VM

Autism

Video ModelingA Visually Based Intervention

for Children With AutismSpectrum Disorder

Jennifer B. Ganz

Theresa L. Earles-Vollrath

Katherine E. Cook

Visually based interventions such asvideo modeling have been demon-strated to be effective witli studentswith autism spectrum disorder. Tfiisapproach has wide utility, is appropri-ate for use witii students of a range ofages and abilities, promotes indepen-dent functioning, and can be used toaddress numerous learner objectives,including beiiavioral, self-help, commu-nication, and social objectives. Whatare the components of video modeling?What's the best way to implementvideo modeling with students? Do thetechniques differ for students of differ-ent ages and abilities?

Recently, the number of people diag-nosed with autism spectrum disorder(ASD) has increased drastically, mostrecently as common as 1 in 91 [Koganet a l , 2009], although impacts rangefrom severe to mild impairment (Riceet al., 2007]. ASD is common acrossraces, ethnicities, and social groupsand is four times more common inboys than in girls (Rice et al., 2007].Further, ASD, particularly in those with

moderate or severe autism, often co-occurs with developmental delays,emotional and behavioral disorders,and attention deficits (Kogan et al.,2009].

According to current legislation (i.e..No Child Left Behind Act of 2001,Individuals With Disabilities EducationAct], instructional strategies used inclassrooms must be scientificallyresearch-based (Simpson, Myles, &Ganz, 2008]. Visually based instructionsuch as video modeling, a research-supported intervention, may be moreappropriate and effective than otherapproaches for students with ASD for anumber of reasons (Bellini & AkuUian,2007; Delano, 2007b].

Sfudenls WiHi ASD asVisual Learners

Students with ASD learn best throughvisual means (Hodgdon, 1995; Mesi-bov & Shea, 2008; Mesibov, Shea, &Schopler, 2004; Quill, 1997; Simpsonet al., 2008]. In addition, adults withASD have attested to their reliance onvisually based information. Temple

Grandin described her thought proces-ses as "completely visual" (Grandin &.Scariano, 1986, p. 131], noting thatshe remembered information by visu-alizing a page in a book with theinformation and that she had difficultyremembering auditory informationunless she was able to pair it with avisual image. Likewise, Liane HoUidayWilley (1999] recalled relying on visu-al landmarks to find her way to col-lege classes and finding herself drawnto visually based subjects, such asarchitecture.

Visually based approaches may helpaddress pervasive difficulties in stu-dents viiith ASD. These strategiesrespond to stimulus overselectivity byassisting students in focusing andmaintaining attention to relevant stim-uli (Shipley-Benamou, Lutzker, &Taubman, 2002], and can enhancechildren's abilities to independentlycomplete unfamiliar or complex direc-tions by condensing the content toonly essential information (Williams,Goldstein, & Minshew, 2006]. The per-manent nature of visually based strate-

8 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

gies allows students to review cues,decreasing reliance on teacher promptsand increasing independence (Hodg-don, 1995). Additionally, visuallybased interventions support students'ability to shift attention (Quill 1995,1997, 1998), make abstract conceptsmore concrete (Peeters, 1997), andmay be less socially stigmatizing thanverbal reminders by adults or compan-ions when in the presence of peers.

There is support in the literature forusing visually based strategies with

(Dettmer, Simpson, Myles, & Ganz,2000; MacDuff, Krantz, & McClanna-han, 1993; Massey & Wheeler, 2000),(b) reduce problem behavior in a 3-year-old (Dooley, Wilczenski, & Torem,2001), and (c) facilitate play in 4- to 6-year-olds (Morrison, Sainato, BenChaaban, & Endo, 2002).

