCHEMICAl VARIATION
This chapter presents petrographic, whole rock and mineral chemical data to identify
variation in the mineralogical and chemical character of Waiotapu Ignimbrite, both in
terms of stratigraphic height and distance from the inferred source within the Kapenga
volcanic centre.
Lateral and vertical variation in the chemistry and mineralogy of Waiotapu Ignimbrite
have not previously been documented. Martin (1961) produced mineral histograms of
the phenocryst phases of Waiotapu Ignimbrite from localities spanning 55 km which
showed no significant variation in the relative proportions of minerals between
localities. Dyah Hastuti (1992) concluded from petrographic and whole rock
geochemical analysis of 11 samples of Waiotapu Ignimbrite from Wawa Quarry
(T16/627174) that there was little variation with height, and that the unit was erupted
from an homogenous magma chamber.
Petrographic and geochemical data presented here are from the four best
exposures of Waiotapu Ignimbrite, with greatest available stratigraphic thicknesses.
Samples were collected from the south end of Ngapouri Ridge (U16/015098), Bison
Road Quarry (U16/771211), Wawa Quarry (T16/627174) and Lichfield Quarry
(T16/588400). Thin sections were made of samples at regular intervals within the unit
while geochemicaJ samples were taken from at least the top middle and base of each
exposure.
It is recognised that whole rock analyses of tuffs are susceptible to a number of
influences which limit their use for petrogenetic modelling, however the difficulties
involved in extracting suitable pumices from the deposit have meant that whole rock
geochemistry was the only available means of defining vertical and lateral variation in
geochemistry. The controls on whole rock geochemistry and mitigating features of
Waiotapu Ignimbrite are outlined in Chapter 4.1.
Major and trace element geochemical data are presented in Appendix 2 and mineral
geochemical data are compiled in Appendix 3. Modal proportions of the phenocrysts
were determined by point counting (600 points per sample) thin sections.
44
Figure 3.1 Glomeroporphyritic aggregates of plagioclase feldspar, orthopyroxene and Fe-Ti oxides in Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
45
3.1 MINERALOGY
3.1.1 Mineral Descriptions
Waiotapu Ignimbrite is crystal poor (8-18%), although at the base of the north end of
the Ngapouri Ridge the crystal content increases to 30-40%; pumices within the unit
generally containing fewer crystals (c.5-10%). The remainder of the deposit is
,composed of welded glass shards or pumice and fiamme with varying degrees of
attenuation and distortion.
Plagioclase Feldspar
Dominant phenocrysts are plagioclase feldspar which usually occur singly, but may
form glomeroporphyritic aggregates of plagioclase, orthopyroxene and Fe-Ti oxides
(Figure 3.1). Plagioclase crystals, which make up 70-90% of the assemblage, are
usually isolated subrounded fragments within the matrix, or intergrowths of two or more
crystals. They are dominantly 1-2 mm in size, but fragments c. 0.1 mm occur in the
matrix. Most are andesine (An33-40) (Figure 3.2), display albite twinning and are
commonly unzoned or weakly normally zoned, a small percentage being strongly
zoned with andesine rims and labradorite cores (An35-55).
Ab
An
Legend
Wawa Quarry Core Rim
It
o Ngapouri Ridge Core Rim • o
Or
Figure Representative plagioclase compositions (Ab-An-Or) from Waiotapu Ignimbrite, analysed by scanning electron probe microanalysis (EDMA).
46
Orthopyroxene
Orthopyroxene makes up 5-18% of the crystal assemblage and occurs as <1 mm size
crystals, usually single, although occasionally as aggregates (see Figure 2.11 c). They
occur as equant subhedral crystals, although euhedral six sided crystals are present.
Throughout the unit the mineral has undergone alteration, but where the unit is most
densely welded degradation of crystals is less pronounced. ConsequentJy
orthopyroxenes are frequently present only as cores within cavities, which may be
surrounded by hematite alteration. Orthopyroxenes analysed by electron microprobe
were En45-48 (Figure 3.3).
Fe-Ti oxides
Fe-Ti oxides are present in similar quantities to orthopyroxene, but are considerably
smaller (c.O.1 mm). The dominant oxide phase is titanomagnetite which occurs as
subhedral crystals which are either isolated in the matrix, present as inclusions in
orthopyroxenes or, to a lesser extent, as inclusions in plagioclase. Ilmenite, which is
considerably less abundant than magnetite, occurs as tabular crystals. The oxides are
frequently altered, often occurring with haloes of hematite.
Iron-titanium oxides, which are known to have formed in equilibrium with one
another, may be used to provided estimates of the temperature of the host magma at
the time of crystallisation (Anderson and Lindsley, 1988). Magnetite-ilmenite pairs that
occur within larger crystals or pumices may be in equilibrium and are therefore suitable
for analysis. While such pairs were found during microprobe analysis no analyses
returned acceptable totals and most were therefore discarded. Estimates were limited
to one magnetite-ilmenite pair from AW051 (a pumice mineral separate from Bison
Road Quarry) which gave acceptable totals and satisfied the equilibrium test devised
by Bacon and Hirschmann (1988). This is based on the partitioning of Mg and Mn
between coexisting phases of titanomagnetite and ilmenite. The pair yielded
temperatures of 750.4 and 750.8°C. Magmatic temperatures were calculated using
Wo
I / v v
Enstatite v v
Ferrosilite \I \I
En
Figure 3.3 Waiotapu Ignimbrite orthopyroxene compositions as determined by electron microprobe. Pumice analysis is from a sample collected from Bison Rd Quarry. Classification after Morimoto (1988).
\ \( \
Fs
Legend Pumice /:;, Wawa Quarry 0 Ngapouri Ridge 0
47
PETMIN 2.0 geochemical software which uses the geothermometer devised by
Anderson and Lindsley (1988).
Hornblende
Hornblende is exceptionally rare within Waiotapu Ignimbrite; isolated crystals are found
in only a few samples. Hornblendes are typically <0.1mm in size and occur as
subhedral, green pleochroic crystals. Dyah Hastuti (1992) noted the presence of
hornblende in Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Wawa Quarry where it appeared in XRD
analyses, although she did not observe any in thin section.
3.1.2 Ngapouri Ridge
Eight samples from the south end of the Ngapouri Ridge were thin sectioned (Figure
3.4a) and include samples taken from near the base (at U16/015098) and the top
(U16/013099) of the ridge.
Crystal percentages range from 10 to 18% but show no systematic variation.
Phenocryst percentages in all samples were subject to error as many crystals were no
longer present, either due to alteration or mechanical plucking from the sample during
cutting of samples for thin sectioning. Plagioclase (75-92%) shows little significant
change with height, and orthopyroxene (7-18%) and Fe-Ti oxides (3-11 %) appear to
be controlled by plagioclase concentration, hence their plots tend to mirror those of
plagioclase percentages.
3.1.3 Bison Road Quarry
Six samples, collected at c.8m intervals from Bison Road Quarry were sectioned
(Figure 3.5a). Total crystals counted (12-18%) and plagioclase (80-90%) percentages
vary little with height. Orthopyroxene (7-15%) and Fe-Ti oxides (5-9%) increase
slightly, but again are controlled plagioclase concentration.
3.1.4 Wawa Quarry
Total crystal percentages and mineral percentage in the 11 samples collected from
Wawa Quarry (Figure 3.6a) vary little (8-16%). Orthopyroxene ranges from 4-19%, Fe
Ti oxide 8-14%, and plagioclase 70-83%.
3.1.5 Lichfield Quarry
The five samples from Lichfield Quarry (Figure 3.7a) show the lowest variation in
crystal percentage (8-11%) of the four sections. Plagioclase (73-85%) percentages
48
decrease with height and conversely orthopyroxene (8-16%) and oxides (6-11%) show
slight increases.
3.2 GEOCHEMISTRY
3.2.1 Ngapouri Ridge
At the south end of the Ngapouri Ridge, the type section of Waiotapu Ignimbrite
(Martin, 1961), seven whole rock samples and two pumices, from near the base, were
analysed by XRF. Two of the whole rock samples and both of the pumices were
discarded due to anomalous low iron contents (see Appendix 2 for a full explanation).
Throughout the whole stratigraphic section degradation of the mafics was considerable
and this, coupled with microprobe analysis (using EDS) revealed that the dominant
oxide was ilmenite. This may be due to the alteration of magnetite, suggesting that all
of the results must be treated with a degree of caution.
There is little significant variation in composition with height (Figure 3.4b) although
CaO (1.14-1.32%), Rb (111-115 ppm) and Sr (101-116 ppm) show slight increases
toward the top of the succession. Si02 (72.87-74.10%), Ti02 (0.28-0.35%), K20 (3.27-
3.42%) and Zr (244-283 ppm) show little significant change. Ti and Zr concentrations
parallel one another, possibly due to Zr behaving compatibly with the formation of
leucoxene (see Appendix 2).
3.2.2 Bison Road Quarry
Four whole rock samples from Bison Road Quarry (Figure 3.5b) were collected at
c.15m intervals and analysed by XRF. Si02 (70.51-72.55%), Ti02 (0.31-0.36%), K20
(3.11-3.21%) and Zr (257-279 ppm) show minimal variation with height. Overall CaO
(1.09-1.45%) and Sr (100-129 ppm) show a very minor decrease towards the top of
the succession, while Rb (105-114 ppm) shows a very minor increase. At 8m the unit
is depleted in Rb and enriched in CaO and Sr, possibly due to an increase in the
quantity of plagioclase in the sample. This is not backed up by the plagioclase crystal
percentage for that level, although there is a very slight increase in crystal percentage
at that height which may account for the increase in Rb.
3.2.3 Wawa Quarry
At Wawa Quarry (Figure 3.6b) nine whole rock samples were collected from the base
of the unit to the top, some 25 to 30m above. Three samples were collected in the first
meter above the base and the remained were collected at c. 5 m intervals.
49
At Wawa Quarry, Waiotapu Ignimbrite has ponded in a depression (see Chapter
2.5) and consequently samples collected on each bench are at unknown elevations
above an uneven base. Activity at the quarry after the collection of samples for
geochemistry revealed a new basal section and showed that AW109, at least, was
within c.1 m of the base.
SiOz (72.56-74.79%) increases from the base and then decreases slightly with
height. The marked drop over the last c.6m is probably a weathering phenomena as
Alz0 3 undergoes a corresponding increase. TiOz (0.23-0.29%), CaO (1.05-1.29%),
KzO (3.27-4.35%) and Sr (96-109 ppm) show little significant variation with height. The
increase in CaO and Sr at 9m is due to an increase in the percentage of plagioclase
crystals in the sample (see Figure 3.6b). The sample has undergone considerable
vapour phase alteration and devitrification, therefore the increase in KzO is most likely
an artefact of the secondary precipitation of alkali feldspar.
Rb (94-121 ppm) increases dramatically over the first meter and then shows little
variation with height. The low quantities of Rb at the base are possibly due to depletion
of Rb at the top of the magma chamber due to fluid removal of alkalis. Alternatively Rb
may have been removed by fluids from the underlying porous rocks percolating
through the base of the ignimbrite. As the base is not observed elsewhere it is
uncertain whether this phenomena occurs throughout the ignimbrite, hence is a
magmatic feature, or is only restricted to Wawa Quarry, and therefore post
depositional.
The increase in Zr (229-258 ppm) towards the top of the quarry is difficult to explain.
If the increase is related to magmatic processes then the same trend should be
observed at other sites, but this is not the case. The behaviour of the element is
inconsistent with other high field strength elements, such as Nb or V, which would be
expected to show similar behaviour if the increase was due to the presence of crystals
of zircon in these samples.
3.2.4 Lichfield Quarry
At Lichfield Quarry (Figure 3.7b) 3 samples for whole rock were taken from the top,
middle and base of the main exposure, the lowest sample is estimated to have come
from within 2m of the base.
SiOz (71.32-73.27%), CaO (0.87-1.05%), KzO (3.37-3.46%) and Sr (83-96 ppm)
show very slight decreases toward the top of the deposit, while TiOz (0.29-0.36%) and
Zr (245-286 ppm) increase with height. Rb (115-118 ppm) shows no appreciable
change.
50
40
35
30
I 25 :E .2' Q) 20
I
15
10.
5
0
70 75 80
Si02 (wt%)
'" b) 45 .
