Vocational Education Since 1900 The Need The public was disenchanted with the school system in the early 1900s. Schools were out-of-touch with the realities.

Vocational Education Since 1900

The Need

The public was disenchanted with the school system in the early 1900s.

Schools were out-of-touch with the realities of the real world

There was a need for a different type of education

Another Need

Farmers needed systematic help to fight their problems (such as the boll weevil)

The once a year Farmer’s Institute was not enough

The competing programs offered by state boards of agriculture, the General Education Board, universities and agricultural societies was merely a hodge podge of activity

Simply put, there was a need for something like the Extension Service.

First stirrings….extension

Farm Demonstration Work in the South to fight the boll weevil and the subsequent hiring of county agents by the General Education Board was the start of extension.

Early Efforts to Organize Support

Governor Douglas of Massachusetts appointed a commission to study schools in that state.

In 1906 the Douglas Commission recommended that vocational education be added to the school curriculum.

Precursors to the Smith ActsBurkett-Pollard Bill (NE) (1906)

sought federal aid for the teaching of agriculture in normal (teacher training) schools

Clay-Livingston Bill (GA) - 1907sought federal aid to establish an agricultural high school in each congressional district in the United States

Precursors……cont…..

Nelson Amendment (1907) Amendment to the Morrill Act of 1890provided $5,000 for five years, $25,000 annually after five year to land-grant colleges for general support. One special provision of the amendment opened the door to prepare teachers of agriculture . . .

Nelson Amendment

money could be used “for providing courses for the special preparation of instructors for teaching the elements of agriculture and the mechanical arts.”

summer school sessions for teachers were utilized extensively (especially elementary teachers) some 4 year teacher training in agriculture started

Precursors…

Davis Bill (MN) (1907)sought federal support for secondary school instruction in agriculture, home economics and the mechanical arts and branch experiment stations

Precursors…

McLaughlin Bill (1909)sought federal support for extension work

Dolliver (IA)-Davis (MN) Bill (1910)sought federal support for extension work and secondary vocational education (Dolliver submitted two bills one for extension, one for vocational education but they were combined by the Senate Ag Committee. Things looked good for the bill but Dolliver unexpectedly died)

PrecursorsPage Bill (1911, 1912, 1913)

sought federal support for extension work, branch experiment stations and secondary vocational education (this was basically the Dolliver bill)

The bill never passed for a variety of reasonsbills tried to accomplish too much, which divided the supportSome folks supported extension but not vocational education and vice versaPage was not very skilled as a legislator

The Incompetent Senator!

Carroll S. Page (VT)

Senator PageThe Morrill Act has proven to be the beginning … for really carrying vocational education to the masses of our people.

Precursors

Smith-Lever Bill (1912)goal was to establish the extension service

This competed with the Page Bill

The Great CompromiseThe supporters of vocational education would support the Smith-Lever Bill. In return, a Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education would be created to study the need for federal funding for vocational education.

Finally!!Smith-Lever Act (1914)

established the extension service

Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education

As part of the compromise, the Commission was “stacked” with supporters of Vocational Education

The Commission collected data and held hearings

The Commission reported there was a need for vocational education in the schools and that it should be federally funded.It took some time for the bill they drafted to pass because of issues surrounding World War I. (Charles Prosser, a committee member wrote the legislation. Smith and Hughes didn’t)

Finally!!Smith-Hughes Act (1917)

provided federal funds to support vocational education in the public schools

The Smith Acts

Smith-Lever Provisions

“there may be inaugurated in connection with the (land-grant) college or colleges...agricultural extension work which shall be carried on in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture…”


“...in any State in which two or more such colleges have been or hereafter may be established, the appropriations hereinafter made to such State shall be administered by such college or colleges as the legislature of such State may direct”


“That cooperative agricultural extension work shall consist of the giving of instruction and practical demonstrations in agriculture and home economics to persons not attending or resident in said colleges in the several communities, and imparting to such persons information on said subjects through field demonstrations, publications, and otherwise”


Each state was to receive “...$10,000 of which shall be paid annually…”Additional funds were to be disbursed to states on the basis of “the rural population of each State bears to the total rural population of all the States”

Note: Legislators in the Midwest wanted the act to say farm population. The South had a much larger rural population than farm population.


A state could not receive the additional funds “...until an equal sum has been appropriated for that year by the legislature of such State, or provided by State, county, college, local authority, or individual contributions from within the State, for the maintenance of the cooperative agricultural extension work provided for in this Act.”


“That before the funds herein appropriated shall become available to any college for any fiscal year, plans for the work to be carried on under this Act shall be submitted by the proper officials of each college and approved by the Secretary of Agriculture”


“ ...no portion of said moneys shall be applied, directly or indirectly, to the purchase, erection, preservation, or repair of any building or buildings, or the purchase or rental of land, or in college-course teaching, lectures in colleges, promoting agricultural trains, or any other purpose not specified in this Act…”

Smith-Hughes Provisions

The first paragraph of the Smith-Hughes Act contained four statements:

1. “to provide for the promotion of vocational education;”

• The word “promotion” is misleading, a more correct word would be “establishment”.