Visually based scripts are anotherstrategy used with students with ASD(Ganz & Flores, 2010; Ganz, Kaylor,Bourgeois, & Hadden, 2008). Scriptsprovide the exact words for participat-

Students with ASD learn best through visual means.

students with ASD of all ages (Simpsonet al., 2008). When taught using visu-ally based strategies, many studentswith ASD maintain and generalizenewly learned skills (Krantz & McGlan-nahan, 1993, 1998). In particular, visu-ally based schedules, containing photo-graphs or line drawings of upcomingactivities or selected play schemes,have been used to (a) increase workcompletion for students ages 5 to 14

ing in social interactions and otherwell-defined situations (Ganz, Gook &Earles-Vollrath, 2006). Visually basedscripts have been effective (Simpson etal., 2008) in (a) increasing social skillsin children ages 5 to 10 (Gonzalez-Lopez & Kamps, 1997; Pierce &Schreibman, 1995, 1997), (b) improv-ing communication skills in studentsages 9 to 12 years old (Krantz &McGlannahan, 1993], and (c) decreas-

ing problem behaviors in children ages7 to 14 (Sasso, Melloy, & Kavale,1990).

What Is Video Modeling?

Video modeling is a strategy involvingthe use of videos to provide modelingof targeted skills (Bellini & Akullian,2007). Both videos that include theparticipants [video self-modeling, VSM)and videos of others have been foundeffective in teaching new skills (Shereret a l , 2001). Video modeling including"other" models may be easier to pro-duce because these videos generallyrequire less editing than VSM; typicallydeveloping students may more readilycooperate, understand directions,already demonstrate mastery of targetskills, and require fewer prompts.Poinc-of-view modeling, or placing thevideo camera at an angle that illus-trates the target skill from the point ofview of the target student (e.g., camerais placed at the shoulder of the modelto show the skill from eye level) alsohas been demonstrated to be effective(Bellini & Akullian, 2007).

TEAGHING EXCEPTIONAL GHILDREN JULY/AUC 2011 9

Video modeling as a strategy haspreliminary support to improve a vari-ety of skills in students with ASD(Ganz et a l , 2006; Ganz, Cook, &Earles-VoUrath, 2007). Video modelingusing videos of "others" has beendemonstrated to

• Increase appropriate social inter-actions (Apple, Billingsley, &Schwartz, 2005; Gena, Couloura, &Kymissis, 2005; Maione & Mirenda,2006; Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2003).

• Improve conversation skills (Char-lop & Milstein, 1989; Charlop-Christy, Le, & Freeman, 2000; Shereret a l , 2001).

• Improve daily living skills (Haring,Kennedy, Adam, & Pitts-Conway,1987; Keen, Brannigan, & Cuskelly,2007).

• Improve play skills [Charlop-Christyet al., 2000; Dauphin, Kinney, &Stromer, 2004; MacDonald, Clark,Garrigan, & Vangala, 2005; Maione& Mirenda, 2006; Nikopoulos &Keenan, 2003, 2007).

• Reduce problem behaviors [Luscre& Center, 1996).

VSM, although studied less fre-quently, has been demonstrated to beeffective when used to improve com-munication skills (Buggey, Toombs,Gardener, & Cervetti, 1999; Sherer eta l , 2001), increase social initiations,decrease problem behaviors (Buggey,2005), and improve academic and task-oriented behaviors (Delano, 2007a;Hagiwara & Myles, 1999). Point-of-view modeling has some support aswell, having been shown to improvedaily living skills (Shipley-Benamou etal., 2002) and play skills (Hine &Wolery, 2006).

In most cases, newly learned skillstaught via video modeling are main-tained over time (MacDonald et al.,2005; Maione & Mirenda, 2006) andgeneralize to new settings or with newadults (Gena et al., 2005), particularlywhen using multiple videos showingthe same skill across activities, set-tings, and people. Video modeling hasbeen used effectively with young chil-dren with ASD, including preschoolers(e.g., Maione & Mirenda, 2006) and

elementary-age students (e.g., Niko-poulos & Keenan, 2003; Sherer et al.,2001).

The flexibility of video modeling isan advantage: In addition to addressinga variety of skills for a continuum ofage ranges, it can be implementedalone or in conjunction with otherinstructional strategies. In fact, muchof the research involving video model-ing has been in combination with otherstrategies. For example, Baharav &Darling (2008) used video modelingwith an auditory trainer, Scattone(2008) combined it with social stories,and Keen and colleagues (2007) pairedvideo modeling with positive reinforce-ment strategies. Although video model-ing may be implemented alone or with-out additional strategies, research sup-ports its use when combined withstrategies such as social skills instruc-tion (Bellini & AkuUian, 2007).