40
35
30
I 25 :E 01 'iii 20 I
15
10
5
o ., ... -, 0 10 20 60
Crys\ %
iii \ <II
\ <II
/lil "1 .-·'--T~T----·l
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 0.2
CaO(wt%)
80 100 o Plag %
0.3
Ti02 (wt%)
10 20
Opx%
0.4 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 200
K20 (wt%)
o 10 20
Oxides %
250
Zr (ppm)
300 100 110
Rb (ppm)
120 90 100 110 120 130 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20
Sr (ppm) Rb/Sr
Figure 3.4 Variation in Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Ngapouri Ridge.
a) Variation in whole rock chemistry with increasing height. b) Variation in crystal percentages
I-!o.;,..hf refers to above
Cryst: crystals. Plag: plagioclase. Opx: orthopyroxene magnetite and ilmenite
(Jl N
a) 40
35
30
25 g :c 20 C'> 'iii J:
15
10
5
0
b) 40
35
30
25 g :c 20 C'> 'iii J:
15
10
5
o
65 75 85
Si02 (wt%)
o 10 20 60
Cryst %
III
/" 1.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 3
CaO Ti02
80 100 0 10 20 0
Plag % Opx%
3.2 3.4 200
K20
10 20
Oxide %
250
Zr(ppm)
300 100 110
Rb (ppm)
120 95
•
115
Sr (ppm)
135 0.75 0.95 1,15
Rb/Sr
Figure 3.5 Variation in Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Bison Quarry.
a) Variation in whole rock chemistry with increasing height. b) Variation in crystal percentages with height.
Height refers to height above base of
Cryst: crystals. Plag: plagioclase. Opx: orthopyroxene Oxides: magnetite and ilmenite
Figure 3.7 Variation in Waiotapu Ignimbrite at lichfield Quarry.
a) Variation in whole rock chemistry with increasing height. b) Variation in crystal percentages with height.
Height refers to height above base of outcrop.
Cryst: crystals. Plag: plagioclase. Opx: orthopyroxene Oxides: magnetite and ilmenite
1.5
3.3 DISCUSSION: VERTICAL AND LATERAL VARIATION
3.3.1 Mineralogy
Mean crystal percentages appear to increase towards the proposed source. At
I\Igapouri Ridge and Bison Road, which are both c.13km from source, mean crystal
percentages are higher (15% and 16% respectively). than at Wawa Quarry (25 km)
and Lichfield (40km) (12% and 11% respectively).
The inverse relationship between plagioclase and the orthopyroxenes and Fe-Ti
oxides is largely due to a constant sum effect whereby a decrease in the percentage of
plagioclase leads to an increase in the amount of the other mineral phases. However a
relative decrease in plagioclase content is usually coincident with a decrease in the
crystal percentage of the deposit.
At the four localities the percentage of phenocrysts and relative proportions of
minerals shows little significant variation with stratigraphic height. Ranges in crystal
percentages vary from 3% (at Lichfield Quarry) to 8% (at Bison Road Quarry). When
the influence of elutriation with changing flow dynamics on the degree of crystal
enrichment and the effects of point counting error on relative concentrations of crystals
are considered, this variation becomes insignificant.
3.3.2 Geochemistry
The geochemistry of Waiotapu Ignimbrite shows little significant variation with
stratigraphic height. Variation present can be explained in terms of crystal enrichment
or depletion in whole rock samples, or by post depositional alteration, such as
devitrification and vapour phase alteration.
Variation in concentrations of elements occurs between sections, but there appears
to be no correlation between element concentrations and distance from the inferred
source. Bison Road and Lichfield Quarry have lower Si02 (c. 72%) than the Ngapouri
Ridge and Wawa Quarry (c. 74%). Wawa Quarry has lower Ti02 than elsewhere,
which is not consistent with an increase in Fe-Ti oxides in the phenocryst phase. At
Wawa the Fe-Ti oxides and orthopyroxenes are not as degraded as at other localities
and therefore Ti concentrations may not have been elevated as a consequence of the
removal of elements such as Fe. CaO and Sr variation is consistent with the amount of
plagioclase in analysed samples and both behave in the same manner. At Wawa and
Lichfield Quarries, CaO and Sr are generally lower (CaO c. 1-1.1 and Sr c.90-99 ppm)
presumably reflecting less plagioclase at these localities. In addition the mobility of the
low field strength elements (Rb, Sr and K) mean that their concentrations are affected
by alteration, therefore variation is not necessarily due to magmatic processes. K20
55
concentrations may also affected by the degree of devitrification and vapour-phase
alteration. Zr does not vary much anywhere but Wawa Quarry, where concentrations
are anomalously low. Zr variation at Wawa is difficult to explain, especially when its
behaviour is inconsistent with that of other high field strength elements.
Neither the mineralogy or whole rock geochemistry of Waiotapu Ignimbrite shows
significant variation that can be inferred to be a result of primary magmatic processes.
This suggests that the unit was deposited from a pyroclastic flow originating from an
homogenous magma chamber. The nature of the Waiotapu Ignimbrite magma system
will be discussed in Chapter 4.
56
CHAPTER FOUR
G HEMI WAI NIM
INTRODUCTION
Few studies of the geochemistry of Waiotapu Ignimbrite have been conducted
previously. This chapter will outline the general geochemical nature of the ignimbrite
and attempt to determine what magmatic processes were operating prior to eruption
and the degree of compositional variation, if any, within the parental magma.
33 whole rock and 14 pumice samples of Waiotapu Ignimbrite were collected and
analysed by X-Ray Fluorescence to determine major and trace element compositions.
The results of these analyses are presented in Appendix 2. Whole rock samples were
collected at regular intervals within the ignimbrite, usually from the top, middle and
base of sections, although certain key sections were sampled in more detail.
4.1 WHOLE ROCK vs. PUMICE CHEMISTRY - THE PROS AND CONS.
When analysing pyroclastic deposits it is best to analyse individual pumices as
opposed to whole rock samples of the deposit as the composition of whole rock
samples is subject to a number of significant influences:
Elutriation: during transport a considerable amount of fine material is lost into the
atmosphere by elutriation which leads to fines depletion, and enrichment of
crystals and lithics within the final deposit As most of the lost material is glass
shards the geochemical character of the deposit becomes more mafic
reflecting the increased influence of crystal composition on the final chemistry.
Lithics: with the exception of cognate lithics, rock fragments within a deposit will
have different chemistries, unrelated to that of the parent magma of the
pyroclastic flow. As a result the chemistry of a deposit will vary depending on
the composition and percentage of the lithics within the ignimbrite (Walker,
1972).
Sampling of multiple magma compositions: unlike pumices, whole rock analyses
do not represent the chemistry of a magma at a given location within a
chamber at the time of eruption. A sample may be composed of material
(either pumices or glass shards) derived from different locations within the
parent magma body. Should this magma be compositionally zoned, the
chemistry of the erupted components will vary and the whole rock analysis will
57
reflect the mixing of these compositions. Consequently geochemical plots of
analyses will not reflect the evolution of the magma, but instead will plot on a
"mixing line" between end member compositions. As a result whole rock data
is of little use for petrogenetic modelling.
Waiotapu Ignimbrite is densely welded and the smooth nature of many outcrops
makes the recovery of pumices from outcrop very difficult. Few samples could
therefore be collected in-situ. Most were recovered from relatively fresh float material
in quarries of Waiotapu Ignimbrite in Kinleith Forest. To augment the limited pumice
data, whole rock samples were analysed in order to coarsely define the chemistry of
Waiotapu Ignimbrite. Several characteristics of Waiotapu Ignimbrite mitigate against
whole rock problems:
a) Waiotapu Ignimbrite is crystal poor (~10-15% phenocrysts) thus reducing the
influence of elutriation and crystal enrichment.
b) The paucity of lithic fragments within the ignimbrite lowers the risk of
contamination of the sample by xenolithic fragments. Extreme care was taken
during preparation of samples to remove any lithics from crushed samples before
they were milled to a powder for analysis.
Unfortunately the problem of sampling multiple magma compositions cannot be
totally avoided, and as a result the whole rock analyses will only be used to assist in
defining the bulk chemical character of the deposit and petrogenetic inferences will be
made using only pumice data.
4.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
The following are brief descriptions of the general character of Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
Unless specified otherwise, ranges quoted for elements are derived from combined
pumice and whole rock data. Table 4.1 presents elemental variations for pumice and
whole rock analyses separately. Table 4.2 compiles analyses of representative
pumices.
Waiotapu Ignimbrite is a rhyolite with a Si02 content of 70.51-75.31 wt% and plots
within the rhyolite field of the total alkalis v. silica diagram of Le Maitre et al (1989)
(Figure 4.1 a). The unit is dominantly medium-K (K20=3.11-3. 76 wt%) although several
pumices plot in the high-K field of Le Maitre et al (1989) (Figure 4.1 b). Fe203 content is
1.82-2.9 wt% however samples collected from the base of the Ngapouri Ridge at
U17/015098 have anomalously low Fe203 contents (1.08-1.38 wt%) which do not
parallel the behaviour of Ti02. Possible reasons for this anomalous behaviour will be
discussed at the end of Appendix 2, and the affected samples have been omitted from
the data set employed in this chapter.
58
a)
b)
~ 0
!. ~
15 After Le Maitre et al (1989)
[Whole Rock • Pumice
----'
10
5
Basalt
o 35 45
5 After Le Maitre et al (1989)
4.5 \0 Whole Rock I
4 ,. Pumice ~
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5 basaltic
1 andesite
basalt
.5
0 45 55
Rhyolite , o
Basaltic-Andesite Andesite Dacite
55 65 75 Si02 (wt%)
high-K
medium-K
dacite and rhyolite
andesite
low-K
65 75
Si02 (wt %)
Figure 4.1 a} Total alkalis vs silica diagram for combined Waiotapu Ignimbrite pumice and whole rock geochemical analyses. b} K20 vs Si02 for Waiotapu Ignimbrite. Classification after Le Maitre et al (1989).
59
Table 4.1 Variations in the concentration of major and trace elements in Waiotapu Ignimbrite. (AS.I. = Alumina Saturation Index).
Major elements (a/l '.;'.::;!:;== wt%) elements (all "..;!~ .... _ ppm)
Element Pumices Whole Rock Element Pumices Whole Rock
The Alumina Saturation Index (AS.I.) of the ignimbrite ranges from 1.44 - 1.95 and
the unit is corundum normative indicating a peraluminous composition, like most other
ignimbrites in TVZ.
The unit contains 12.63-15.74 wt % A120 3. Changes in AI20 3 content can reflect the
development of clay minerals, but if so the AI20 3 content should show a linear increase
with loss on ignition (LOI), which is not observed. In addition XRD analysis of samples
with high LOI revealed no peaks related to the development of clays (see Appendix 5).
The high AI20 3 content of Waiotapu Ignimbrite samples is therefore considered a
primary feature.
Most trace elements show no systematic variation; Rb (94-161 ppm), Sr (79-129
ppm), Ba (726-836 ppm) and Zr (196-286 ppm) all show a wide range of values. Rb/Sr
varies from 0.71-1.73 and is controlled mainly by variation in Rb.
4.3 PUMICE CHEMISTRY
4.3.1 Controls on major and trace element variation
In attempting to determine magmatic processes controlling major and trace element
proportions in a melt, element concentrations are best plotted against a discriminant
that has behaved incompatibly during crystallisation (Wilson, 1989). Traditionally
Harker diagrams, with Si02 as a discriminant, are used (Rollinson, 1993), although it
has been suggested that in high silica rhyolites other elements may be more
60
Table 4.2 Geochemical analyses of selected Waiotapu Ignimbrite pumices. Samples AW85a, AW166 and AW189 are type-A pumices, whereas AW85b is a type-B pumice (see section 4.3).
Q 35.30 34.61 33.15 38.06 C 2.15 1.56 0.80 1.44 Z 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Or 21.30 22.06 20.26 21.05 Ab 33.44 32.86 36.66 30.83 An 4.69 5.30 5.78 4.80 Di 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Hy 1.84 2.32 2.22 2.29 Mt 0.68 0.79 0.73 0.79 II 0.62 0.52 0.44 0.61 Ap 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.22 Total 100.14 100.15 100.15 100.15
61
.45 3.4 3.2 .4
3 ° 0
~ .35 0 fl
~ 2.8 ~ ~ 0 .. " ~ 2.6 0 0 0
~ 0" ' .. , fl
.3 0" 'It> 0
" 0 ·0
~ 2.4 o 0
0 0' 0 0 Bel' 00
F ... 0 .. .... .25 u.. 2.2 .. Ii _.0r/:.Otb .. 0
,p • 0 0
2 .. . 2
1.8 .15 1.6
73 74 75 76 73 74 75 76 SiOz(wt %) Si02(wt %)
1.8 4
1.6 3.8 .. • .. "
.. 11.4 ~ 3.6 ..
~ • 0 00 ....
<al 1.2 0 0 OIl" 0 .Ii' 0 0
" 0 ~3.4 0,. 0"0
0 . .; o o.ouo 0 0 00
0
0 0 o ,0 0 00
0 0 0 0"0 00 " .. .. 0
co 3.2 0
" .8 3
73 74 75 76 73 74 75 76 Si02(wt%) Si02(wt%)
17 5
16 .... oF • II 0 0
0 0 0 o gq, .. 0,\&_
~ 15 0 *' 4
0 00 ; D.o 0 0
~ ..
1 00 0 ..