Tidbit: Since the person (Charles Prosser) who wrote the bill was Director of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, the word promotion might allude to this organization

Smith-Hughes Provisions2. “to provide for cooperation with the States in the promotion of such education in agriculture and the trades and industries;”

• This statement defined what made up vocational education. Why is home economics not mentioned? The word home economics appears 17 other times in the Act. It is believed by some that home economics was not included in the earlier drafts of the bills. Legend has it that Prosser’s wife made him include home economics. The fact that it is missing here gives credence to that legend.

• Trades and industries covered a broad range of jobs.

Smith-Hughes Provisions3. “to provide for cooperation with the States in the preparation of teachers of vocational subjects;”

• There was much concern over the supply of qualified teachers. Two different paths were taken in regards to vocational teacher training:

Agriculture and Home Economics went with a 4 year college degree as a requirement. At that point in time, few public school teachers had four year degrees. This was designed to assure a quality, well-educated teacher and enhance the status of of the field.

Trade and Industries chose to pull teachers out of industry. The belief was the master craftsman made the best teacher.

Smith-Hughes Provisions

4. “and to appropriate money and regulate its expenditure.”

• This wording as to the purpose of an act is a little strange. It should be self evident.

Smith-Hughes Funds

Provided money to pay salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects

• Tidbit: Director is an unusual word until one notes that agricultural schools had been established prior to Smith-Hughes in Massachusetts. The person in charge of these schools was a Director. Since Prosser had been associate superintendent for vocational education in Massachusetts, this wording isn’t that strange at all.

Smith-Hughes Funds

Provided money to pay salaries of teachers of trade, home economics and industrial subjects (but no more than 20% of the total money allocated for this purpose could be spent in the area of home economics)

• Question: Why could Smith-Hughes funds be used to pay salaries of supervisors and directors in agriculture but not in home economics or trades and industries?

• Question 2: Why was home economics limited to 20%?

Smith-Hughes

Tidbit: Teachers who received their salaries from the Smith-Hughes Act were often called “Smith-Hughes teachers” to distinguish them from teachers in schools not receiving Smith-Hughes funding. Agriculture and home economics was taught in many other schools but not all schools received Smith-Hughes monies because of limited funds.

Tidbit: State supervisors of each vocational subject were given authority over the teacher trainers. Federal level supervisors checked the qualifications and approved of the hiring of teacher educators. Many universities became very dependent upon federal funds to pay vocational teacher educators. When this funding was abolished it created shock waves in many states and institutions of higher education.

Smith-Hughes Funds

Providing money for teacher training

Smith-Hughes Funds

The states did not have to use all the provisions of the act. For example, if there were no agriculture programs, it didn’t have to ask for the agriculture money. However:

Before a state could receive monies for salaries for any vocational teacher, it must first accept the teacher training monies. This indicates the federal government was serious about training teachers.

Smith-Hughes FundingSpecific amounts of money were allocated to each vocational discipline:

Agricultural appropriations were based on each state’s rural populationHome economics appropriations were based on each state’s urban populationTrade and industrial appropriations were based on each state’s urban population

There was to be a 50-50 federal-state match on all salaries

Smith-Hughes Act - Agriculture “...under public supervision or control...”

“...controlling purpose...shall be to fit for useful employment…”

“...shall be of less than college grade…”

“...meet the needs of persons over fourteen years of age who have entered upon or who are preparing to enter upon the work of the farm or of the farm home…”

• Question: Does the previous phrase also mean adult education?

Smith-Hughes - Agriculture“...that such schools shall provide for directed or supervised practice in agriculture, either on a farm provided for by the school or other farm, for at least six months per year”

• This was interpreted to mean that each student (including adults) is to have a “project” (crops or livestock).

• If the teacher is to supervise it, then the teacher will need to be employed during the summer. This is the basis for 12 month employment of agriculture teachers.

Smith-Hughes FundsProvided money to create a “Federal Board for Vocational Education for the administration of this act and for the purpose of making studies, investigations, and reports to aid in the organization and conduct of vocational education”

• Question: Why did Congress create a special board to administer vocational education?

• Answer: They were afraid to turn vocational education over to the entrenched education bureaucrats who had been classically educated (remember what happened at UNC.)

Federal Board for Vocational Education

The Board Consisted of:Secretary of AgricultureSecretary of CommerceSecretary of LaborCommissioner of EducationThree citizens appointed by the President

• agriculture• manufacturing and commerce• labor

Federal Board

“The Commissioner of Education may make such recommendations to the Board relative to the administration of this act as he may from time to time deem advisable.”

“It shall be the duty of the chairman of the board to carry out the rules, regulations, and decisions which the board may adopt.”

Federal Board

The Federal Board hired a staff to handle the daily operations and do the real work.