Because video modeling can beused with students with ASD tostrengthen a variety of skills (seeFigure 1), it is a strategy that educatorsshould have in their toolboxes. It helpsto understand the components and

baseline data regarding the student'ssocial strengths and deficits (Heflin &Alaimo, 2007). This might include eco-logical assessments comparing a stu-dent's abilities to those of his peerswithin a target environment or activity;behavior sampling; observations in thenatural environment; questionnairesand interviews completed by schoolstaff, parents, and peers; and studentself-reports (Heflin & Alaimo, 2007).Using the assessment results, develop alist of skills and prioritize them inorder of importance. Target skillsshould be objectively defined andbased on observational data.

Step 2: Produce the Videos

Prior to developing the videos, deter-mine the type of media to use (i.e.,videotape vs. digital) and then gatherthe necessary equipment (e.g., videocamera, video player, monitor, videoediting software; Sigafoos, O'Reilly, &de la Cruz, 2007). Plan on creatingthree to five videos for each skill, pro-viding a variety of settings, models(i.e., the student, peers, or adults;Buggey et a l , 1999; Sherer et a l .

There are three basic steps for implementing video modelingwith students with ASD: identifying the skills to be targeted,

the videos, and implemenliiíg the intervention.

2001), and scripts or task analyses toensure skill generalization (D'Ateno,Mangiapanello, & Taylor, 2003).

For the strategy to be most effective,there should be three to five scripts ortask analyses for each skill beingtaught (Ganz et al., 2006). Scripts canbe used for skills that require verbal-izations (e.g., greeting others, initiatingconversations, asking to enter a game),whereas task analyses can be used formultistep tasks (e.g., loading the dish-washer, using the microwave to cookpopcorn, performing household chores;Sigafoos et al., 2007). When writingscripts, consider seeking input from thestudent's typically developing peers,who may be better judges of typicalactivities, nonverbal communication,and speech patterns than adults. Task

steps of video modeling, and how toimplement the intervention beforeusing this approach with students.There are three basic steps for imple-menting video modeling with studentswith ASD: identifying the skills to betargeted, producing the videos, andimplementing the intervention.

Components of VideoModeling

Step 1 : Identify the TargetSkill(s)

The first step contains several sub-steps: assessment, listing and prioritiz-ing skills, defining the skill, and col-lecting baseline data. Prior to imple-menting video modeling, document


Figure 1 . Possible Siciiis lo Improve Via Video Modeling

Social initiation- "Can I sit with you?"- "Look at this/that."- Asking a peer to have lunch

Greetings- Giving greetings- Responding to/greetings

Appropriate nonverbal communication- Showing interest in what someone

is saying [eye contact, nodding)- Smiling- Identifying others' nonverbal cues

Conversational skills- Maintaining conversation on-topic- Comments regarding previous

activities- Responding to others' comments- Making jokes- Sharing attention or enjoyment with another

child or adult- Telling stories- Using manners, appropriate language [please

you)- Saying something only once or twice

Play- initiating game play- Statements appropriate for games- Comments appropriate within the context of

specific games- Sports behaviors

Appropriate behavior in the school building- Cafeteria- Waiting in the hall before school starts

Comments

What to do/say in case of emergency

Appropriately demonstratingdisagreement/dislike

Complimenting others andreciprocating compliments

Daily living skills [e.g.,cooking, cleaning, get-ting dressed)

Answering/asking infor-mational questions- "What's your name?"- "What school do you go

to?"- "How old are you?"- "What sports do you like to

play?"

- "How do you get to school?"- "What did you eat for breakfast?"- "What do you like to do after school?"- "What's your favorite TV show?"- "What's your favorite video game?"- "What's your phone number?"- "Wiiere do you live?"- "What do you like to do on the weekends?"

Making requests- Asking permission- "i want [food, preferred item, activity]."- Asking for a turn or to borrow something- Expressing sensory needs- Asking/offering to do a new activity- Asking for help- Requesting personal space

thank

Community outings- Appropriate restaurant behavior- Ordering at a fast-food restaurant- Purchasing items- Using public transportation- Medical/dental visits- Appropriate social behavior at special events

[e.g., weddings, birthday parties, holidays, familyevents, funerals)

- Haircuts- Travel [plane, car)- Waiting in line- Table manners

Responding appropriately to an adult's requests/demands

Responding to teasing

Excusing self politely for hygiene purposes

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN JULY/AUG 2011 11

analyses can be developed by watchinga typically developing peer or adultperform the skill.