° ~14
0 " , ... ~ " o.{/o .. ;,
e o.'tf Z 3 00 00 o 0
13
12 2 73 74 75 76 73 74 75 76
Si02(wt %) Si02(wt%)
Figure 4.2 Plots of selected major elements versus Si02. Note the weakly defined negative trends in whole rock (open circles) and pumice (closed circles) data for Ti02, Fe203 and A120 3.
62
140
130
120
E 110 a. .,e, en 100
90
80
" o
..
70~~ ______ ~ ____ ~ ________ ~
73 74 75 76 Si02 (wt %)
300 o
280 " ..
260 E a. .s 240 .... o N
220
200 - .. 180~~ ______ ~ ____ ~ ________ ~
73 74 75 Si02 (wt %)
1.5
.5
76
o
eo
" o "
170~~--~--~----~------~-'
160
150
E 140 a. .s 130 ..a n:: 120
110
100
.,
..
" o 0 oi &ct:.!0 .0\,
o DO 0 lib 0 0 0 0 ()
"
90~~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ____ ~ __ ~
900
850
800 E a. .s 750 ro
CD 700
650
73
"
74 75 76 S102 (wt %)
.. fit 0 0 ..,
" ., .0.' \I
.. <P .. o
o tPooo,poo·
600 '--~ ___ -'-___ "'--__ ~_-' 73 74 75 76
8i0 2 (wt %)
.. ..
o t9 IfII 0 .. 000
o~ .0:.00 0 0 0
73 74 75 76 S102 (wt %)
figure 4.3 Plots of selected trace elements versus Waiotapu Ignimbrite analyses. Note the disparity between the low Rb type A pumices, and whole rock data, and the high Rb type B pumices.
Figure 4.5 Plots of selected trace elements versus Rb for Waiotapu Ignimbrite data.
appropriate (e.g. Bradshaw, 1992). Plots of 8i02 versus selected major elements
(Figure 4.2) and trace elements (Figure 4.3) are scattered to the extent that trends are
not readily discernible. With incorporation of whole rock data weak negative trends are
observed for Fe203, Ti02 and A120 3. In a high silica rock such as Waiotapu Ignimbrite
negative trends with increasing 8i02 may be spurious due to the constant sum effect
(Rollinson, 1993). By necessity major element compositions must total 100%. Data is
therefore not able to vary independently, so as the proportion of 8i02 increases the
sum of the remaining components must decrease. Often imparting a negative bias on
data as the percentage of minor constituents is depressed.
The range of KlRb ratios in Waiotapu Ignimbrite is narrow (192-246) and a plot of
K20 versus Rb defines a close trend (Figure 4.4) suggesting that K and Rb are
behaving perfectly incompatibly in the parent magma. The absence of biotite and alkali
feldspar phases into which K and Rb would fractionate supports this assumption.
Consequently Rb has been chosen as an index of differentiation (Figure 4.4 and 4.5).
Waiotapu Ignimbrite pumices can be divided into two types on the basis of Rb
content. Type A pumices are low Rb (116-128 ppm), and have a correspondingly low
65
Rb/Sr ratio (0.71-1.52), whereas Type B pumices have high Rb (141-161 ppm) and
Rb/Sr ratio (1.57-1.73). KlRb ratios differ between each type; type A (223-246) being
higher than type B (192-201).
Type A and B pumices do not lie on any apparent fractionation trend. Between the
two types Sr overlaps, however type A shows a far greater range in Sr (79-111 ppm)
than type B (93-95 ppm). If type B was derived from type A through plagioclase
fractionation then type B should have lower Sr. In addition CaO, AI20 3, Na20, Ti02 ,
Fe203, Zr and Ba all fail to show a change with increasing Rb and plot on a flat trend.
K20 has a shallow, but well defined, positive trend. On Sr v Rb plots, however, there is
a discernible negative trend consistent with the fractionation of plagioclase, whereas
type B pumices plot differently. CaO and Zr also show similar negative trends with
increasing Rb. A plot of Rb vs Si02 reveals the disparity in Rb concentrations between
groups and highlights the lack of a path between the two groups.
Whole rock samples do not reflect the type B composition. Pumice data suggests
the type B pumices are subordinate and therefore type A chemistry will be the major
control on whole rock composition. Also crystal enrichment will lead to a reduction in
the concentration of Rb, which will not have partitioned into any of the phenocryst
phases in the ignimbrite.
Whakamaru Ignimbrite type D pumices have anomalously high Rb that is of unclear
origin -(Brown, 1994). However, unlike Waiotapu Ignimbrite, these pumices have
distinct petrographic character and anomalously low 87Sr/86Sr. Unlike Waiotapu
Ignimbrite, where both pumice types plot within the field of TVZ ignimbrites (Figure
4.n), the type D Whakamaru pumices are c.60 ppm higher in Rb than all other TVZ
ignimbrites, suggesting a unique origin. It is therefore unlikely that Brown's (1994)
suggestion that the type D pumices are derived from a cumulate is applicable to
Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
The similarity of type B to type A in all other geochemical and petrographic respects
suggests derivation from a different magma batch with many chemical similarities,
perhaps sharing a common source.
4.3.2 Spider diagrams.
A primitive mantle normalised, multi element spider diagram for selected Waiotapu
Ignimbrite pumices is presented in Figure 4.6. The samples are from Rawhiti
Quarry(AW85a, AW85b), Wawa Quarry (AW166) and Ngapouri Ridge (AW189), and
represent both Type A (AW85a, AW166 and AW189) and Type B (AW85b) pumices.
The plots show a general negative trend as a result of large ion lithophile element
66
1000 Norm: Primitive Mantle
Sun & McDonough (1989) Legend:
A AW85a} D AW166 Type A pumice
<> AW189
o AW85b - Type B pumice 100
10
1 Rb 8a Th K Nb La . Ce Sr Nd Zr TI y
Figure 4.6 Primitive mantle normalised mUlti-element spider plot of selected Waiotapu Ignimbrite pumices. Normalised after Sun & McDonough (1989).
enrichment relative to high field strength elements. The negative trend and Nb
depletion is consistent with derivation from a subduction-related source (Wilson 1989).
The depletion in Sr reflects the fractionation of plagioclase, while Ti depletion indicates
the fractionation of ilmenite and titanomagnetite.
4.4 DISCUSSION
Throughout the world many examples of compositionally zoned ignimbrites have been
recorded and the variation has been interpreted as resulting from derivation from a
compositionally zoned magma chamber (Smith & Bailey, 1966; Lipman, 1967; Flood et
ai, 1989; Tait et ai, 1989; Smith, 1994). Smith (1979) suggested that systematic
compositional zonation should be observed in all ignimbrites that exceed 1 km3 in
volume, and subsequently compositional zonation has been considered a
characteristic feature in large volume ignimbrites.
Early geochemical studies in TVZ failed to show any significant degree of
systematic compositional zonation in large scale ignimbrites (Ewart, 1963; Froggatt,
1982; Smith, 1989; Dunbar et ai, 1989). TVZ magma bodies were, therefore,
considered not have developed compositional gradients, or pre- or syn-eruptive mixing
destroyed any compositional zonation. More recent work has revealed that some TVZ
67
400
350 l1korangi
300
250 ,,-..
E a.. ~ 200 L.. (/)
150
100
50
0 0
Ongatiti A---
50
Atiamuri
100 Rb (ppm)
Proposed source:
Taupo
Maroa
Rotorua Reporoa Whakamaru ....... .
Kapenga Mangakino
PokaiA Kaingaroa Whakamaru C
Ohakuri
150 200
Figure 4.7 Rb vs Sr plots of Waiotapu Ignimbrite pumice analyses (shaded dark grey; A: type A pumice, B: type B pumice) against fields enclosing other TVZ ignimbrites. Data from S.D. Weaver and B.F. Houghton (unpub. data), S.W. Beresford (unpub. data), Sutton et al (1995), Brown (1994), Karhunen (1993). and Briggs et al (1993). Proposed sources from Houghton et al (1995).
ignimbrites do display compositional zonation and that some TVZ magma systems are
chemically and thermally zoned (Briggs et ai, 1993; Karhunen, 1993; Brown, 1994;
S.W. Beresfordpers. comm. 1996).
Petrographic and bulk geochemical data outlined in Chapter 3 suggest that
Waiotapu Ignimbrite was derived from a compositionally homogenous magma
chamber. Pumice data suggests that two magma types were incorporated in the
pyroclastic flow during eruption, and that the type-A Waiotapu chamber was weakly
zoned, due to plagioclase fractionation. Possible origins for the batches are:
a) two separate magma chambers eruption simultaneously leading to the
incorporation of two magma types into the resulting pyroclastic flow.
b) integration of a smaller, type B, magma batch into a larger type A magma
chamber leading to magma mingling. It is possible that the influx of type B
magma may have triggered the Waiotapu eruption.
68
Two models have been proposed for the production of TVZ rhyolites: (1) melting of
crust resulting from heat transfer from mantle derived magmas or injection of mantle
material into crust already heated by plastic deformation (Ewart, 1966; Ewart et al.
1975; Reid, 1983; Graham et ai, 1992; Hochstein et al. 1993); (2) assimilation
fractional crystallisation of basaltic magmas (Blattner & Reid. 1982; Graham et ai,
1992; McCulloch et ai, 1994). Graham et al {1995} questioned these models as the
rhyolites do not show the uniform composition expected if the resulted from melting of
lower crustal rocks and there is little evidence for the quantities of basalt required to
produce 100 000 km3+ of rhyolite. Graham et al (1994) failed to come to an
unequivocal conclusion concerning the origin of TVZ rhyolites but felt that isotopic data
suggested that the rhyolites are derived from a combination of crystal fractionation and
crustal assimilation similar to (2) above.
Figure 4.7 compares analyses of Waiotapu Ignimbrite pumices with data for other
TVZ ignimbrites. Data is sourced from S.D. Weaver and B.F. Houghton {unpub. data},
S.W. Beresford (unpub. data), Sutton et al (1995). Brown (1994), Karhunen (1993).
and Briggs et al (1993). With the exception of Whakamaru Ignimbrite, Waiotapu
Ignimbrite pumice types show a wider disparity in Rb content than other TVZ
ignimbrites. Unlike many other ignimbrite pumice groups, Waiotapu Ignimbrite shows
no variation in Sr. These data have been interpreted to suggest that many TVZ
rhyolites have been generated in batches that have variable trace element
characteristics and have subsequently undergone unique fractionation trends (Brown,
1994).
Type-A pumice data for Waiotapu Ignimbrite suggests that the magma underwent
fractional crystallisation of plagioclase and Fe-Ti oxides. The erupted Waiotapu
Ignimbrite chemistry may simply represent the most evolved uppermost part of a
chamber that was not completely eviscerated during eruption. Alternatively mixing prior
to, or during eruption may have obscured the early crystallisation history.
There is insufficient data to determine the history of type-B magma, and its
relationship to type-A magma is equivocal. Isotopic data would be invaluable in
determining whether or not the type-A and B pumices are genetically related.
69
CHAPTER FIVE
TH N RI
INTRODUCTION
The Ngapouri Ridge (Figure. 5.1), situated 2 km southwest of Waiotapu, is a
topographic feature composed dominantly of Waiotapu Ignimbrite and Ngapouri
Rhyolite. A fault bounded scarp forming the Paeroa Range lies approximately 4km to
the west, while to the north is Maungaongaonga, an 825m high dacitic ediface. Along
the eastern margin of the ridge is the Trig 8566 rhyolite, the age of which is uncertain
however it is bracketed by the age of Waiotapu Ignimbrite (710 ka), which it intrudes,
and the eruption of Kaingaroa Ignimbrite (230 ka). The latter was erupted from
Reporoa Caldera, the bounding faults of which truncate the eastern side of the dome
(Nairn et ai, 1994).
This chapter will examine the units that are associated with Waiotapu Ignimbrite on
the ridge and surrounding area, and to try and determine what relationship, if any, they
have with Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
5.1 STRATIGRAPHY
The initial stratigraphy of the Waiotapu region (Table 5.1) was based on the logs of the
7 drillcores within the Waiotapu Geothermal Field (Steiner, 1963) and their correlation
with the sequence outcropping on the nearby Paeroa Scarp. Here Waiotapu Ignimbrite
appears to overlie the Paeroa Ignimbrite and the Paeroa Scarp sequence appears to
dip under the Ngapouri Ridge. Waiotapu Ignimbrite was also mapped on top of the
Paeroa Range, above Paeroa Ignimbrite, so it was concluded that the Waiotapu
Ignimbrite was younger than the Paeroa Ignimbrite. This stratigraphy was, until
recently, widely accepted (Grindley et ai, 1994).