Charles Prosser was hired as the Executive Director

Federal supervisors were hired in the areas of:• Agriculture (N=7)

• Trades and Industries (N=7)

• Home Economics (N=3)

• Commercial Subjects (N=3) (see next slide)

• Research (3)

Federal BoardTidbit: One of the areas of investigation the Federal Board could pursue (as specifically mentioned in the act) was commercial education. Also, a division of commercial education was established with three federal supervisors, but no Smith-Hughes money was allocated to salaries of teachers of Commercial Education. A little strange.Today we would call Commercial Education Marketing Education and Business Education.

Original Federal RegionsNorth Atlantic

Southern

PacificNorth Central

West Central

Ag and T&I had regional offices.Two Ag supervisors worked the South; one was for Black schools.

Federal Regions -1920North Atlantic

Southern

Pacific North Central

In 1920 one region was eliminated and all the regional people moved to Washington.

Federal Board

Because of the depression, the federal government was restructured in the 1930s.

In 1933 the administrative responsibilities and staff of the Federal Board were transferred to the Department of the Interior, Office of Education.

The Federal Board continued to operate as an advisory board until 1946 when it was abolished. (Clarence Poe was a member)

Memorandum of Understanding

In 1918 a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was established between federal officials responsible for vocational agriculture and for extension.This MOU was revised from time to time.A brief description of each program was provided, then specific duties of each were outlined.


Unless the activity is specifically related to classes taught, the agriculture teacher is not to do extension activities. However, it is recognized there may be isolated instances where the agricultural teacher is called upon by farmers in the school district. This should represent a “small and incidental” part of the job.


Teachers of vocational agriculture or representatives of vocational agricultural work should be invited to participate in all meetings conducted by the extension service for the formulation of county and State agricultural programs.


The extension service should not enroll vocational agriculture students in 4-H.

Services should not overlap.

America at War

The War Years (WWI)

260270280290300310

320330340350360

1914 1915 1916 1917 1918

Millions

of Acr

es

Acres in crop production

The War Years (WWI)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Price Gain (%)

OatsRyeCottonHayHogsBeef CattleMilk CowsSheepWool

Food Production Act -1917

Signed into law on August 10, 1917

This is the “sleeper” extension act

Food Production Act Provisions

Livestock Production ($885,000) Disease and pest control, enlargement of livestock production, conservation and utilization of meat


Seed Production ($2,500,000) Procuring, storingand furnishing seeds


Crop Production ($441,000) Prevention, control and eradication of insects and plant diseases


Extension ($4,348,400) Increase food production and eliminate waste through educational and demonstration methods through county, district and urban agents and others

Impact on Extension

By the end of October 1,600 emergency demonstration agents were hired

Act was to terminate at the end of the War

Increase in Extension Agents 1917 to 1918

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Agriculture Home Economics 4-H

19171918

Extension Staff 1918

Regular29%

Emergency71%

Yearbook of Agriculture, 1918

Report of the Secretary of Agriculture “The emergency through which the Nation has passed only served to emphasize the supreme importance of the Cooperative Agricultural Extension Service. It has become increasingly clear that no more important piece of education extension machinery has ever been created. It has been amply demonstrated that the most effective means of getting information to the farmers and their families is through the direct touch of well-trained men and women.”

Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1918

What had just happened to prompt this legislation?

The Roaring 20s (for whom?)

The Roaring 20s??

Agricultural Prices dropped 33% from 1919 to 1920

Agricultural Prices dropped 54% from 1920 to 1921

Plumbing in the 1920s

1 out of 10 farm homes had water indoors

1 out of 2 farm homes had sinks

1 out of 64 farm homes had a water closet, the rest had outhouses

Most laundry was done outside

Identifying the Problem

Joint Commission of Agricultural Inquiry -1921

National Agricultural Conference -1922

Agricultural Conference of 1925Nothing much was accomplished by any of the conferences

The Farm Bloc

A group of 12 senators who organized themselves in 1921 to promote and support agricultural legislation; ranks eventually grew to include 22 senators

Non-partisan

Similar group, though less effective, was formed in the House

Capper-Volstead Act - 1922

Enabled the development of agricultural cooperatives

Clark-McNary Act - 1924

Section 5 of the act provided for cooperative farm-forestry work

Purnell Act - 1925

Authorized funds for economic research in agricultural experiment stations (this has implications down the road for extension)

Capper-Ketchum Act - 1928

Providing additional funding for extensionSpecified 80% of the funds were to be used for salaries of extension agentsIdentified youth activities as being part of extensionEqual number of men and women to be appointed as agentsMoney could support agriculture trains

Capper-Ketchum Act

Gladys Bull, a 4-H member who was attending the national 4-H camp, testified before Congress in support of the Capper-Ketchum bill.

Her testimony was powerful and showed the value of 4-H club work.