Be sure to obtain parental permis-sion for any video participants andmodels who are minors. The modelsshould be taught each script or step inthe task analysis, practice it, and thenperform while being videotaped (Ganzet al., 2006). Buggey (2005) recom-mends that the models be similar (e.g.,age, gender) to the target student. Planon editing each video to be approxi-mately 3 to 5 minutes long (Buggey,2005), although research has demon-strated the effectiveness of videos asshort as 30 seconds and as long as 13minutes (Bellini & AkuUian, 2007).

Step 3: Implement the VideoModeling Intervention

Prepare for Teaching. Sigafoos andcolleagues (2007) recommend designat-ing a time of day for viewing thevideos. Videos focusing on a particularskill should be viewed daily and at thesame time each day. In addition, thevideos should be viewed immediatelyprior to the time of day the student isexpected to demonstrate the skill. Forexample, if the video and scriptdescribe how to enter a game, showthe video just before the class hasrecess.

For best results, the video should beviewed in a consistent setting. Toincrease the relevance of the instruc-tion, this setting should be the place inwhich the child is expected to demon-strate the skill. Materials used in thevideo should be the same materials thestudents will be expected to use whendemonstrating the target behavior.

View the Videos. Videos may bewatched as a whole group or inde-pendently depending on the needs ofthe students and the instructional set-ting (Buggey, 2005). Plan on havingstudents view each of the three to fivevideos developed for the targeted skillprior to engaging in the selected skillor activity (Sigafoos et al., 2007).

Engage in the Target Skill. Immedi-ately after viewing the video, providethe student with the opportunity topractice the skill, in the natural settingif possible. If this is not possible or if

there are not enough natural opportu-nities for the student to practice theskill, plan on role-playing or practicingthe skill in the classroom—or arrangesituations within the school or therapysetting where the student is required touse the target skill.

Collect Intervention Data. Collectdata on the student's performance. Todetermine the effectiveness of videomodeling, the same type of datashould be collected for both baselineand intervention phases (Sigafoos eta l , 2007).

Program for Generalization. Stu-dents with ASD often have difficultiesgeneralizing newly acquired skills.Programming for generalization, there-fore, is an important component of anysocial skills instruction (Bellini, Peters,Benner, & Hopf, 2007; Gresham, 2001).Teaching skills via video modelingshould include teaching multiple stim-ulus and response exemplars. Forexample, when teaching a student howto enter a group game, include varyingsettings (e.g., playground, gym, neigh-borhood), peers, and scripts (e.g., "CanI play?" "Looks like fun, can I have aturn?" "What position can I play?") inthe different videos. Other generaliza-tion strategies include teaching the stu-dent to self-monitor or self-record theuse of the target skill, and teaching thesocial skill in the natural environmentwhenever possible (Gresham, 2001).Videos may need be viewed numeroustimes. It's helpful to make arrange-ments so that the student can accessthe video for independent viewing asneeded.

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Don't be inclined to abandon videomodeling too quickly if initial dataindicate limited progress toward thetarget behavior (s). Although it mayappear that this strategy is an easy,no-fail intervention, as with otherteaching techniques issues may ariseduring implementation. Sigafoos et al.(2007) described several problems thatmay occur, as well as solutions foreach of these problems. Lack ofprogress can be due to a lack of rein-forcement, poor video content, or alack of prerequisites.

To address a lack of reinforcement,it may be necessary to identify rein-forcing stimuli that can be deliveredimmediately and consistently followingthe demonstration of the target behav-ior. Poor video content can also affectthe impact of the intervention. If videocontent seems to be an issue, reshootand/or rewrite and reshoot the video.When filming the video, it is importantto restrict extraneous stimuli (i.e.,excess noise and visual distractions)and ensure that the target behavior(s)are modeled slowly and clearly. If itappears that the student does not havethe prerequisite skills of imitation andobservational learning, consider addingadult-directed instruction to theprocess.

