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Virtual Subnet Internetworking with IPv6 Multicast Membership
for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
Tzu-Chiang Chiang*, Yueh-Min Huang* and Fenglien Lee***
*Department of Engineering Science, National Cheng-Kung
University, Taiwan, ROC **Department of Information Management,
Hisng-Kuo University of Management
***National Center for High-Performance Computing Taiwan
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Mobile ad hoc networks need the flexibility to collect
more than two devices equipped with wireless communication and
networking capability. In recent years, the wireless network has
been attracting a lot of attention, and due to this wireless
devices have enjoyed a tremendous rise in popularity. However, the
broadcast storm becomes a very serious problem for ad hoc networks
to migrate into the third generation (3G) telecommunication for the
application of group conferences. The main concept of virtual local
area network (VLAN) technology is the capability to group users
into broadcast domains, which divides a LAN into logic, instead of
physical, segments and reduces the traffic overhead. With this
characteristic, we propose a novel interoperability network model
integrating a self-organizing ad hoc network and Internet/a
conventional network with the same virtual local area network.
Moreover, we describe a protocol to establish the VLAN broadcast
domains by using the IPv6 multicast-membership in ad hoc networks
and perform IP-based network communications in a multi-switch
backbone. Since the VLAN technology functions by logically
segmenting the network into different broadcast domains, packets
can only be delivered between fixed/mobile nodes with the same VLAN
identity (group member). Therefore we can prevent the broadcast
storm problem in MANET. The emulations show the proposed protocol
in ad hoc network environment from 20 to 80 nodes with different
size of VLANs groups. The result shows that the throughput of our
protocol delivering packets to all nodes in the same VLAN group is
more than 84% of all the cases. Furthermore, compared with the
flooding, the efficiency of communication is improved up to
51%.
Key Words: Virtual Local Area Network, VLAN, IPv6 multicast, ad
hoc networks.
1. INTRODUCTION
Ad hoc networks can deploy rapidly and freely comparing with the
traditional wireless networking systems, it does not need the
pre-existing network infrastructures. In recent years, the wireless
network has been attracting a lot of attention, and due to this
wireless devices have enjoyed a tremendous rise in popularity. A
few of the applications are absorbing greater amounts of bandwidth.
Therefore today’s corporations routinely buy the fastest computers
and fastest network equipment on the market and want these machines
to run on the fastest safest network possible Author and
year[1][2][3]. An ad hoc network is a collection of mobile
nodes
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that want to communicate to each other, but has no fixed links
like wireless infrastructure network. Each node acts as a router
and is responsible for dynamically discovering other nodes it can
directly communicate with. The network topology of an ad hoc
network changes frequently and unpredictable, so routing and
multicast become extremely challenging [4][5].
The goal for developing multicast is that there are applications
that need to send a packet from a multicast source to a group of
nodes (multicast receivers). There are two types of configurations
[6] for an ad hoc wireless multicast protocol. One of the
configuration type is a tree-based protocol (e.g., adhoc Multicast
Routing (AMRoute) [7], and Ad hoc Multicast Routing protocol
utilizing Increasing id-numberS (AMRIS) [8]), and the other is a
mesh-based protocol (e.g., On-Demand Multicast Routing Protocol
(ODMRP) [9], and Core-Assisted Mesh Protocol (CAMP) [10]). However,
the broadcast storm becomes a very serious problem for ad hoc
networks to migrate into the third generation (3G)
telecommunication for the application of group conferences. The
main concept of virtual local area network (VLAN) technology is the
capability to group users into broadcast domains, which divides a
LAN into logic, instead of physical, segments and reduces the
traffic overhead. The network switch was invented to assist
networks to improve this situation. The LAN switch network permits
users to be combined into as “Virtual LANs.” A VLAN is a logical,
rather than a physical connectivity, collection of network devices.
In the router-based network devices are recognized by their
physical location in the network. The network-layer address is used
to inform the router physical segment where must send data to. A
VLAN behaves like an ordinary LAN, but connected devices don't have
to be physically connected to the same segment. The VLAN allows a
flexible mechanism; simply grouping physical ports together, or can
combine existing hubs, routers and backbone with dedicated switched
ports, wide area networks, and more. While clients and servers may
be distributed anywhere on a network, they are grouped together by
VLAN technology, and broadcasts are sent to devices within the same
VLAN.
With this characteristic, we propose a novel interoperability
network model integrating a self-organizing ad hoc network and
Internet/a conventional network with the same virtual local area
network. Moreover, we describe a protocol to establish the VLAN
broadcast domains by using the IPv6 multicast-membership in ad hoc
networks and perform IP-based network communications in a
multi-switch backbone. Since the VLAN technology functions by
logically segmenting the network into different broadcast domains,
packets can only be delivered between fixed/mobile nodes with the
same VLAN identity (group member). Therefore we can prevent the
broadcast storm problem in MANET.