More recent fission track and 40Ar_39Ar dating has forced a reappraisal of the
stratigraphy. Initial fission track dates (Kohn, 1986; Kohn et al 1992) showed that
Waiotapu Ignimbrite (0.58 ± 0.03 Ma) was older than Paeroa Ignimbrite (0.36 ± 0.03 to
0.38 ± 0.03 Ma) and Te Kopia Ignimbrite (mean age of 0.38 ± 0.09 Ma) which outcrop
on the Paeroa Scarp. Grindley et al (1994) then provided additional zircon fission track
ages of 0.57 ± 0.05 Ma and 0.58 ± 0.06 Ma for the Waiotapu Ignimbrite, and a mean
age of 0.36 ± 0.01 Ma for the Paeroa Ignimbrite and 0.36 ± .07 Ma for the Te Kopia
Ignimbrites, further supporting the revision of the stratigraphy. New 40Ar_39Ar dates of
70
·c
:::J o 0... m
Q
)
Z if)
"0
I-
m
$: o
...... 0... I-
co U
(f)
m
o I-<l.l co
0... <l.l .c: ...... E
o
..::: .c: t o c.: Q
) c.:
:sz o o ...J
71
Table 5.1 Stratigraphy of the Waiotapu Geothermal Field and surrounding region as originally defined by Steiner (1963) and subsequently redefined by Grindley et al (1994).
Description (After Steiner, 1963)
Interbedded siltstones & sandstones
Dacite
Rhyolitic pumice breccia with quartz feldspar and biotite
Biotite-bearing quartzose ignimbrite
Vitric tuff with interbedded pumiceous breccia
Lenticular ignimbrite
interbedded pumiceous breccias and tuffaceous sandstones
Quartzose ignimbrite with hornblende and pyroxene
Interbedded pumiceous breccias, tuffaceous breccias and tuffaceous sandstones
Rhyolite pumice shreds with crystals Df oligoclase andesine
Quartzose ignimbrite with hornblende and pyroxene
Interbedded pumiceous breccias and tuffaceous breccias
Augite-hypersphene andesite
Biotite-bearing quartzose ignimbrite
Unit Name Original Stratigraphy (Steiner, 1963)
Huka Group
Maungaongaonga Dacite
Pumiceous Breccia
Rangitaiki Ignimbrite
Huka Group
Waiotapu Ignimbrite
Lower Aquifer A
Paeroa Ignimbrite A
Lower Aquifer B
Pumiceous Tuffs
Paeroa Ignimbrite B
Lower Aquifer C
Ngakoro Andesite
Paeroa Ignimbrite C
Revised Stratigraphy (Grindley et ai, 1994)
Huka Group
Maungaongaonga Dacite
Onuku Pumice Tuff
Rangitaiki Ignimbrite
UnitW
Waiotapu Ignimbrite
UnitX
Ignimbrite A (I)
UnitY2
Unit Y1
Ignimbrite B(I)
UnitZ
Ngakoro Andesite
Ignimbrite C(I)
(I) Correlated with Akatawera Ignimbrites A & B identified in Braodlands-Ohaaki, Te Kopia and Orakeikorako geothermal fields (Grindley et ai, 1994).
tJ) No known correlative (Grindley et ai, 1994).
provide a much older age of 0.71 ± 0.06 Ma for the Waiotapu Ignimbrite and 0.33 ±
0.01 Ma for the Paeroa Ignimbrite (Houghton et ai, 1995).
It is now accepted that the original interpretation of the stratigraphy of the region
was incorrect and that Waiotapu Ignimbrite must pre-date the deposition of the
ignimbrites exposed in the Paeroa Range.
72
w
KEY: 0 Hydrothermal Breccia
Trig 8566 Rhyolite
Paeroa Ignimbrite
Te Weta Ignimbrite
Te Kopia Ignimbrite
Waiotapu Ignimbrite
Unit X
Ngapouri Rhyolite
) \ /
E
Rahopaka-Akatawera A Ignimbrite?
Figure 5.2 Representative cross-section of Waiotapu/Ngapouri Region (not to scale).
5.2 REGIONAL STRUCTURE
Faulting in the Ngapouri Region is complex and the exact nature and distribution of
faulting is difficult to resolve, given the poor exposure and subdued geomorphology
(Figure 5.2). Two major faults have been recognised and are agreed upon by all
In addition faulting related to the collapse of Reporoa Caldera and subsidence outside
the structural boundary of the caldera is likely to be imposed on the fault pattern in the
region, thus further complicating the fault distribution.
The major controlling fault in the region is the Paeroa Fault, which defines the
western boundary of the Paeroa Range. The trend of the fault is 040°. which is parallel
to the regional trend within TVZ and has a downthrow of 600m to the west, although
the fault scarp is only 500m high (Keall, 1988). Approximately 3 km to the south east is
the Ngapouri Fault (trending 055°) which has an appreciable down throw to the west
although the total amount of throw is unknown.
East of the Paeroa Fault the Paeroa Range Group Ignimbrites dip 7° to the south
east, before being covered by hydrothermal debris. Foliation within Waiotapu
Ignimbrite appears to have a concentric distribution, dipping in towards the Trig 8566
rhyolite. J. Healy (pers. comm. to Hedenquist. 1983) described this as a cup and
saucer relationship where the dome has been extruded through Waiotapu Ignimbrite
which has subsequently subsided due to the increased load.
73
5.3 NGAPOURI RHYOLITE
5.3.1 Introduction
The Ngapouri Rhyolite (Figure 5.3), originally called the Waiotapu Rhyolite by Grindley
(1965), is the eroded remains of a small rhyolite dome that comprises the central part
of the Ngapouri Ridge. No type locality has been defined, but a good reference section
can be found at U16/005114. Grindley (1965) originally considered the Waiotapu
Rhyolite to be a vent fill within the source of Waiotapu Ignimbrite, however later work
proved this was not the case (see Chapter 1.3) and the unit has since been renamed
the Ngapouri Rhyolite (Grindley et ai, 1994).
The exposures on the Ngapouri Ridge are the only known occurrence of the unit
within the TVZ. Inferences about the subsurface distribution of the rhyolite can be
made using lithic component analysis of lithic lag breccias within ignimbrites with
source calderas in the surrounding area. No lithics of Ngapouri Rhyolite (or
descriptions the match the rhyolite) have been reported in Whakamaru Ignimbrite
(Brown, 1994), Paeroa Range Group Ignimbrites (Keall, 1988) or Kaingaroa Ignimbrite
(S.W. Beresford pers. comm. 1996), suggesting that the distribution is restricted to the
area surrounding the Ngapouri Ridge (see section 5.5.3). Although it is possible that
there have been additional related domes within the vicinity they are no longer
exposed or extant.
In outcrop the unit is characterised by near vertical jointing, measured spacings
between joint sets ranging from 4 cm to 105 cm. Near the crest of the ridge the joints
trend almost east - west (096° to 102°, measured in outcrop) dipping between 76° to
84° to the north. Further to the north the orientation of the joints swings northeast (066°
to 054°) and the dip of the sets decreases to between 57° and 61° northwest.
Ngapouri Rhyolite can be divided into two main facies. On the crest of the ridge
(e.g. at U16/005114) the unit is a coherent purple or grey coloured flow banded rhyolite
containing an estimated 10% phenocrysts. Outcrops to the north are far more brittle
and samples have a pervasive hackly fracture; this makes the unit easily confused with
Waiotapu Ignimbrite, but with close examination flow banding is discernible within the
rhyolite.
The exact age of the unit is unknown but recent paleomagnetic polarity studies have
shown that the unit is reversely magnetised, therefore falling into the Matuyama
reversed polarity episode and giving a minimum age of 0.75 Ma (Grindley et ai, 1994).
Waiotapu Ignimbrite (0.71 Ma) appears to have flowed around the eroded remains of
the rhyolite.
74
Figure 5.3 Ngapouri Rhyolite, taken at the reference section at U16/005114 on Ngapouri Ridge. Here the unit is a purple coloured, coherent, flow banded rhyolite, further north the degre of devtrification intensifies imparting a pervasive hackly fracture. Hammer is 33cm long.
5.3.2 Petrography
Ngapouri Rhyolite is a purple, crystal poor (~10%) flow banded rhyolite. The
phenocrysts are 1-2 mm in size and the assemblage is dominated by plagioclase
(An35), many crystals of which are weakly zoned. In order of decreasing abundance
magnetite, orthopyroxene (of which most are almost completely altered) and quartz are
present in trace amounts.
The degree of devitri"flcation within the rhyolite intensi"fles away from the inferred
centre of the dome on the peak of the Ngapouri Ridge. Near the centre of the dome
devitrifiation is incipient and defines flow banding; in places there are spherulites up to
2 mm across. Further from the centre devitrification intensifies and spherulitic texture
becomes increasingly prominent (Figure 5.4a) until a mosaic of spherulites (0.5-2mm
across) completely obscures all primary textures (Figure. 5.4b). The extreme
devitrification, which is best observed near the contact with Waiotapu Ignimbrite
(U16/012114), has led to the development of a pseudo hackly fracture within the rock
which is caused by disaggregation of the rock along the boundaries between
spherulites within the mosaic.
5.3.3 Geochemistry
Two samples of I\Igapouri Rhyolite were analysed by XRF for major and trace
elements, and the results are presented in Appendix The unit is a high silica rhyolite
(74.83-75.22 wt% 8i02) with Rb/8r ratios of 1.41-1.54 and high potassium content
(4.02-4.12 wt% K20).
Figure 5.5 shows analyses of I\Igapouri Rhyolite plotted against fields enclosing
Waiotapu Ignimbrite pumice and whole rock analyses. Ngapouri Rhyolite conSistently
plots outside the fields of both whole rock and pumices. The location of the rhyolite on
the plots is difficult to explain by crystal fractionation, especially conSidering the age
difference between the units. When plotted against K20 the rhYOlite lies well away from
the Waiotapu Ignimbrite trend.
5.3.4 Discussion
While originally identified as a rhyolite by Grindley (1965) the similarities of the unit to
Waiotapu Ignimbrite in the field has meant that the rhyolite has been misidentified.
Martin (1961) described three layers within Waiotapu Ignimbrite at Ngapouri Ridge,
based on the presence of three levels of outcrop on the ridge. At least one of these
ridges, however, is entirely within Ngapouri Rhyolite. However the units can be
distinguished within the field, and near the crest of the ridge the unit is unequivocally a
rhyolite lava, which displays good flow banding. Even where pervasive spherulite
development imparts a pervasive "Waiotapu Ignimbrite-like" pseudo hackly fracture,
flow banding is still discernable.
Field relations, where Waiotapu Ignimbrite appears to have flowed around the
eroded remains of the Ngapouri Rhyolite dome, and the age discrepancy of at least 40
ka, suggests that the rhyolite and the ignimbrite are unrelated. Waiotapu Ignimbrite
and Ngapouri Rhyolite are petrologically similar, although Waiotapu Ignimbrite contains
a greater amount of orthopyroxene. Finally the chemistry of the rhyolite is inconsistent
with the unit being an older, and less evolved, product of the Waiotapu Ignimbrite
parental magma.
76
Figure 5.4 Devtrification textures in Ngapouri Rhyolite. a) "Tarantula" texture within coherent rhyolite which developed as a result of the growth of large spherulites. b) With increasing devtrification spherulites form a mosaic and the rock becomes brittle, failing along the margins of spherulites. Field of view 3mm.
77
2.0 ,-,---,-,----,-.......,-----,,-,--~ ... r ... _
Figure 5.5 Variation diagrams showing the relationship between Ngapouri Rhyolite (black squares) and fields containing Waiotapu Ignimbrite whole rock (dark grey) and pumice (light grey) analyses. Note the disparity between the trend of Rb vs K20 for Waiotapu Ignimbrite and Rahopaka Ignimbrite analyses.
5.4 THE X-FilES: UNITS UNDERLYING WAIOTAPU IGNIMBRITE
5.4.1 UnitX
Unit X (as defined by Grindley et ai, 1994) is a collection of interbedded pumiceous
sediments and tuffs that outcrop along the base of the northwestern side of the
Ngapouri Ridge (Figure. 5.6). Exposure of the unit is poor and much of it was mapped
on the basis of geomorphology, which suggests it extends south from Lake Opouri to
exposures with Kawaunui Stream. Unit X was logged in detail at the base of the
Ngapouri Ridge at U 16/004116 where it is exposed as a 6 m high outcrop consisting of
four distinct facies separated by gradational contacts. Figure 5.7 is a graphic log of the
outcrop.
Steiner (1963) and Hedenquist (1983) reported pumiceous breccias and crystal
lithic tuffs beneath Waiotapu Ignimbrite in the Waiotapu Geothermal Field drillcores
which Grindley et al (1994) believe correlate with Unit X. Successions of unwelded
ignimbrite, tephras and volcaniclastic sediments beneath Waiotapu Ignimbrite in the
western TVZ have also been reported (Houghton et ai, 1987a; Houghton et ai, 1987b;
78
Figure 5.6 Outcrop of Unit X on Ngapouri Ridge (U16/004116). See Figure 5.7 for graphic log of the outcrop. Length of hammer is 33cm.
Gifford, 1988).
Paleomagnetic work conducted by Grindley et al (1994) on samples of Unit X from
Kawaunui Stream (at U17/993098 and U17/993096) gave reversed magnetic
orientations, suggesting an upper age limit of 0.75 Ma, which supports a Waiotapu
over Unit X stratigraphy.