CASE EXAMPU: Chad

Chad was a fifth-grader who qualifiedfor special education and related serv-ices under the category of autism. Hehad average cognitive functioning,could speak, and participated in gener-al education for most of the schoolday, although his day was fairly struc-tured. In sixth grade, Chad would berequired to transition from his currentelementary school to a middle schoolsetting. Chad demonstrated difficultieswith major transitions. When he wasnot prepared for change, he screamed,pulled his hair, and cried. These behav-iors were related to new situations inwhich he did not understand theexpectations, did not know whom toask for help, or was not familiar withthe location.

Step 1 : Identify the Torget Skill(s)

Chad's team, which included his ele-mentary and middle school specialeducation teachers and general educa-tion homeroom teachers, selected a listof skills from those identified by hisindividualized education program (IEP)and from consultation with the schoolcounselor. The team focused on skillsthat would assist Chad in successfullymaking the transition to middle schooland in dealing with new situations.They prioritized the skills and decidedthat "requesting help" when he wasfeeling anxious would be the first tar-get skill. Additional target behaviors


Figure 2 .

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Chad's Video

[sotto voice!

{or help-"

Modeling Script:

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'«,*»"*'"]. varin 1 don V u""—

"Mr iNaiii'i ,,

organize this paper-

{or your help-

Requesting Help

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included understanding environmentalexpectations and the orientation of themiddle school building.


The team recorded digital videos insome of the middle school classrooms(i.e., Chad's future homeroom, specialeducation resource room, and mathclassroom] and settings (i.e., cafeteria,hallway, library]. Each of the class-room videos included shots of Chad'sdesk, where he would store his materi-als, the pencil sharpener (an activitythat calmed him], and the teacher'sdesk. Middle school teachers and staffwere videotaped sharing rules andexpectations for the classroom or othersetting. Chad's team chose to imple-ment video modeling by peer "others"to provide Chad with examples of howto respond to signs of anxiety (e.g.,stiff, hunched shoulders, wide eyes];after acting as if they were upset oranxious, these peer models modeledself-talk following written scripts(Figure 2]. The completed videoincluded a menu listing each settingand educator/staff member, to enableselective viewing of a specific environ-ment and interaction. The video couldalso be viewed from beginning to theend to famiharize Chad with the transi-tions between the settings, and wasrecorded in the same order as Chad'sschedule. (At the same time, the team

created videos to teach Chad othersocial skills, such as greetings and initi-ating and maintaining conversations,for later use.]


Chad's IEP team identified severaltimes per day, for the remainder of hisfifth-grade year, that he would view thevideos. "Video watching" was added tohis visual schedule at the same timeevery day. With input from his parents,the team also established a schedulefor video watching and practicing theskills over the summer

Chad first watched the video in itsentirety, and then specific video clips(e.g., home room or math class], dur-ing individual one-on-one lessons.Prior to video watching, Chad'steacher introduced the segment andthe embedded lesson. After each ses-sion, Chad was asked to summarizewhat he saw in the videos (what themodels said and did], and then prac-ticed the relaxation and self-monitoringstrategies demonstrated in the videos.The intervention continued over sever-al weeks as Chad gained familiaritywith teacher expectations, whom toask for help in each of the middleschool settings, and the orientation ofthe school building.

During his fifth-grade year, Chad'steam collected ongoing data whenever

he demonstrated any of the relaxationand self-monitoring strategies modeledin the videos. Although not directlyaddressing generalization, this substeppermitted assessing his generalizationof the skill once he was in middleschool; Chad's middle school specialeducation teacher observed him andcollected frequency data on hisrequesting of help, seeing an improve-ment over the first few weeks ofschool. His mother also sent periodicwritten updates to his special educa-tion teacher, reporting how anxious heseemed each school day, and the spe-cial education teacher would checkwith him at the end of the school dayto ask him how it went. Although hereported some anxiety and avoidedcrowded hallways, he appeared to han-dle the transition periods well.