Subsequent Vocational Education Acts

George-Reed Act --1929-1934

George-Ellzey Act --1934 -1937

George-Deen Act -- 1936 (1938)increased $ ($14.5 million total)

also funded distributive education ($1.2 million)

1st to U.S. Territories

Distributive Education funded

George-Barden Act (1946) increased $ ($28.8 mil)

provided for veteran’s training

George-Reed Act - 1929

Provide additional financial support for vocational education

Money was equally divided between agriculture and home economics

Ag money based on farm population

Home economics money based on rural population

Funds were used to hire subject matter specialists in agriculture at the federal level

The Great Depression - 1930s

The Great Depression

Gross Farm Income in 1932 was 1/2 of that of 1929

Net income per farm in 1932 was estimated by USDA at $230

Between 1920-1933 15,000 banks suspended operation

(The NC FFA lost $350 in a bank closure in 1931)

4,000 banks alone closed in 1933

Era of Farm Legislation

Agricultural Adjustment Act - 1933Farmers agreed to reduce acreage in surplus crops in return for benefit payments

Farm Credit Administration - 1933Soil Conservation Act - 1935Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act - 1936Rural Electrification Act - 1936

Electricity in the 1930s

13%

87%With ElectricityWithout Electricity

George-Elzy Act (1934)

Provided additional funding for vocational education

Money was evenly divided betweenagriculture

home economics

trade and industrial education (amount determined by non-farm population)

Bankhead-Jones Act -1935

Title 1 - More money for basic agricultural research

Title 2 - Further Development of Cooperative Extension

$8 million the first year

$2 million each year until $12 million is reached

George-Deen Act (1936)

More $$$$ for vocational education.Recognized Distributive Education as a part of vocational education.Federal funds could be used to support travel of vocational teachers.President Roosevelt was reluctant to sign the bill because general education needed help also.

During the Depression

Extension affected the most

Agents typically held 1-3 educational meetings in each township to explain AAA rules and regulations

Depression years

Extension: Assisted in making Federal Emergency Relief Administration feed and seed loans Tried to convince farmers to reduce acreage (buy into the government programs) Convinced farmers that electricity would not make the cows go dry

Depression Years

Lost employees (in 1938)

SCS - 159

Farm Security Administration - 154

AAA - 97

Ag Ed Enrollments

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

350000

1918 1923 1928 1933 1938 1943 1948

DayPart-TimeEvening

Homemaking Enrollments

0

100000

200000

300000

400000

500000

600000

1918 1923 1928 1933 1938 1943 1948

DayPart-TimeEvening

Agricultural and Vocational Education

From the Depression to Sputnik

The 1940s

World War II 4-H and FFA

Collected scrap metal, rubber, burlap, rags and paper Sold war bondsGrew victory gardens (Feed a Fighter was the 1943 4-H theme) Repaired and built farm machinery in the Ag Shop. Tractor and farm implement manufacturers were concentrating on war equipment.

Virginia FFA

Activities

4-Hers sold old phonograph records in order to buy ambulances for the war effort.

4-H Victory Pins

WW II Posters

FFA Chapters sold War Bonds

WWII

Many high school agricultural programs established food preservation centers

They still exist in Georgia and Louisiana

Primary emphasis was canning vegetables

Some had slaughtering facilities also

A number of schools in NC had these food preservation centers

WWII

Served as Victory Farm Volunteers

FFA considered buying a bomber but eventually decided not to

National FFA Convention limited attendance to official delegates and award winners because of war time travel restrictions

A metal won by a 4-H member

Four-H

4-H members across the nation gathered scrap metal to build ships to transport war supplies and food to Europe. If members in a state raised enough funds, they could name the ship (called liberty ships)

NC 4-H christens two liberty ships – USS Tyrrell and the USS Cassius Hudson

4-H Scrap Drive

WWII

After the war vocational agriculture launched major educational programs for servicemen under the provisions of the GI Bill of Rights

Most agriculture teachers taught 3-4 night classes on farming to returning veterans to help them get back into farming and to learn shop skills.

Teachers received extra pay and schools received substantial funds to buy equipment for classes.

GI Bill of Rights

The benefits of this act were later extended to:

Korean conflict veterans

Viet Nam Vets

Agricultural teachers conducted night classes for these vets also

Bankhead-Flannigan Act - 1945

Increase funding for extension

No more than 2% could be spent in the USDA

George-Barden Act (1946)

Increased funding for vocational education

Indicated federal funds could be used to support travel associated with the Future Farmers of America and the New Farmers of America (this provides the legal basis for the position that FFA is an integral part of agricultural education)

Money could be used on vocational guidance

Agricultural Marketing Act (1946)

Authorized extension programs in marketing, transportation, and distribution of agricultural products (starting to move outside of the just farming and farm homemaker mentality for extension).

Joint Committee Report on Extension Programs, Policies, & Goals (1948)

During the 1930s and 40s the extension service was called on to perform various duties for the national interest.

During the depression extension was charged with teaching people about the various government programs and encouraging farmers to participate. In the 40s the mission changed to winning the war.

Joint Committee ReportNow that peace was at hand and there was no longer a depression, what should the extension service do? Another factor was that many of the extension employees were new. There was also some questions about the relationship of the extension service and farm organizations.