Unit X appears to represent the reworked pumiceous ignimbrite and tuffs formed
significantly earlier than the deposition of the Waiotapu Ignimbrite and the tuffs are
unlikely to represent any pre-eruptive activity related to Waiotapu Ignimbrite. The unit
has been defined elsewhere in TVZ (e.g. Houghton et ai, 1987a & b; Gifford, 1988)
and appears to include many pre-Waiotapu Ignimbrite tephras and sediment that are,
as yet, undifferentiated. In some areas where the unit occurs, Waiotapu Ignimbrite is
absent.
5.4.2 Akatawera A I Rahopaka Ignimbrites
Between the southern spurs of the Ngapouri Ridge at U16/005106 and U16/000104
are outcrops of a moderately welded ignimbrite beneath Waiotapu Ignimbrite. Grindley
et al (1994) named this unit Akatawera A and correlated it with units found within the
79
5 .() Q
Q
0 Q
Q 0
4 C>
0 . 6 CO,'
3
.. ", .. 2 .•..•
.D
1
O...l...... _______ --J
Pale brown to white, poorly indurated massive sandstone. Massive unit with sparse granule to pebble size clasts supported by a very-coarse sand matrix. Compositionally as below.
White to brown, indurated pumiceous sediment. Massive unit with pebble to cobble size clasts supported in a very coarse sand size matrix. Clasts are dominantly poorly vesicular, crystal poor pumices, matrix as below.
White-brown to red pumiceous sediment. Planar bedded, granule to pebble sized, subangular clasts supported in a coarse sand matrix. Composition as below. Red colouration due to hydrothermal alteration .
White brown coloured, moderate to poorly indurated pumice rich sediment. Poorly bedded unit containing granule to pebble sized, sub-angular clasts within a coarse sand matrix. Several boulder sized clasts present. Dominantly composed of ignimbrite and pumice clasts.
Figure 5.7 Log of Unit X at the base of Ngapouri Ridge (U16/004116).
80
Te Kopia, Orakeikorako and Ohaaki-Broadlands Geothermal Fields. C.P. Wood (pers.
comm. 1996) believes the ignimbrite may represent eastern exposures of Rahopaka
Ignimbrite, previously only mapped in the Kinleith Forest. These exposures will be
discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
5.5 PAEROA SCARP FLOAT BLOCKS
5.5.1 Introduction
For many years the stratigraphy of the region near the Ngapouri Ridge was confused
by the presence of what were thought to be in-situ outcrops of Waiotapu Ignimbrite
overlying the Paeroa Range ignimbrites (see Chapter 1.4). These blocks (Figure 5.8)
are exposed on the upthrown side of the Paeroa Range within an area of
approximately 4 km2, enclosed by a triangle extending from Trig 8533 (U16/987132), in
the north, to Trig 8551 (U16/975116), in the south, and to Kawaunui Stream
(U16/985103). More recent dating (e.g. Kohn et ai, 1992; Houghton et ai, 1995) forced
a revision of the local stratigraphy as it proved Waiotapu Ignimbrite was older than the
Paeroa Range Ignimbrites. Consequently the origin of the blocks of Waiotapu
Ignimbrite is now open to speculation, This section will outline the nature of the
exposed blocks and discuss possible origins.
5.5.2 Characteristics
The scattered blocks are of extremely limited composition; most are Waiotapu
Ignimbrite, but there are isolated blocks of Ngapouri Rhyolite. In both hand specimen
and thin section all samples are similar to Waiotapu Ignimbrite and Ngapouri Rhyolite
from the nearby Ngapouri Ridge. The blocks are commonly sub-angular although they
become sub-rounded with decreasing size. Some blocks may represent the
disaggregation of larger blocks but there is little evidence of fresh fracturing of the
material suggesting that rounding may, in part. be due to weathering following the final
emplacement of the blocks. Evidence of heat spalling has been reported in some of
the clasts (I.A. Nairn pers. comm. 1995; Grindley et ai, 1994) but was not observed
during this study.
The orientation of foliation (defined by fiamme and/or lithophysae) varies
considerably between blocks and their size is highly irregular. Clast sizes range from
centimetre scale blocks up to a large block forming a small hill in the vicinity of
U16/980107, reported by Grindley et al (1994). Here there is one outcrop
(U16/980106) which yielded strike and dip of foliation which is markedly discordant
with dips on the Ngapouri Ridge, suggesting the block has undergone subsidence.
81
00 N
Figure 5.8 Blocks of Waiotapu Fault scarp, eastern Left: U16/977122. Sledge is 55cm long. Below below: Blocks at U16/982125. Here bloCKS are numerous and range size from several cm to 2.3m.
\
5.5.3 Discussion: Emplacement
Since re-evaluation of the stratigraphy, alternative explanations of the presence of the
blocks have been proposed. Dr I.A Nairn (pers. comm. 1995) postulated that the
blocks represented the scattered remains of a lithic lag breccia within an ignimbrite
pre-dating the eruption of Kaingaroa Ignimbrite. He cited the presence of a number of
blocks that showed evidence for hot emplacement in the form of heat spalling.
Nairn's explanation, while plausible has limitations. The limited composition of the
blocks implies that the source was nearby and localised, otherwise lithic fragments of
other compositions would be expected. The Waiotapu Ignimbrite appears to have
flowed around the eroded remains of the Ngapouri Rhyolite, consequently it is unlikely
that the rhyolite extended significantly further than its current distribution. Also the
blocks are confined to the small saddle between Trigs 8533 and 8551. It would
therefore seem reasonable to assume that the blocks were derived from the Ngapouri
Ridge. In addition Grindley et al (1994) point out that the heat spalling of the blocks
cannot represent an extreme emplacement temperature, as Zircon fission track dates
from blocks have yielded dates matching those for in-situ Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
An alternative theory has been postulated by Grindley et al (1994). As a result of field
mapping in the region they felt it was necessary to infer a fault with a throw of
approximately 200m, the so-called Caldera Boundary Fault (Grindley et ai, 1994). The
structure is thought to represent the eastern margin of the proposed Paeroa Caldera
(presumably the source of the Paeroa Range Group Ignimbrites) and the float
represents exotic blocks spalled off the fault during successive episodes of caldera
collapse (Grindley et ai, 1995).
Grindley et al (1994) claim that where the base of any blocks are seen they lie on
pumiceous silts above the lower sheet of Paeroa Ignimbrite, implying that the blocks
were transported to their current location between the eruption of the two sheets and
were deposited under lacustrine conditions. Field work conducted for this study failed
to find any evidence for such conditions, and most blocks appear to be lying within
recent soils (see Figure 5.8). It is possible that the positions of the mapped blocks do
not represent their original locations after emplacement.
The evidence for the Caldera Boundary Fault is minimal and it does not have an
obvious surface expression in the field, however Grindley reports several hydrothermal
areas lie along the proposed trace of the fault. Detailed transects of the Paeroa Scarp
and subsequent interpretation of maximum lithic data (Keall, 1988) suggests that the
Te Weta and Paeroa Ignimbrites were sourced to the south of the Paeroa Range,
83
Figure 5.9 Blocks of Paeroa Range Group Ignimbrites lying at the base of the Paeroa fault scarp.
while Te Kopia Ignimbrite is derived from a northern source. Consequently serious
doubts must be thrown on Grindley's theories concerning the structure of the region.
The most plausible explanation for the presence of the blocks is that they are the result
of rock falls (probably related to episodes of fault movement) from a nearby
topographic high composed of Waiotapu Ignimbrite and Ngapouri Rhyolite. The limited
distribution of the Ngapouri Rhyolite suggests that the topographic high included the
modern Ngapouri Ridge, but was somewhat more extensive. The Ngapouri Fault runs
northeast along the base of the western side of the Ngapouri and activity on this fault is
most likely to have led to the destruction of portions of the ridge. A similar situation
occurs along the base of the Paeroa Scarp where blocks of Paeroa, Te Weta and Te
Kopia Ignimbrites have clearly fallen from the scarp above (Figure 5.9). If this is the
case then it is remarkable that the blocks have travelled some 2 - 3 km from their
original source (the blocks beneath the Paeroa Scarp are all found within half a
kilometre of the scarp). It is possible that the blocks are the remains of a much larger
amount of debris produced during a catastrophic failure of pali of the ridge which
generated large scale gravity slides with the subsequent deposit eroded away leaving
the current distribution. Some remobilisation due to activity on the Paeroa Fault is
84
possible, but this is unlikely to have transported the blocks very far. The large hill at
U16/980106 may represent subsidence of in-situ Waiotapu Ignimbrite with little, or no,
further transport.
The timing of emplacement is difficult to determine. Grindley et al (1994) believe the
blocks were emplaced between two sheets of Paeroa Ignimbrite, in which case the
blocks were deposited around 0.32 Ma (the age of emplacement of the Whakamaru
Group Ignimbrites - of which the. Paeroa Ignimbrite is considered a member (Brown,
1994)). Field observations show the blocks to be lying within soils, rather than directly
above Paeroa Ignimbrite, therefore the age of emplacement may be considerably later.
85
HAPTER SIX
IGNIM
INTRODUCTION
Rahopaka Ignimbrite (0.77 ± 0.03 Ma; Houghton et ai, 1995), a moderately welded,
hornblende-phyric tuff, was first described and named by Murphy (1977). who defined
the type locality at U 161789205, 150m east of the intersection of Pukerimu and
Tikorangi Roads. Reconnaissance mapping of Rahopaka Ignimbrite was conducted in
the Matahana Basin in order to establish the general nature of the unit and establish
any possible relationship with the overlying Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
At present the only known exposures of Rahopaka Ignimbrite are in the Matahana
Basin (Figure 6.1) from the end of Bob Rd in the west to Rusa Rd in the east. Much of
the area of interest is covered by younger deposits mainly the Pokai and Mamaku
Ignimbrites with additional undifferentiated pyroclastic deposits. There is speculation
that the unit has extended as far east as the base of the Ngapouri Ridge (C.P. Wood,
Waiotapu Ignimbrite
Rahopaka Ignimbrite
o
Figure 6.1 Map of the distribution of Waiotapu Ignimbrite, Rahopaka Ignimbrite and Pukerimu Formation within Matahana Basin, Kinleith Forest.
86
Figure 6.2 Inlier of Pukerimu Formation (the cliff forming unit exposed at the base of the hill) capped by Rahopaka Ignimbrite, seen from Rusa Rd.
pers. comm. 1995) where it has been mapped as Akatawera A by Grindley et al
(1994). The possible correlation of these two units will be examined in section 6.6.
Rahopaka Ignimbrite is poorly exposed, however it outcrops at three significant
localities within the Matahana Basin; at the end of Bob Rd (base of the Tikorangi
Escarpment), as an inlier around Pukerimu and Rhino Roads, and between Rusa and
Harry Johnson Roads, where it caps the older Pukerimu Formation and forms a
The thickness of the ignimbrite was difficult to determine as at most exposures the
top and base of the ignimbrite were not observed. Murphy (1977) gave a thickness of
61 m+ for Rahopaka Ignimbrite at Pukerimu Road.
Given the extremely limited distribution of outcrop of the ignimbrite and the absence
of recognised proximal facies the location of the source is poorly constrained. Current
speculation is that the unit originated from within the Kapenga volcanic centre
(Houghton et al. 1995).
6.1 STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONS
Rahopaka Ignimbrite is one of the oldest exposed units in the Matahana Basin, a
region with a complex stratigraphy. Table 6.1 provides a generalised stratigraphy of
the region, while Table 6.2 details the stratigraphy of the basin as defined by Murphy
87
Table 6.1 Generalised stratigraphy of units within the Matahana Basin, Kinleith Forest. Data from this study with additional data from C.P. Wood, pers. comm. (1995), D. Dysart, pers. comm., (1996) and Murphy & Seward (1981). Ages are 40Ar}9Ar ages from Houghton et al (1995) except· which is a Fission Track age from Murphy and Seward (1981).
Unit
Undifferentiated material and lacustrine sediments
and Tikorangi Ignimbrite (a grey to black densely welded lenticulite with black fiamme).
Rahopaka Ignimbrite overlies the Pukerimu formation on Rusa Road although the
contact is not observed.
6.2 LITHOLOGY
Rahopaka Ignimbrite was logged and sampled at two localities in the Matahana Basin;
Bob Rd (U16/789205) and the type section on Pukerimu Road (U161756185). Outcrop
was limited at each locality with about 6 m of section and the unit showed little vertical
variation at each. These outcrops plus other smaller exposures in the vicinity of Rusa
Road, however, suggest that the degree of welding in the deposit decreases upwards.
At the end of Bob Road (Figure 6.3) the ignimbrite constitutes the lower part of the
Tikorangi Escarpment, and is inferred to be at least 40m thick. The ignimbrite is poorly
welded, with clast densities ranging from 0.98 - 1.43 g cm-3, welding appears to
89
Figure 6.3 Exposure of Rahopaka Ignimbrite near the end of Bob Rd (U16/756185).
increase with decreasing stratigraphic height (Figure 6.4a). Lithic fragments are sparse
and have an average size of ~3cm, and ML of 11 cm.