CASE EXAMPLE: Sarak

Sarah was a 16-year-old sophomorediagnosed with Asperger's syndrome.She had average cognitive functioningand participated in general educationclasses all day, with as-needed specialeducation support. She appeared towant to have friends but did not knowhow to establish friendships. Sarahwould follow her peers between classperiods, even if they were going in theopposite direction of her next class;she would stand by a group of studentswho were talking but would not partic-ipate in the conversation; and sheoften brought her peers small giftssuch as candy and CDs. Sarah hadrecently found that using bodily func-tions (e.g., burps and passing gas]were an effective means for gaining herpeers' attention; When she passed gasduring class and especially duringlunch, her peers smiled, laughed, andusually interacted with her for a shortperiod of time. Studetits also remem-bered the incident and made com-ments when they saw her later in theday. Sarah expressed frustration to herstudy hall teacher that she tried herhardest to make friends, but no oneever invited her to eat lunch withthem, to hang out after school or onthe weekends, and they ignored her"friend" requests on online social net-working sites.


14 GouNciL FOR EXCEPTIONAL GHILDREN

Step 1 : identify the Target Sklil(s)

Sarah's team, which included her gen-eral education study hall teacher andthe school district's autism consultant,selected a list of several social skillsfrom her IEP. They then conducted anecological assessment: After observingSarah in the cafeteria and in study halland conducting teacher and familyinterviews, they compared her socialinitiations with those of her peers. Theteam felt that if Sarah could learn tointeract with her peers in a moresocially acceptable way, she would beable to make friends and this wouldincrease her quality of life. Theydecided that "initiating social interac-tions" would be the first target behav-ior, and they collected baseline obser-vation data during lunch and studyhall.


Like Chad's team, Sarah's team choseto implement the strategy using"other" models so she could observestudents who were proficient withsocial interaction. Although the teamprovided the peers with topics to talkabout, the scripts were open-ended toallow for natural conversation insteadof contrived examples (see Figure 3).The team asked several of Sarah's pre-ferred peers to participate in the socialskills group. They informed parents ofthe purpose of the group and obtainedpermission for the students to partici-pate. The team produced several digitalvideos of Sarah's peers initiating socialinteractions in the hallway and differ-ent classrooms.


The team identified several times a dayand the locations (e.g., study hall,selected classes) where Sarah wouldview the videos. These times occurredjust prior to when Sarah was expectedto demonstrate the selected skill.Although Sarah initially viewed eachvideo by herself, some of her peerswho participated In the videos occa-sionally joined her to discuss the sce-narios and to model the questions theyasked themselves to determine what tosay and when. After Sarah viewed each

Figure 3. Sarah's

1

"How

Video

.—

's it goi

"What class

"See you la

Modeling Script:

__— '

do you have next.

Social Interactions

video, she discussed the appropriatemeans for initiating conversations withher peers. One of her assignments wasto develop a list of the initiation phras-es that were used in the videos androle-play them with the teacher or herpeers. Sarah was then asked to suggestother comments or phrases she coulduse to initiate conversations.

The IEP team collected data byobserving Sarah during study hall andlunch, as well as in the hallway andselected classrooms. Although Sarah'sstudy hall teacher found it difflcult totake real-time data because it was tooconspicuous to observe Sarah interact-ing with her peers in the hallways andat lunch, she noticed that Sarah begansitting with a group of girls at lunchapproximately three weeks after inter-vention began. Sarah also reported thattwo of the girls had sent her "friend"requests on online social networkingweb sites.

To assess Sarah's ability to general-ize the skill, the team also observedSarah in other school settings not tar-geted for initial instruction. They devel-oped additional videos for settings inwhich Sarah did not demonstrate gen-eralization of the skill. They supple-mented these videos with others show-ing Sarah's peers initiating social inter-actions during school-related activitiessuch as a school dance, a footballgame, and a pep rally. They later creat-ed additional videos to facilitate moreadvanced conversational exchanges(e.g., maintaining conversations, stay-ing on topic, ending conversations).

CASE EXAMPLE: Sam

Sam was a 21-year-old student withautism and moderate to severe cogni-tive impairments who was transition-ing from a public school program to apart-time job at a local fast-food restau-rant. Although he had received jobtraining through his special educationprogram, this was the first job forwhich Sam would receive a salary. Ajob coach spent several hours a day onthe job site with Sam to assist him inlearning the job requirements.