(in some states extension was working out of the Farm Bureau office. In some states each was viewed as competition )

Joint Committee ReportA joint committee appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture and the National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges was appointed to study the mission of the extension service. The 10 person panel examined the mission and goals of the extension service. No public hearings were held but the committee consulted with government agency heads and leaders of farm organization.

Joint Committee Report

Their report is sometimes called the Kepner report because P. V. Kepner of the Federal Extension Service was assigned to assist the committee and compiled the final report.

Joint Committee ReportSome of the key points/impacts of the report were:

Agriculture, home economics and 4-H groups are the primary audience for extension. However, it was noted that urban audiences could not be ignored.Continued emphasis on the importance of one-on-one contacts, meetings, and demonstrations.Changed/improved relationships with farm organizationsEstablished stronger tie between CES to academic base (specialists assigned to academic department instead of being housed in extension administration)

Clarke-McNary Amendment (1949)

Authorized USDA to cooperate with land-grant colleges in aiding farmers through advice, education, demonstration, etc. in establishing, renewing, protecting and managing wood lots and in harvesting, utilizing, and marketing the products thereof.

Smith-Lever Act Amendment (1953)

Consolidated all the previous extension legislation Inserted the words “and subjects relating thereto” after agriculture and home economics

What are the implications of this?

Established a new funding formula based on rural/urban population

A Look Back

In 1892 the Supreme Court established the doctrine that "separate but equal" was a valid way to handle race relationships (Plessy vs. Ferguson).

The court case involving railroad cars in Louisiana. The races could be segregated as long as each race was treated equally.

This decision impacted the operation of schools and the extension service until the 1960s.

Brown vs. Board of Education - Topeka (1954)

This Supreme Court ruling overturned Plessy vs. Ferguson. "Separate but equal" was ruled unconstitutional.The case dealt with equal access to educational opportunities.Over the next few years, this would have implications for extension and vocational education.

Smith-Lever Amendment (1955)

Authorized work with disadvantaged farms and farm families

Russians launch Sputnik (1957)

In 1957 the Russians launched Sputnik. This event sent shock waves through out America. Perhaps American education was falling behind.

We needed to put more emphasis on science, mathematics, foreign language and technology in order to catch up.

National Defense Education Act (1958)

This act was passed because of Sputnik“The Congress finds that an educational emergency exists and requires action by the federal government. Assistance will come from Washington to help develop as rapidly as possible those skills essential to the national defense.”

A major purpose of the act was strengthen the teaching of mathematics, sciences and modern foreign languages


Established a student loan program for collegeThe George-Barden Act of 1946 was amended

Area Vocational Schools were to be built to train “technicians” skilled in math and science

• Many of these schools offered agricultural programs

$15 million dollars for the next five years was authorized for this purposeHealth Occupations Education was recognized as a part of vocational education

Link to a Summary

of the NDEA Act

http://ishi.lib.berkeley.edu/cshe/ndea/ndea.html

A Statement of Scope and Responsibility (A Guide to Extension Programs in the Future) (1958)

The Russians had launched Sputnik. There were farm surpluses and low pricesIt had been 10 years since the last study of extension.A committee of ECOP (Extension Committee on Organization and Policy) was appointed to study the future of extension (ECOP is a committee within NASULGC).

A Statement of Scope and Responsibility

This group appointed nine task forces in the following areas:

ProductionMarketingResourcesManagementFamilyYouthLeadershipCommunityPublic Affairs

A Statement of Scope and Responsibility

The task forces were composed of various leaders in extension. The report, commonly called the Scope Report, "represents the best thinking of leading Extension workers on how, where, what and with whom the Cooperative Extension Service will be working for many years to come."

The Scope Report

The primary outcome of the report was to broaden the scope of extension by emphasizing management, marketing and public policy. Each task force had specific suggestions about subject matter, clientele, methodology, training, and relationships. Several broad recommendations/observations were found in the report.

Selected Scope Report Recommendations:

There will be new programs which cannot be handled by traditional methods of staffing and organization.There will be programs for new "publics"There will be programs that cross departmental or organizational linesThe extension staff of the future will have more specialized personnel at every level.Regular training at the post-graduate level will be expected of virtually all Extension workers.


Training must go beyond technical subject matter for the expanded job of adult education that Extension must be prepared to do.

Training must be continuous.

Some "re-training" will be needed to give certain Extension workers new skills or knowledge to handle specific changes in their job.


One goal of every training program must be to get the individual Extension worker to re-examine and re-define frequently his own job the scope of his responsibilities, and relationship to others.

Sound program planning procedures will strengthen every aspect of Extension work.

Research has been, is, and will continue to be the basic resource on which all our programs draw.


The teaching methods used will need to be tailored to specific jobs to be done.All teaching procedures must be continuously evaluated and improvements made in light of the evaluations.In its work with mass media, Extension will need to maintain a highly competitive level of professional performance.