At Pukerimu Road the exposure is in the advanced stages of degradation however
samples collected at ~1 m intervals throughout the section suggest that the unit shows
little variation with increasing height. The ignimbrite is moderately welded (clast
densities ranging from 1.23 - 1.57 g cm-3, see Figure 6.4b) and again the degree of
welding appears to increase down through the unit. No large lithics were recovered
from this locality and here the unit also appears to contain few pumices.
Murphy (1977) noted a 70 rnm thick pumice ash zone beneath poorly welded
Rahopaka Ignimbrite at the end of Rusa Road. A poorly welded, pumiceous ignimbrite
imilar to that described by Murphy (1977) was mapped at the end of Rusa Road
90
Rahopaka Ignimbrite Density Profile
a) Bob Rd (U16f789205)
6~-----.------~
I I 5 Ell
~. \ ~ g. 4 •
L \ ; / 8- 2 •
i i \ :l ....... ,',., .. ,\ 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5
Density (g/cm3)
Rahopaka Ignimbrite Density Profile
b) Pukerimu Rd (U16f756185)
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80
Density (g/cm3)
Figure 6.4 Clast density profiles of Rahopaka Ignimbrite at (a) Bob Road and (b) Pukerimu Road, Kinleith Forest.
however it is equivocal as to whether this unit is Rahopaka Ignimbrite. Further to the
west, and approximately 20 m lower, Rahopaka Ignimbrite is seen to grade from a
poorly welded and pumiceous deposit into a moderately welded, poorly jointed unit
which is unequivocally Rahopaka Ignimbrite. The base of the unit is not observed on
Rusa Road.
6.3 GEOCHEMISTRY
In order to establish a possible relationship between Rahopaka and Waiotapu
Ignimbrites the general geochemical character of Rahopaka Ignimbrite was
established. Although pumices are present within the ignimbrite, they were either too
small to yield enough sample for analysis or were too altered to be of any use. So
whole rock samples of the unit were analysed. Three samples were cotlected from top,
middle and base of the 6 m high section at Pukerimu Road (U161756185). Major and
trace element analyses for these samples are presented in Appendix 2.
It is recognised that whole rock analyses of a tuff as poorly welded as Rahopaka
Ignimbrite are of dubious value and this must be considered before interpreting the
data (problems with whole rock geochemistry of tuffs are outlined in Chapter 4.2). In an
attempt to limit the influence of lithic fragments on the analyses, before samples were
91
Table 6.3 Comparison and ranges in concentration of selected elements between Rahopaka Ignimbrite and Waiotapu Ignimbrite. Rahopaka Ignimbrite analyses are from whole rock samples whereas Waiotapu Ignimbrite analyses are from whole rock and pumices.
ground to a powder, lithics were removed by hand from crushed samples with the aid
of a binocular microscope.
The major and trace element geochemistry of Rahopaka Ignimbrite and Waiotapu
Ignimbrite appear to be distinct and ranges for elements seldom overlap (Table 6.3).
Rahopaka Ignimbrite has lower Si02, K20, Zr, Rb and Rb/Sr, and higher Ti02 and Sr
than Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
6.4 PETROLOGY
17 samples were collected at 1 to 2m intervals from the sections at the end of Bob
Road and on Pukerimu Road and were then thin sectioned in order to establish the
general petrographic character of Rahopaka Ignimbrite.
Rahopaka Ignimbrite (plag>qz>hbl>opx»mag>ilmenite) is a medium to fine grained
«1-3mm) tuff with crystal content ranging from c.10% (at Bob Road) to 25-30% (on
Pukerimu Road). The mineral assemblage is dominated (::::::70%) by plagioclase
feldspar (oligoclase, An27) which is commonly weakly zoned. Quartz occurs as sub
rounded to rounded crystals which are generally strongly em bayed. Hornblende, which
is diagnostic of Rahopaka Ignimbrite, occurs as euhedral to subhedral laths or
occasional six-sided prisms.
At Bob Road the unit is pumiceous, with the ground mass containing numerous
millimetre scale pumice fragments. Vitroclastic texture is common, although at times
the matrix is too fine to enable textures to be readily determined. By contrast
Rahopaka Ignimbrite on Pukerimu Road is pumice-poor and the groundmass is often
too fine to easily determine textures. Patchy felsitic devitrification occurs in some parts
of the deposit.
Hematitic alteration occurs throughout the unit, and many hornblende crystals have
92
Table Description of lithic fragments within Rahopaka Ignimbrite.
Type Description
Flow Banded Rhyolite Plagioclase, quartz, magnetite, and traces of orthopyroxene and ilmenite bearing rhyolite. Samples have undergone extensive devitrification, which clearly defines flow-banding. (Figure 6.5a)
Ignimbrite (?) I Intensively devitrified plagioclase, magnetite, orthopyroxene, quartz and biotite bearing unit. Devitrification is dominantly felsitic with occasional spherulites and patches of granophyric recrystalisation. All primary textures have been destroyed therefore the original nature of the fragment is equivocal. (Figure 6.5c)
Ignimbrite (?) II Very similar to Ignimbrite I, however the mineralogy is simpler (plagioclase, magnetite and quartz) and the patches of granophyric recrystallisation are larger and more widespread.
thin «O.5mm) rinds of hematite. Orthopyroxene crystals are generally (although not
always) degraded and occur as remnant cores within cavities.
6.5 LITHIC FRAGMENTS
Lithic fragments within Rahopaka Ignimbrite are rare and do not exceed c.12 cm size.
Lithic component analysis of fragments recovered from the section at the end of Bob
Road revealed 4 dominant lithic types that are readily distinguishable in hand
specimen. All types are present in roughly equal proportions and are summarised in
Table 6.4.
6.6 RAHOPAKA IGNIMBRITE IN THE EASTERN TVZ?
Rahopaka Ignimbrite (sensu stricto) is currently only exposed in and around the
Matahana Basin on the western margin of TVZ. A non-welded tuff at the base of the
Ngapouri Ridge (U16/005116) has been proposed as an eastern correlative of
Rahopaka ignimbrite by Dr C.P. Wood (pers. comm. 1995) on the basis of the
presence of cavities with morphologies resembling hornblende crystal habit. The unit
has been mapped as Akatawera A by Grindley et al (1994) (see section 5.4.1).
Petrographic analysis of samples collected for this study failed to yield any evidence of
hornblende crystals and the correlation with Rahopaka Ignimbrite is thought to be
erroneous.
93
Figure 6.5 Photomicrographs of lithic fragments Rahopaka Ignimbrite. view 3mm.
Flow banded rhvolite. Banding is defined devitrification. Basaltic scoria.
c) Recrystallised ignimbrite (?).
In addition a number of amphibole bearing ignimbrites of uncertain affinity have
been recovered as lithics from Kaingaroa Ignimbrite (S.W. Beresford, pers. comm.
1996). Most of these have pyroxene-amphibole ratios (px>amp) which differ from that
of type Rahopaka Ignimbrite (amp>px). Only one sample (KA 100) had similar px-amp
ratios. Amphibole mineral chemistries in KA 100 and a sample of Rahopaka Ignimbrite
(AW177) were analysed by scanning electron microprobe in order to establish any
possible genetic relationship between the units. The results of the probe work are
presented in Appendix 3. Hornblendes in KA 100 were cummingtonites, as opposed to
magnesio-hornblendes in Rahopaka Ignimbrite, suggesting that the two units are
unrelated (amphiboles were classified using criteria established by Leake, 1978).
6.7 DISCUSSION
On the basis of whole rock geochemistry, Rahopaka Ignimbrite appears to be distinct
from Waiotapu Ignimbrite. In addition Rahopaka Ignimbrite has a distinctive
hornblende-bearing mineralogy, unlike Waiotapu Ignimbrite where hornblendes are
rare.
Correlation of Rahopaka Ignimbrite with units in the eastern TVZ, in the base of the
Ngapouri Ridge and beneath Reporoa Caldera, cannot be sustained on mineralogical
grounds. At present the only known and unequivocal exposures of Rahopaka
Ignimbrite are in the Matahana Basin.
The complexity of the Matahana Basin and uncertain affinity of several of the units
means that a detailed study of Rahopaka Ignimbrite was beyond the scope of this
study. A detailed study of Rahopaka Ignimbrite would benefit considerably from the
examination of the underlying units (most notably the Pukerimu Formation) and the
undifferentiated deposits between Rahopaka Ignimbrite and Waiotapu Ignimbrite. It is
possible that not all hornblende-bearing deposits in the Matahana Basin are Rahopaka
Ignimbrite, and differentiation of these units will be important in understanding the
stratigraphy of the area.
95
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER
DISCU N
"The facts, although interesting, are irrelevant." Anon
Waiotapu Ignimbrite is a voluminous (at least 175 km3) large scale (aspect ratio of c.
1: 1200) pyroclastic flow deposit which is remarkably uniform in terms of both physical
character and composition. Surface outcrop is limited but it is the only unit that has
been demonstrated to outcrop on both sides of TVZ. It was erupted around 0.71 Ma
and was followed by a period of relative quiescence in TVZ where no caldera forming
eruptions occurred until the eruption of the Whakamaru Group Ignimbrites around 0.33
Ma (Houghton et ai, 1995).
In outcrop the ignimbrite shows no evidence for multiple flow units with a
considerable degree of internal homogeneity, which is also reflected in density profiles,
suggesting that the unit was deposited during the passage of one sustained pyroclastic
flow. Lithic fragments are exceedingly rare, being «1 % throughout the entire exposed
extent. Nothing resembling a proximal facies is observed anywhere, and no lithic
concentration zones have been recorded, although any proximal facies could have
been obscured by younger deposits.
Waiotapu Ignimbrite is welded throughout, being most densely welded just above
the base. This feature is unusual in TVZ ignimbrites suggesting that processes akin to
those in high grade (Le. high temperature) ignimbrites were operating. The unit was
energetically emplaced, even at its most distal extent, around Lichfield and Tokoroa
the pyroclastic flow crossed the undulating paleotopography with ease, climbing
paleohighs with slopes of 30° at Lichfield Quarry, about 40 km from source.
No preceding plinian deposits are observed. Non-welded material beneath the
deposit at Ngapouri Ridge, Tikorangi Escarpment and Wawa Quarry have significantly
different mineral assemblages, or mineral chemistries. The lack of observed Waiotapu
plinian deposits may simply reflect a lack of suitable exposures, but it seems most
likely that a plinian phase did not precede eruption of Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
96
1.1 IGNIMBRITES: ERUPTION AND DEPOSITION
Most ignimbrite forming eruptions documented have a characteristic sequence
involving a preceding plinian eruption and then the deposition of an ignimbrite (Cas
and Wright, 1988). These eruptions are thought to represent the accumulation of a
volatile rich cap at the top of the magma chamber which is tapped first, leading to the
generation of a convecting plinian eruption column (Wilson, 1986). Once the column
loses its impetus, if it is denser than the surrounding atmosphere it will begin to
collapse, generating pyroclastic flows that will flow radially away from the vent. In other
situations the erupted material may be too dense to allow the formation of an eruption
column, or will undergo rapid lateral expansion on leaving the vent, and develop a low
pyroclastic fountain (e.g. Wilson et ai, 1980).
There are various depositional models for ignimbrites. Sparks (1976) considered
pyroclastic flow deposits were similar to sediment gravity flow deposits and thought
they represented the frozen remnants of high-concentration, non-turbulent, plug flows
deposited when the flow froze en masse once gravitational forces were no longer able
to overcome the strength of the flow. While this explained many HARls it was
unsatisfactory in explaining the nature of some LARI deposits. Wilson and Walker
(1982) proposed a mechanism whereby a pyroclastic flow could be considered in
terms of a head, body and tail, within which different depositional regimes operated,
leading to the deposition of differing depositional facies. Branney and Kokelaar (1992)
pointed out various problems with the model of Spark (1976) and its subsequent
refinements, most notably that en masse freezing of a flow was difficult to envisage
over its entire length. Instead they proposed that ignimbrites were deposited during the
passage of a sustained pyroclastic flow which had two distinct layers. Deposition would
occur in a basal agglutinate layer, which chills and freezes against the ground, the
layer thickening and aggrading with the supply of material from an overriding, non
particulate flow.
Branney and Kokelaar (1992) also defined an ignimbrite grade continuum (Figure
7.1), expanding on the concept of ignimbrite grade defined by Walker (1983).