Step 1 : Identify the Target Skill(s)

Sam's job coach and employer brain-stormed a list of job-related skills thatwould assist Sam in being successful.Sam had difficulties in interacting withcustomers and completing requiredtasks. In particular, some customershad complained that Sam was abrupt,cleared items from the table beforethey were flnished, and appeared rude.His coach and employer decided that"making light conversation with cus-tomers" and completing three jobrequirements (i.e., mopping the floor,wiping tables, cleaning the condimentarea) were priorities for him to be suc-cessful on the job. Conducting an eco-logical assessment, Sam's job coachand employer observed his co-workersto determine the steps for completingeach of the three selected jobs. Fromthese observations they developed atask analysis for each targeted job.They then observed and recordedSam's performance of each of the threejobs and each of the steps in the taskanalysis.

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ¡ JULY/AUG 2011 15

Figure 4 .

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Sam's Video Modeling Script:

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The "light conversation" digital videosfeatured several of Sam's co-workersinteracting with customers. AlthoughSam could have completed the taskswith prompting [VSM], the job coach'stime was limited and it was faster torecord videos with "other" models tosave time in editing out prompts.While completing other tasks, the co-workers modeled appropriate greet-ings, comments, and questions [seeFigure 4).

A second set of videos designed toteach Sam the job requirements, devel-oped over a 3-week period, showedSam appropriately completing the tar-get activities [VSM). Because Sam hadmany of the subskills necessary foreach task, little editing was required tocreate a short [5- to 7-minute) videofor each of the tliree target jobs. Thevideo clips contained the verbalprompts provided by the job coachduring the completion of the task; inlater viewings of the video, once Sambegan to experience success, the vol-ume was lowered to remove the verbalprompts.


The best time for Sam to view the job-related videos and those demonstrat-ing light conversation skills would bejust prior to the restaurant openingeach day. Sam, his job coach, and hisemployer viewed the videos together,one at a time, across several weeks.After viewing the videos, they would

discuss the light conversation skill orjob steps depicted in the video andclues for determining when a job hadbeen completed [e.g., how to deter-mine if the tables were clean, how todetermine if the floors were complete-ly mopped). Sam then role-playedeach job in the area in which it wouldnaturally occur [e.g., role-playing thesteps for cleaning the condiment atone of the two condiment areas in therestaurant). During the role-playing,Sam's co-workers pretended to be cus-tomers and responded to his "lightconversations. "

A month following the beginningof the intervention, Sam's employersent his job coach an e-mail com-menting that he had not had any fur-ther complaints about Sam's rudebehavior, and that Sam was complet-ing most of the video-modeled tasksindependently and correctly. AfterSam had mastered the video-modeledskills, his employer and job coach dis-cussed with him variations in com-pleting each of his assigned jobs.Additional videos were produced forother new job responsibilities such asfining the condiment bar and askingfor help when needed [e.g., emptyinga heavy trash can, restocking items),and for new social skills [e.g., asking acustomer if he/she is finished beforetaking the plate).

CASE STUDY: Scott

Scott was a seventh-grade student whoqualified for special education underthe autism designation, although he

did not meet the full psychological cri-teria. He received approximately 66%of his specialized instruction in a spe-cial education classroom with theassistance of a one-on-one paraprofes-sional. Scott's educational programconsisted of structured, data-based pro-gramming that emphasized functionalacademics as well as social and com-munication skills. In addition to thisspecialized instruction, Scott alsoreceived 120 minutes of speech therapyand occupational therapy per week.

Step 1 : Identify the TorgetSlcill(s)

Scott's IEP team had tried a variety ofstrategies to increase his ability to gen-eralize academic skills and knowledgehe demonstrated at school to the homesetting. They had used numerous fonts,materials, and verbal antecedents, andincorporated opportunities for Scott topractice what he learned across a vari-ety of settings within the school and inthe community. However, even withthe use of these strategies, Scott con-tinued to demonstrate difficulty com-pleting homework activities thatrequired him to generalize skills he hadperformed that day at school. To estab-lish a baseline, sight words mastered atschool were sent home as "home-work." Scott's mother, Alice, then pre-sented the sight words and collecteddata on his performance.


Because Scott could complete the tasksat school, the team decided to useVSM, which would require little edit-ing. The second author videotapedScott accurately reading flash cards atschool, edited the video to delete incor-rect responses and prompts, then sentthe video home for him to watch priorto starting his homework each day.