With the growing complexity of problems with which it deals, Extension must provide adequate materials and support for local leaders.

The Scope Report

This report is often referred to by the old-timers in extension as a major report.

It clearly showed that extension was in an era of change.

High school agriculture would soon change also.

Panel of Consultants on Vocational Education (1962)

After John Kennedy became president, he requested that a special panel be convened to study vocational education. Vocational education was still operating under the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act but America had changed considerably.

Panel of ConsultantsThe panel was composed of people from the education profession, labor, industry, agriculture as well as the lay public and representatives from the Departments of Agriculture and Labor. The panel was appointed in 1961 and issued their report, "Education for a Changing World of Work" in 1962. The panel recommended that vocational offerings be expanded, updated, and be made available to all people. (more later when we look at the Vocational Education Act of 1963)

End of an Era

The launching of the Sputnik by the Russians and the ensuing events of the 1960s heralded a new era in agricultural education and extension legislation.The times, they are changing.We are about ready to leave the sow, cow, plow and the stitching and stirring era.We will see what happened in future lessons

The County Agent Will Change!

4-H work will change!

So will FFA and Ag. Ed.

Federal Legislation Impacting Vocational Education: 1950 - on

Post Sputnik Legislation

Legislation affecting Vo. Ed. After the 1950s was more complex and convoluted than earlier legislation.

We will discuss only the parts of the acts impacting Vo. Ed., even though the act may have numerous other components.


This act was passed because of Sputnik“The Congress finds that an educational emergency exists and requires actionby the federal government. Assistance will come from Washington to help develop as rapidly as possible those skills essential to the national defense.”

A major purpose of the act was strengthen the teaching of mathematics, sciences and modern foreign languages


Established a student loan program for collegeThe George-Barden Act of 1946 was amended

Area Vocational Schools were to be built to train “technicians” skilled in math and science$15 million dollars for the next five years was authorized for this purpose

Vocational Education Act of 1963

This was a MAJOR piece of federal legislation. It replaced the Smith-Hughes Act.

Categorical funding for specific vocational disciplines such as agricultural education was abolished.

Funding went to states on the basis of their population in certain age categories

States decided how to spend the money


Expanded the scope of agricultural education to include all areas of agriculture, not just farming.

No longer required “supervised practice on a farm”. The idea was to expand the scope of SAE, not do away with it, but that is what some states did.

Expanded the scope of home economics education to include all areas of home economics, not just homemaking.


Established work study programs for vocational students to provide financial supportStates had to submit plans for what they planned to doEliminated federal supervision/control of vocational programs Funding for vocational education was substantially increased

Educational Amendments (1968)

Amended the 1963 Vocational Education ActIncreased funding for vocational education

Funds could be used for high school programs, people who have left school, retraining, special needs students, construction of area vocational schools, vocational guidance, contracting vocational education with private institutions, ancillary services (research, teacher training) and administering the state plan.


Did not categorically fund specific vocational programs, with one exception

Specifically allocated money to Consumer and Homemaking Education

Of the general appropriations to each state• 25% had to be spent on disadvantaged populations

• 25% had to be spent on out-of-schoolindividuals seeking employment

• 10% had to be spent on handicappedindividuals


Authorized money for:Curriculum development (this is the only place agricultural education is mentioned in the act)

Residential vocational schools (schools with dorms)

Research (National Center for Vocational Education Research was established)

Leadership development (selected vocational leaders could get advanced degrees)

Educational Amendments (1976)The Educational Amendments of 1976 have five Titles, Title II is concerned with vocational educationAuthorized more money for vocational educationPurpose of the act was to

extend, improve and maintain programsovercome come sex discrimination/biasdevelop new programs


Monies could be spent on vocational education programs, work study, energy education, area school facilities, support sex equity positions, placement services, Industrial Arts (now Technology Education), support services for females in non-traditional programs, day careservices, displaced homemakers, residential vocational centers.


There were special appropriations for the disadvantaged

Consumer and Homemaking received special funding

Every vocational program had to be evaluated every five years

Carl Perkins Act (1984)

This was the most significant rewrite of vocational education legislation since 1963.

Two broad themesAccessibility to all persons

Improve the quality


Fifty-seven (57) percent of state funds were allocated to special populations - vocational education was to be accessible to everyone

handicapped (10%)

disadvantaged (10%)

adult retraining (12%)

single parents & homemakers (8 1/2%)

sex bias & stereotyping (3 1/2%)

incarcerated (1%)


Forty-three (43) percent of state funds were allocated for program improvement

funds were not to be used to maintain existing programs

Consumer and Homemaking received special funding but 1/3 had to be spent in economically depressed areas

There will be a full time sex equity coordinator and $60,000 is allocated to that

Perkins II (1990)

The Carl Perkins Act is rewritten

Special populations is still a major focus,

Money can be used to support existing programs

Academic and vocational education was to be integrated

Articulation between secondary and post-secondary institutions

School-to-Work Opportunities Act (1994)A variety of programs were established for students to get them more involved with the world of work and post-secondary educationGrants were given to some states to develop programs This is for all studentsFunding is temporary