Ignimbrites can range from being extremely high grade, where they are intensely
welded to the point of being lava-like, to low-grade ignimbrites, which exhibit little or no
evidence of welding. By definition of Branney and Kokelaar (1992), Waiotapu
Ignimbrite is between moderate grade (both welded and non-welded zones) and high
grade (predominantly welded with rheomorphic zones).
cmgulilr Of CUSpalo shatds p<os.orvod in ignimonlQ
Figure 7.1 The ignimbrite grade continuum, and associated eruption and emplacement processes, conditions and products. Solid lines indicate some characteristic features and dotted lines indicate possible features. Waiotapu Ignimbrite is best described as a non-rheomorphic welded ignimbrite. From Branney and Kokelaar (1992).
7.2 KAPENGA VOLCANIC CENTRE: THE SOURCE?
7.2.1 Introduction
Kapenga volcanic centre is located in the middle of the Taupo fault belt, and covers an
area of 250 km2, including the Ngakuru Graben in the southern portion of the structure
(Wilson et ai, 1984). The centre was first identified by Rogan (1982) from gravity and
98
HAURAKI GRABEN
30
----lSI)
~, .. ~' •• O
GRAVITY MODEL of the TAUPO VOLCANIC ZONE
O"noity contrast -600 kg m"3
Contour vtltue. In metres betow sea f(tve'
hit] Drttlhofe. tmlnlmumt depth to bsoemoot
~Lako
+ 5&'_",,10 refractIon line . ,
10" Yards East I
Figure 7.2 Contour map of the depth, below sea level, of the basement of TVZ based on a best fit model derived from gravity anomalies. Kapenga volcanic centre is located above the centre of the map and is clearly made up of two 3000m deep depressions. From Rogan (1982).
magnetic studies (Figure 7.2). These studies identified a 2.5km thick body of low
density, magnetised rocks which were interpreted to be rhyolitic volcanics infilling a
volcanic collapse structure. The centre had the largest extent of the five volcanic
centres recognised at the time.
Wilson et al (1984) later suggested separation of the centre into two collapse
structures. The northern end of the area corresponding with a 2.5 km deep basin, while
a larger, 3km deep basin was located in the centre and south of Kapenga. The
boundary between the Okataina and Kapenga volcanic centres is not apparent on the
IHI: UtlHAH1
UNfVERSITY Of CANTL:;Bum r.H~IRTCHlJRCH. NL
99
Table 1.1 Deposits thought to originate from Kapenga Volcanic Centre after Houghton et al (1995). Period refers to the location of activity at Kapenga to the three periods of volcanic activity defined by Houghton et al (1995). All ages are 40Ar_39Ar, unless otherwise specified.
0.27 ± 0.03+ Matahana A Ignimbrite Waiotapu Ignimbrite Rahopaka Ignimbrite Matahana B Ignimbrite Tikorangi Ignimbrite
Age (Ma)
0.68 ± 0.05 0.71 ± 0.06 0.77 ± 0.03
0.89 ± 0.04
+: unpublished fission track age (B.P. Kohn unpub data, held on GNS files) .: Highly equivocal as to whether Kapenga is the source area
surface and volcanism appears to overlap. The eruption of Earthquake Flat Breccia,
which occurred immediately after the eruption of Rotoiti Breccia (65ka, Houghton et ai,
1995), suggests its eruption was related to activity in Okataina but geophysical data
suggests a ridge separates the two centres (Wilson et ai, 1984).
Kapenga volcanic centre is extensively faulted, with faulting being more intense in
the north. To the south much of the centre is covered by Ohakuri Ignimbrite (0.27 ±
0.03 Ma; Houghton et ai, 1995) which post dates much of the faulting (Wilson et ai,
1984).
Originally, only Waiotapu Ignimbrite was considered to come from Kapenga,
however Wilson et al (1984) postulate that some of the units mapped within the
lVIatahana Basin by Murphy (1977) may also have had a Kapenga source.
Subsequently Karhunen (1993) proposed that Pokai Ignimbrite was sourced from
Kapenga, although Wood (1992) has suggested that this ignimbrite may be derived
from Rotorua Caldera. Houghton et al (1995) consider that 7 units (Table 2.2) have
originated from the centre during two periods of activity (Figure 7.3).
Wilson et al (1995) consider that Kapenga is a composite structure consisting of 4
temporally discrete, but spatially coincident vents. Three periods of activity are
recognised, two of which involve caldera-forming activity. The first period began
around 0.89 Ma and culminated in the eruption of Waiotapu Ignimbrite at 0.71 Ma. The
second period occurred between 0.32 0.22 Ma although it is poorly defined as no
ages have been obtained for Pokai and Chimp Ignimbrites. The last phase of activity in
the centre did not result in any further caldera formation but involved rhyolite dome
building activity and the 65 ka eruption of Earthquake Flat Breccia (Wilson et ai, 1995).
Wood (1995) has proposed that an episode of collapse within Kapenga may have
100
A
,...
D ilIA
/ /
b
/ /
/
Q
\17' I B
/ / ITA
/ /
/
/// Q /
/ I> /
/
/
C lIB
F me
~ / ~ /
~ /
/ /
/
/// Q
/ V /
~ /
Figure 7.3 Maps showing the spatial distribution of caldera forming activity in TVZ through time. Roman numerals refer to periods of volcanic activity as defined by Houghton et al (1995). Kapenga volcanic centre was active during period liB (0.77-0.68 Ma) and period IIIB (0.28-c.0.15 Ma). From Houghton et al (1995).
coincided with collapse of Rotorua Caldera during the eruption of the 0.22 Ma
(Houghton et ai, 1995) Mamaku Ignimbrite. The considerable downfaulting (c.300m)
and overthickening of Mamaku Ignimbrite as it crosses the north-west margin of
Kapenga volcanic centre suggests synchronous collapse as chambers beneath both
Rotorua and Kapenga centres were eviscerated and the material was erupted from the
south-west of Rotorua Caldera (Wood, 1995).
7.2.2 The source ofWaiotapu Ignimbrite?
Various means of constraining the source areas of pyroclastic flow deposits have been
proposed, these include: distribution of lithic fragments through a deposit (Walker,
1985); lateral changes in pumice size with distance from source (e.g. Streck and
Grunder, 1995); increased thickness and number of flow units with increase proximity
to source (e.g. Karhunen, 1993). The degree of internal uniformity within Waiotapu
Ignimbrite and paucity of lithic fragments means that none of the methods mentioned
are available to help define the source.
101
N Waialapu Geolhermal field AIea
l
10 15
Kilomelres
SCALE 1: 500 000
176'OO'fb'lg
Figure 7.4 Generalised isopach map of Waiotapu Ignimbrite based on outcrop and drillhole data. Data is too sparse to allow decisive conclusions however the western isopachs suggest the deposit is thickening towards the southern end of Kapenga volcanic centre. .
Previous workers (e.g. Wilson et ai, 1984) have cited the general distribution of
Waiotapu Ignimbrite as suggesting it originated from Kapenga volcanic centre.
Certainly the unit does appear to thicken around the Kapenga structure and an isopach
map (Figure 7.4) of the limited thickness data available for Waiotapu Ignimbrite
suggests that the thickness of the ignimbrite decreases away from the vicinity of
Ngakuru. This locality also coincides with a large, negative residual gravity anomaly
(Bibby et ai, 1995).
Thickness data suggests that Waiotapu Ignimbrite was derived from somewhere in
the vicinity of the Waiotapu region. Drillcores from the geothermal field however do not
yield any evidence of proximal facies of Waiotapu Ignimbrite, and indeed Waiotapu
Ignimbrite thickness in the region appears to be topographically controlled; it appears
to be ponding in a large depression beneath the modern Reporoa Caldera.
Without exposure of any recognised proximal facies the location of the source of
Waiotapu Ignimbrite must be open to debate. No features of the deposit (e.g. density
of welding) show any systematic variation that could possibly constrain a source. One
lithic, in the base of the north of Ngapouri Ridge, measure 6cm, suggests the locality
102
was relatively proximal, but by itself this measurement is meaningless.
Kapenga volcanic centre lies within the mapped distribution of Waiotapu Ignimbrite
and is considered to have been active around the time of the eruption of Waiotapu
Ignimbrite (Houghton et ai, 1995) and it is most likely that Waiotapu Ignimbrite came
from within the centre. Subsequent faulting and post 330ka volcanic activity may well
have resulted in the burial of most of the proximal facies of Waiotapu Ignimbrite. It is
almost certain that no trace of the caldera (if one was formed) associated with the
eruption of Waiotapu Ignimbrite is preserved. Kapenga volcanic centre comprises
several overlapping structures, and it is conceivable that subsequent caldera forming
activity has disrupted, and probably destroyed, the Waiotapu source. If this is the case
then presumably large quantities of intra-caldera Waiotapu Ignimbrite should be
present in later ignimbrites such as Pokai and Okakuri.
7.3 ERUPTION AND DEPOSITION OF WAIOTAPU IGNIMBRITE
7.3.1 Eruption
Few ignimbrites have features similar to Waiotapu Ignimbrite, suggesting that the unit
had an unusual mechanism of formation. The Cerro Galan Ignimbrite (Francis et ai,
1983), north-west Argentina, however has many key features that are similar. The unit
is a voluminous (c. 1000 km3) crystal rich, pumice poor ignimbrite, erupted violently
over a wide area reaching distances of up to 100km from the Cerro Galan caldera rim
(Sparks et ai, 1985).
Like Waiotapu Ignimbrite, Cerro Galan Ignimbrite is homogenous, having been
erupted energetically, depositing a single massive flow unit, from a magma chamber in
which zonation in weak or absent. The ignimbrite has no underlying plinian deposit and
contains very few lithics «<0.5%). Sparks et al (1985) have interpreted these features
to indicate that caldera collapse was initiated during the eruption. The shape and width
of the caldera was strongly influenced by regional fault patterns.
Sparks et al (1985) proposed that the ignimbrite was erupted as a consequence of
catastrophic foundering of a cauldron block into the underlying magma chamber along
outward dipping ring fractures. Subsidence resulted in magma being forced up the
bounding fractures at very high discharge rates so a convecting column never
develops. Lithic fragments are rare as the outward dipping ring fractures automatically
widen with subsidence and large scale erosion of the conduit wall (e.g. Wilson et ai,
1980) is unnecessary. Subsequent explosions are confined to the footwall of the
subsiding block. With considerable subsidence only finer or more buoyant material will
103
escape over the vent rim, consequently the lithics that are entrained are most likely
confined to intra~caldera material.
Fruendt and Schminke (1995) have reported a similar situation involving the Pi
basaltic welded ignimbrite from Gran Canaria. Here a low basaltic ash fountain was
erupted at high rates for a basaltic magma generating a turbulent, density-stratified,
hot ash flow. They considered the discharge rate was due, in part, to the subsidence of
the chamber roof into the Pi reservoir.
It is proposed that Waiotapu Ignimbrite was erupted under similar circumstances.
The likely source of Waiotapu Ignimbrite, Kapenga volcanic centre, lies within the
Taupo Fault Belt which is though to have begun spreading c.0.9 Ma (Wilson et ai,
1995). The Waiotapu magma chamber was consequently lying below an actively
extending region which would have been unstable due to the development of a series
of horsts and grabens (Figure 7.5a). Once the lithostatic pressure of this faulted
overlying material exceeded the magmatic pressure within the chamber subsidence of
one or more overlying blocks occurred, triggering the eruption (Figure 7.5b). The
subsiding block may well have been part of a horst structure and the outward dipping
ring fractures will have continuously widened as subsidence progressed facilitating the
rapid evisceration. of the chamber. The resulting deposit will have been emplaced
energetically from the passage of one sustained pyroclastic flow.
The trend of regional faulting is likely to been a major control on caldera formation.
Accordingly the eruption is likely to have taken place along a series of near linear
fissures aligned parallel to the 040° regional trend (Keall, 1988). This would explain the
elongate distribution of Waiotapu Ignimbrite as the resulting pyroclastic flow would
have flowed roughly north-west and south-east of the caldera with little material flowing
north-east, toward Okataina, or south-west, toward Taupo.
7.3.2 Transport and deposition
The exact nature of the pyroclastic flow from which Waiotapu Ignimbrite was deposited
is equivocal, however welding variation and post-depositional recrystallisation does
offer some clues. The density of welding at or near the base is unusual in pyroclastic
deposits that are not high grade. Classic ignimbrite welding zonation (e.g. Smith and
Bailey, 1966) suggests that the base of the deposit should be less dense as particulate
material chills against the substrate. Recrystallisation textures in Waiotapu Ignimbrite
suggest that the unit retained heat for a considerable period after deposition. The
circular habit of spherulites in both pumices and groundmass suggests that
recrystallisation was occurring at below 400°C. Experimental work by Lofgren (1971)
104
a) Immediately prior to onset of eruption'
\ ~/ 7
\ /
b) Simultaneous subsidence of caldera block and eruption
Figure 7.5 Generalised schematic interpretation of the eruption of Waiotapu Ignimbrite. a) The Waiotapu magma reservoir is intruded beneath the extending Taupo fault belt (arrows indicate direction of extension). The region is unstable due to faulting and minimal difference between the lithostatic pressure (Lp) of the overlying material and the magmatic pressure (Mp) within the chamber. b) The onset of the eruption and synchronous caldera collapse is generated by the catastrophic subsidence of the caldera block as Lp exceeds Mp. The automatic widening' of outwardly dipping fractures facilitates the rapid discharge of material, consequently a convecting column never develops. Erosion of conduit walls is minimal therefore few lithic fragments are produced, those that are entrained being most likely to be confined to intra-caldera deposits.