Alice collected data on Scott's level ofperformance with the flash cards with-out the video for a week. Because Scottliked watching himself on video, Alicelet him watch the video every day for aweek, "just for fun. " Scott continuedreviewing the sight words at school


during his maintenance programmingbut did not review the words at homeduring this time. The following week,Alice showed him the video every dayand talked with him about what theysaw, and how well he did; if he hadpreviously missed a word, she tried topoint out that word and how well heread it in the video.

Following the video viewing anddiscussion, Alice presented the flashcards and tracked Scott's performance.If Scott hesitated or read the wordincorrectly, Alice marked it "incorrect,"then used a time delay and error-cor-rection procedure, directly instructinghim to sound out each phoneme in theword, then blend the sounds togetherto read the word. (These were thesame teaching method and verbalprompts as used at school.) Alice gaveScott social reinforcement for each cor-rect answer on the video and for eachcorrect answer he gave using the flashcards. When he answered correctly,Alice praised him (e.g., "you canread," "you're so smart," "good job")and gave him high fives. When hemade mistakes, she praised him for hisefforts (e.g., "good try; let's look at theletters"). When they completed thevideo and reading all of his words,Alice praised him for doing his home-work.

Alice reported high social validityfor the VSM procedure. In particular,she reported that it was a positive andreinforcing experience: Scott seemed toenjoy seeing himself succeed, and bothhe and Alice were motivated to contin-

Although Scott made progress inreading the words on the flash cards, itwas unclear whether he would be ableto do so spontaneously and in differentcontexts. Scott occasionally becamefrustrated with himself when he wasnot able to read the sight words afterhaving seen himself do so accuratelyon the video. Alice thought that havingdifferent videos she could rotate inviewing, focusing on several tasks andexamples, might result in maintainingthe novelty of and Scott's motivation towatch the videos.

Final Thoughts

Because children with ASD have agreater propensity to learn throughvisual means than auditory-basedteaching techniques, visually basedstrategies such as video modeling holdpromise in positively impacting thelearning of children with ASD. Videomodeling is based on social learningtheory, which asserts that students canlearn by observing and then imitatingthe actions of others (Bandura, 1977).Video modeling is also particularlyappealing as a technique to addresssocial skills deficiencies of childrenwith ASD in a low-cost and unobtru-sive fashion.

Video modeling offers educatorsflexibility in implementing, whetherusing "other" models, the target stu-dent, or adults, and a variety of set-tings. Schreibman and Ingersoll (2005)noted that for video modeling to havea high level of success, it must alwaysoccur with direct instruction and natu-

Video modeling is also particularly appealing as a

technique to address social skills deficiencies of children

with ASD in a low-cost and unobtrusive fashion.

ue and did not lose interest in the flashcards as quickly as she thought theywould. Scott also seemed to gain someconfidence by watching himself per-form well on the video. Further, Scottmade gains in reading accuracythrough this process, although he con-tinued to miss different words eachday.

rally occurring opportunities. The com-bination of video modeling, directinstruction, and facilitated supportwithin naturally occurring environ-ments is more apt to lead to success.Video modeling gives practitioners aheuristic tool to help children withASD learn or improve the social, com-munication, behavior, and work-related

skills that too frequently underminetheir success across many contexts.

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Jennifer B. Ganz (Texas CEC), AssociateProfessor of Special Education, Departmentof Educational Psychology, Texas A&MUniversity, College Station. Theresa L.Earles-Vollrath (Missouri CEC), AssociateProfessor of Special Education, EducationalLeadership and Human Development,University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg.Katherine E. Cook (Kansas CEC), AutismSpecialist, Department of Early Childhood,Olathe School District, Kansas.

Correspondence concerning this articleshould be addressed to Jennifer Cam,Department of Educational Psychology,Texas A&M University, College Station,TX 77843 (e-mail: [email protected]).

"Chad, " "Sarah, " and "Sam " are compositecharacters: "Scott" is a pseudonym. Theauthors wish to thank "Scott" and "Alice"for their participation.

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 43,No. 6, pp. 8-19.

Copyright 2011 CEC.

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