Perkins III (1998)

This is the legislation vocational education is currently operating under

The purpose of this Act is to develop more fully the academic, vocational, and technical skills of secondary students and post-secondary students who elect to enroll in vocational and technical education programs (little emphasis on special populations)

Perkins

http://www.ed.gov/offices/OVAE/VocEd/InfoBoard/legis.html

Perkins III (1998)

At the local levels funds can be spent on:strengthening the academic, and vocational and technical skills of studentsproviding students with strong experience in and understanding of all aspects of an industrydeveloping, improving, or expanding the use of technology in vocational and technical educationproviding professional development programs to teachers, counselors, and administrators

Perkins III (1998)

conducting evaluations of the vocational and technical education programs ...including how the needs of special populations are being metinitiating, improving, expanding, and modernizing quality vocational and technical education programslinking secondary vocational and technical education and post-secondary vocational and technical education, including implementing tech-prep programs.

Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA– –P.L. 105–220)

Reforms Federal employment, adult education, and vocational rehabilitation programs to create an integrated, "one–stop" system of workforce investment and education activities for adults and youth. Entities that carry out post-secondary vocational and technical education activities assisted under the Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act are mandatory partners in this one–stop delivery system.Title I of WIA authorizes workforce investment programs and activities that are administered by the Employment and Training Administration of the U.S. Department of Labor. Learn more about the implementation of Title I of WIA.

Conclusion

Legislation for Vocational Education during the past 50 years has been influenced greatly by changing societal and environmental concerns.Federal legislation has often mandated what we are to do.The focus has shifted to helping certain groups of people.

Key Legislation

Vocational Education Act of 1963Educational Amendments 1968 and 1976

Carl Perkins Act I (1984)

Carl Perkins Act II (1990)

School-to-Work, Opportunities Act (1994)

Carl Perkins Act III (1998)

The end…..

Legislative Mandates for Extension

Natural-resource-based economic development


Agricultural telecommunications

youth-at-risk

Renewable resources

Subsistence farming on Native American reservations

Establish and operate centers of rural technology

Outreach and assistance for socially disadvantaged farmers

Rural health and safety education

Nutrition education and consumer education

1890 extension work

Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act (1990)

Expanded EFNEP

Established five regional aquaculture centers for research and Extension activities

Repealed previous solar energy provisions


Nutrition and family educationUrban gardeningPest managementFarm safety and rural healthRural development

Pesticide impact assessment

Groundwater quality

Financially stressed and/or dislocated farmers

Food safety

Various minor amendments and laws have mandated that Extension work in the following areas:

Food and Agriculture Act (1977)A Major Farm BillAuthorized $260 million for ExtensionAuthorized agricultural and forestry extension activities at 1890 institutions

4% of Smith-Lever Funds must go to 1890 institutionsExtension leaders of 1862 and 1890 institutions are to develop a comprehensive state-wide plan for extension

Food and Agriculture Act (1977)

Added the use of solar energy with respect to agriculture and solar energy demonstration projectsEstablished a national food and human nutrition research and education programRequired the secretary of agriculture to evaluate the Extension Service by 1979

Food and Agriculture Act (1977)

Directed the secretary to assist the Agency for International Development (AID) with agricultural research and extension in developing countries