105
showed that for granophyric texture (referred to as felsitic texture in this study) to
develop in a rhyolite glass required prolonged periods at elevated temperatures. The
base of the ignimbrite did cool at a greater rate than the overlying deposit as
devitrification is less advanced than in overlying material and is limited to the
development of spherulites in fiamme and weak axiolitic texture in glass shards.
The Waiotapu pyroclastic flow is remarkable as it has managed to maintain high
temperatures at considerable distances from source (e.g. it is still densely welded at
Wawa Quarry), while travelling energetically and interacting with various topographic
obstacles. Walker (1983) stated that the grade of an ignimbrite, and consequently the
degree of welding, reflects the initial magmatic temperature prior to eruption. In the
case of Waiotapu Ignimbrite, Fe-Ti oxide thermometry suggests a magmatic
temperature. of 750°C, although it is possible that the temperatures were higher
(rhyolitic eruption temperatures range from 700-900°C; Cas and Wright, 1988). If an
ignimbrite is not accompanied by a preceding air-fall deposit then it is less likely to be
cooled (Sparks et ai, 1976), as the intake of air can cool an eruption column by as
much as 300°C (Sparks et ai, 1978). Flows that result from "boil over" eruptions are
typically less expanded, which would enable them to retain heat more efficiently during
transport. Heat loss can be minimal in a flow that is several times denser than the
surrounding atmosphere, thus reducing the intake of ambient air (Freundt and
Schminke, 1995). If a hot flow is too dense it may collapse due to coalescence of hot
particles, however it has also been proven that very hot particulate flows can travel as
expanded flows (Freundt, 1995).
With increasing stratigraphic height (e.g. at Wawa Quarry) shards become less
deformed and the intensity of welding decreases. This is probably a result of cooling of
the pyroclastic flow as it becomes less dense due to the removal and deposition of
material from the flow. Gas segregation structures found in float blocks at Wawa
Quarry suggest that the flow was more expanded at this locality.
Density profiles in Waiotapu Ignimbrite suggest that welding may have been largely
a syn-depositional process resulting from deposition by progressive aggradation (see
section 7.2). Material is welding as it is being deposited from a hot overriding
pyroclastic flow. What is unusual about Waiotapu Ignimbrite is that while it was
emplaced from a hot pyroclastic flow and it retained heat for a considerable period of
time after deposition there is little evidence for secondary flowage. In high grade
ignimbrites flowage of hot fragments after deposition can impart a strong layering, or
foliation on the final deposit (e.g. Schminke and Swanson, 1967; Chapin and Lowell,
1979). This layering has also been attributed to syn-depositional laminar shear of
106
agglutinating particles (Branney and Kokelaar, 1992). The lack of such features in
Waiotapu Ignimbrite suggests that particles were too cool and viscous to deform, and
that the shear strength of the deposit was too great, therefore inhibiting flowage.
107
CHAPTER
N SION
1) Waiotapu Ignimbrite is a lithologically homogeneous, low aspect ratio ignimbrite
(aspect ratio c. 1:1200) with a estimated minimum volume of 175 km3. The deposit
appears to be composed of a single flow unit, is moderately pumice rich and
contains very few lithics «<1%),
2) Waiotapu Ignimbrite appears to be unrelated to underlying deposits. In eastern TVZ
the unit has flowed around the eroded remains of Ngapouri Rhyolite. The rhyolite
was originally thought to be filling the Waiotapu Ignimbrite vent, but field relations,
and geochemistry have shown it to be considerably older and unrelated. In western
TVZ Rahopaka Ignimbrite lies directly beneath Waiotapu Ignimbrite, this ignimbrite
is also geochemically and mineralogically distinct and is c. 60ka older.
3) The source of Waiotapu Ignimbrite is poorly constrained, although the distribution of
the deposit suggests that the flow originated from within Kapenga volcanic centre, in
central TVZ.
4) No underlying plinian deposits are recognised, possibly due to a lack of exposure.
Non-welded deposits under the ignimbrite at Ngapouri Ridge and Tikorangi
Escarpment have distinct mineral chemistries.
5) Waiotapu Ignimbrite shows no significant vertical or lateral variation in mineral
content or whole rock geochemistry.
6) Pumice geochemistry has revealed that Waiotapu Ignimbrite involved the eruption
of two chemically distinct magma batches, with the volumetrically dominant type-A
magma having significantly lower rubidium concentration than the rare type-B
magma. The difference cannot be explained by fractionation and the magmas may
have occupied separate chambers which were eviscerated simultaneously during
eruption. Alternatively the type-A chamber may have been intruded by the type-B
body, the magmas subsequently mingling either prior to or during the eruption. The
type-A magma chamber may have been very weakly zoned due to fractionation of
plagioclase and Fe-Ti oxides.
108
7) Waiotapu Ignimbrite was erupted in one sustained eruption and the subsequent
pyroclastic flow was both high temperature and energetic. Even in its most distal
deposits the ignimbrite shows evidence of climbing topographic obstacles with
slopes on the order of 30°.
8) The apparent lack of a preceding plinian eruption, paucity of lithic fragments,
energetic nature, and evidence that it was erupted in one event suggests an
unusual eruption style. The eruption probably resulted from the catastrophic
collapse of the caldera roof into the underlying chamber, the caldera block being
bounded by outwardly dipping ring faults. Rapid widening of the vent and
subsidence of the caldera block facilitated high discharge rates and allowed for
minimal erosion of lithic fragments from conduit walls. Conditions suitable for the
development of a convecting plinian column were never attained.
9) It is likely Waiotapu Ignimbrite was not erupted from a caldera sensu stricto but
instead was erupted from a series of near linear fissure vents which developed
parallel to the regional fault pattern (c.0400) as the cauldron block subsided. As a
result Waiotapu Ignimbrite has an elongate distribution as most material flowed
WNW or ESE.
10) Waiotapu Ignimbrite is unusual as it is densely welded to the base and, in more
proximal exposures, welded throughout. The pyroclastic flow from which the
ignimbrite was deposited was able to retain heat to considerable distances from the
vent.
109
"There is absolutely no substitute for a genuine lack of preparation. " -Anon
Many people have contributed to the production of this wee tome, most of whom I have hopefully listed below. A large number have lent a considerable amount of support (often unwittingly) during the trials and tribulations (both in and out of University) encountered over the last couple of years. To everyone who kept me happy and sane (O.K. so that is a moot point) during the recent adventure: CHEERS.
First and foremost, I thank my supervisor Professor Jim Cole who suggested and organised this project and ensured that, despite my best efforts, this thesis was actually finished on time.
Dr Peter Wood at IGNS, Wairakei is to be thanked for his assistance both while I was lurching around the TVZ and back home in Christchurch (how did anyone survive without e-mail?).
To Steve Beresford, my unofficial supervisor, go big thanks. His enthusiasm, advice, help in the field and willingness to discuss the TVZ and volcanology plus cricket, the battle of the sexes and whose round it was were invaluable and not at all irrelevant.
Other members of staff contributed with useful discussions: Associate Professor Steve Weaver for geochemical problems, Associate Professor David Shelley on petrographic problems and Dr Rod Burt about geochemistry, depositional mechanisms ("Well it was sort of just put there.") and whether or not Judge Dredd was a good film ("Unparalleled special effects"?). Dave Bell and Dr John Bradshaw are thanked for hassling me endlessly without provocation, no you were really funny, honest.
The funding of the Mason Trust Fund is gratefully acknowledged, as is the financial assistance of Jan and Fred Swallow (who also provided good company while I was oop north). Without either this project would have never happened.
Various people helped while I was in the field. The Maxwells, Schiltzs, Renshaws, Daleys, Campbells, and Armours all let me wonder around their land so are consequently really cool people. Carter Holt Harvey Ltd provided invaluable access to Kinleith Forest. Steve, Rod, Dave Dysart, Angela Helbling and Sarah Gauden-Eng helped out at various times in the field, often during some unreasonably hot days (Dave and Jim especially responding above and beyond the call of duty during the scorcher on the Ngapouri Ridge). Steve Beresford has to be the worlds sexiest scale, although a half naked Rod Burt comes a close second (although I'm not really sure to what). Woo and Yvonne Koo, and Mr and Mrs Rout are thanked profusely for their hospitality while I was working around Tokoroa.
The efforts of the department technicians were greatly appreciated, Steven Brown for letting me play in the Geochem Lab, Cathy Knight for letting me into the Engineering Lab (and then out again), and for making sure that I was not only well equipped in the field, but that I looked good too, Rob Spiers for making my thin sections and pointing out that I had really ugly rocks (I hadn't noticed). Also Michelle Wright, Kerry Swanson,
110
Arthur Nicholas, Mike Finnemore and Craig Jones all contributed in ways to numerous to mention, so I wont.
To my classmates (in order of decreasing height) Jonny (yet another whose contribution cannot be underestimated), Rachael (on a box), Nick, Phil, Matt, Chris, Anna, Carl and Sarah, thanks for keeping quiet and being a sane studious bunch of people over the last few months ("Howls of derisive laughter, Bruce."). It has been nothing if not entertaining.
My family (who just happen to be the greatest - and that doesn't do them justice) for making the past years easy and putting up with my absence and bad moods are also thanked (incidentally my thesaurus is not thanked for failing to provided another suitable work for thanked). Without you all I wouldn't have made it this far, especially when you consider that I wouldn't have actually been born.
Richard Bentley helped out heaps with "my bloody computer" I solving various technical crises and cured the odd virus.
Also briefly thanks to: The New Zealand cricket team for playing badly at just the right time. The programmers of Doom II, Karts, T etris and Solitaire. The staff at the James Height and Engineering Cafes. Some guy I met in the supermarket the other day. Jen and Jane for pointing out spelling mistakes in these acnolegments. Scully and Mulder for providing an excuse to go home each Wednesday night.
111
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119
ApPENDIX E
SAMP DEX
Field No. Thin lab Grid location Description Secn No. Reference
Q 30.21 32.70 39.42 C 1.31 1.97 5.88 Z 0.04 0.04 0.04 Or 17.13 17.57 17.28 Ab 34.14 31.30 23.37 An 11.66 11.04 8.54 Di 0.00 0.00 0.00 Hy 3.65 3.26 3.73 Mt 1.07 1.05 1.09 II 0.86 1.14 0.78 Ap 0.07 0.07 0.02 Total 100.14 100.14 100.16
135
SAMPLES FROM DATASET
Five samples collected from the base of the Ngapouri Ridge were not considered for
geochemical interpretation due to anomalously low Fe203 concentrations. The
constant sum effect means that if Fe203 is depleted by alteration it will cause an
artificial increase in the concentrations of the other major elements in order to allow
concentrations to sum ~100%, thus rendering the analyses suspect. Figure A2.1
shows plots of SiOz vs. Fe203. TiOz and Alz0 3 for pumice samples AW204, AW205
and AW206. and whole rock samples AW138 and AW153 (all collected from
U17/015098) compared with fields enclosing all other whole rock and pumice analyses
of Waiotapu Ignimbrite.
Were this Fe203 depletion an effect of clay alteration in the samples then
elevated levels of AI20 3 would be expected. Plots for the samples show no great
enrichment in AI20 3 relative to the fields of Waiotapu Ignimbrite samples (Fig A2.1 b).
In addition loss on ignition values for the samples were reasonable (0.62 - 1.23 for the
whole rock analyses and 0.65 - 1.15 for the pumices) which is consistent with
insignificant clay mineral alteration. X-ray diffraction analysis of AW206 did not reveal
the presence of clay minerals.
The possibility that the Fe203 content is a magmatic artefact is unlikely. Fe203
and Ti02 behave in the same manner, fractionating into the same mineral phases (e.g.
ilmenite or titanomagnetite). consequently Fe203 and Ti02 trends should parallel one
another. Figure A2.1 a and A2.1 c show that these two elements show no such
relationship. The pumices may be exotic clasts within Waiotapu Ignimbrite, but whole
rock samples (which almost certainly represent a mix of all Waiotapu magma
compositions) show the same Fe203 depletion.
It is likely that the Fe203 content represents post depositional, probably
hydrothermal, alteration of Fe-bearing mineral phases which resulted in the removal of
Fe203 from the system. This is consistent with the considerable degree of degradation
of the mafic phases observed in thin sections of the same samples. TiOz was retained,
possibly into new mineral phases such as leucoxene (Ti02),an alteration product of
ilmenite. A polished section of mineral separates from AW205 The presence of
leucoxene may also explain the elevated Zr concentrations in AW205 and AW206 (Fig.
A2.1 d) as Zr will substitute for Ti in that mineral.