Established a National Agricultural Research and Extension Users Advisory Board

1000 Nautical Miles5000

BecharTripoli

Al Jawt

O ran

Algiers Tunis

Cairo

Aswan

ConstantineRabat

Marrakech

Casablanca

El Aaiun

LombouctouNema

Nouakchott

Agadez

Zinder

Tamanrasset

TUNISIA

MOROCCO

WesternSahara

ALGERIA

MAURITANIA MALINIGER

LIBYA

CHAD

Faya-Largeau

N' DjamenaMaiduguri

Niamey

Kano

Abuja

Bamako

Dakar

Me d ite rra nea n Se a

Re dSe a

EGYPT

SUDAN

ETHIOPIA

Khar toum

Al Fashir

Juba

Waw

Asmara

AddisAbaba

PortSudan

AlexandriaBanghazi

DJIBOUTI

ERITREA

UGANDASOMALIA

KENYA

TANZANIA

ZAIRE

CENTRALAFRICANREPUBLIC

RWANDA

BURUNDI

GABON

EQUATORIALGUINEA

CAMEROON

ANGOLA

CONGO

NIG ERIABENIN

TOGOIVORYCOAST

BURKINA

GUINEA

SIERRALEONE

SENEGAL

G HANA

THEGAM BIA

GUINEABISSAU

LIBERIA

Monrovia

FreetownConakry

Bissau

Banjul

Abidjan

AccraLoma

Porto-Novo

O uagadougou

Lagos

MalaboYaounde

Libreville

BanguiCAMEROO N

Djibouti

Berbera

MogadishuKisangani

Kananga

NdolaNacala

Dar es Salaam

Zanzibar

Mombasa

Beira

Bujumbura

Nairobi

Kam pala

Kalemie

Toliara

Antananarivo

M aputo

Lusaka

Bulawayo

Harare

PretoriaGaborone

Johannesburg

Durban

Port Elizabeth

MaseruMbabane

Cape Town

Luderitz

SOUTH AFRICAWalvis Bay

Windhoek

Namibe Menongue

Lobito

Malanje

Lilongwe

M beya

La keTa ng a nyika

La keNya sa

La keVic to ria

Kigali

MALAWI

ZAMBIA

MOZAMBIQUE MADAGASCAR

ZAMBABWE

BOTSWANA

SWAZILAND

Ind ia n

Oc ea n

Ind ia n

Oc ea n

LESOTHO

SOUTHAFRICA

Luanda

NAMIBIA

ANGOLA

Kinshasa

Brazzaville

Pointe-NoireSouth

Atla ntic

Oc ea n

Renewable Resources Extension Act (1978)

Provided for educational programs concentrating on renewable resources, which includes fish and wildlife management, range management, timber management, and watershed management, as well as forest and range-based outdoor recreation, trees and forests in urban areas, and trees and shrubs in shelter belts.

Food Security Act (1985)

A major farm bill

Provided grants to upgrade 1890 institutions’ extension facilities

Made several technical amendments to fine tune past farm bills

Agriculture and Food Act (1981)

A Major Farm BillAuthorized appropriations for Extension programs (including 1890 programs)Provided for the employment and training of professionals and paraprofessional aides to engage in nutrition education of low-income families.

Agriculture and Food Act (1981)

Authorized aquaculture extension workAuthorized rural development programs and small farm extension programsAuthorized the secretary of agriculture to conduct an annual evaluation of agricultural research, extension and teaching programs.

Sea Grant Program (1966)

The National Sea Grant Collegeand Program Act

Established a program (under the Dept. of Commerce) to provide for applied research, formal education and extension for development of marine and Great Lake resources. About 2/3 of the states involved have incorporated these activities in the extension service.

FAIR Act (1996)

Our current farm bill is titled the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act.

Some people call it the Freedom to Farm Act.

Title VIII contains provisions for Research, Extension, and Education

However, because other sections of the bill were so controversial little attention was paid to this section of the bill. Most extension related items were merely extended. However, there were a few new twists.

It contains provisions for extension, but for the first time has language for secondary agricultural education.

http://www.usda.gov/farmbill/title0.htm

FAIR Act (1996)Authority for secondary and 2-year post secondary education in agriscience and agribusiness are added to the Secretary's food and agricultural education authorities

This was an attempt to transfer national leadership for secondary agricultural education to USDA from USDEIt partially succeeded, language is present in the bill authorizing it--but there is no money to do it, so nothing has happened

FAIR Act (1996)Even though the national leadership for agricultural education did not move (one representative in the house effectively blocked the move) a $500,000 challenge grant program to improve secondary agricultural education has been established under authority of the USDA.

USDE provides national leadership for agricultural education but USDA is providing funds to improve the program

FAIR Act (1996)

A National Research, Education, and Economics Advisory Board is established. (This 30-member advisory board replaces three separate advisory committees)

FAIR Act (1996)There were provisions in the act related to:

Native American extension programs1890 extension programsAppropriations for the Extension Service

Other provisions of the Act contain language reducing price supports for many agricultural commoditiesThe Fund for Rural America was created to enhance community development


Inserted references to rural energy in Section 2.


Added language that the Extension Service give “…instruction and practical demonstrations of existing or improved practices or technologies.”

Authorized Extension to enter into agreements with private organizations and individuals. (in other words extension could accept money from the private sector)

Improve 1890s extension facilities

Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act (1990)

A major farm billDirected the Extension Service to catalogue the federal, state, and local laws and regulations that govern the handling of unused or unwanted agricultural chemicals and agricultural chemical containers.

Educational materials regarding this were to be developed.

Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act (1990)Charged the Extension Service with teaching compostingExpanded natural resources educational programsEstablished a water quality coordination programProvided for the assistance for the control of weeds and pests

National Forest Dependent Rural Communities Economic Diversification Act (1990)

Directed the Extension Service to provide training and educational programs in rural communities that are economically dependent upon forest resources in an attempt to diversify the economic base of the community.

Rural Development Act (1972)

Title V impacted ExtensionAuthorized rural developmentand small-farm extension programsAdministration of programs to be part of ExtensionEstablished State Rural Development Advisory Councils

National Agricultural Research, Extension and Teaching Act (1994)

Established extension education programs on Native American reservations

Provided technical assistance and training in subsistence agriculture to Native Americans and Alaskan natives

Vocational Education Since 1900 The Need The public was disenchanted with the school system in the early 1900s. Schools were out-of-touch with the realities.

Documents

legislator slide

page vt slide

federal support

precursors page bill

precursors mclaughlin

general support

general education board

precursors davis bill