1.1 Research contributions We consider a core network of
802.1Q-liked switches interconnected by trunk lines. This
network can span one or more small towns in sparsely populated
areas, interconnecting communities as well as company LANs. The
intent is to provide both telephony and data
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services over the same technology (Ethernet), stack (IP), with
seamless integration with the Internet. Our work chooses to
distribute the bandwidth according to a hierarchical link sharing
model.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. We describe the
Virtual Local Area Network in Section 2. Section 3 in detail for
the infrastructure of virtual LAN internetworking in ad hoc
networks, Section 4 simulated the constructing VLAN successful rate
with NS2 simulation. Finally, section 5 provides our concluding
remarks and futures works.
2. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
The motivation behind our approach is that network partitioning
can improve critical functions such media access, routing, mobility
management and virtual circuit set-up, while reducing signaling/
control overhead. It can be observed in this type of network that
portioning may result also in lower congestion compared to one
large network. This paper discuss an architecture based on a
specific logical topology superimposed over a physical topology
(determined by transmission coverage of network nodes); the
architecture selects links to be activated (logical links) out of a
pool of physical links. Our main concern is finding an efficient
logical topology and a suitable routing procedure which result in
high performance and reliability. In this architecture, network
nodes are grouped into two types of clusters (subnets): physical
and virtual, and may dynamically change their affiliation with
these subnets due to their mobility. Each node is allocated an
address based on its current subnet affiliation. We consider
networks that have several tens to several hundreds mobile nodes.
It is assumed that there exists a channel access protocol which
resolves contentions and/or interference in the network. [A mobile
radio network architecture with dynamically changing topology using
virtual subnet] Broadcasting in a shared wireless medium may result
in multiple nodes receiving a transmission destined for a single
node, and ultimately, in multiple transmission mutually interfering
at a single node. Nodes can reduce the chances of interference by
separating transmissions in time, space, frequency, or spreading
code. By coordinating this separation instead of acting
independently, nodes can further reduce the chances of interference
and hence increase network throughput. The cluster-based control
structure provides a natural organization of network nodes that
simplifies coordination of transmission among neighboring nodes.
[Ad Hoc Networking book]
With the fast development of wireless technology, ad hoc network
is walking out from research papers and becoming more and more
closer to the common consumers. For example, in order to save
battery power and reuse spectrum, the forth generation (4G)
wireless communication is considering using low-powered ad hoc mesh
networks instead of traditional star networks. In this case,
end-user wireless handsets form a peer-to-peer network in which
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they act as both end terminals and wireless routers that are
part of the overall network infrastructure. Broadcasting is one of
the basic communication methods for ad hoc networks and has many
applications. Unlike wired networks, ad hoc networks are usually
formed and maintained in a dynamic manner. This means a node will
have no knowledge about other nodes or services in an ad hoc
network when it joins the network. To discover other devices and
services, nodes usually have to broadcast query/request packets to
find out what is out there in the network. Besides service and
device discovery, data distribution across all network nodes can
take advantage of broadcasting for efficiency. In network layer,
broadcasting is a fundamental component for many routing protocols.
[A Border-aware Broadcast Scheme for Wireless Ad Hoc Network]
However, the simple broadcasting without a rebroadcasting bounding
mechanism at each node may result in an excess of redundancy,
channel contention, and collisions. This phenomenon is called the
Broadcast Storm Problem [The Broadcast Storm Problem in a Mobile Ad
Hoc Network]. Redundancy indicates a situation where a node hears
the same messages from more tha n one neighbors. Channel contention
is due to the different nodes which are simultaneously trying to
rebroadcast the received messages thus contending for the shared
media, increasing the probability of collisions. To address
redundancy, the decision whether or not rebroadcast must be
controlled at each node receiving the message. For contention and
collision, all nodes trying to rebroadcast rely on backoff
mechanism with randomly selected slots. Y.-C. Tseng et al. [6]
suggested several schemes to alleviate the broadcast storm problem,
namely: the counter-based scheme, the distance-based scheme, and
the location-based scheme. Although the authors indicates the
location-based scheme as the best alternative, it requires all
nodes to be equipped with a global positioning system (GPS) device
to provide the appropriate accuracy of longitude and latitude. The
distance-based scheme provides an higher level of reachability with
respect to the counter-based scheme but it does not offer the same
reduction of rebroadcast as its counterpart. [A Bounding Algorithm
for the Broadcast Storm Problem in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks]
2. VIRTUAL LOCAL AREA NETWORK
In a local area network, data link-layer broadcast and multicast
traffic is delivered to all devices, but this traffic cannot go
beyond the LAN boundary. In the past, shared cabling or hubs were
the boundaries for LANs. A VLAN is an administratively configured
LAN or broadcast domain. VLANs facilitate easy administration of
logical groups of stations that can communicate as if they were on
the same LAN. They also facilitate easier administration of moves,
adds, and changes in members of these groups [14]. VLANs configured
by using Media Access Control addresses can recognize when a device
has been moved to another port
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on a switch. VLAN management software can then automatically
reconfigure that device into its appropriate VLAN without the need
to change the device's MAC or IP address. Traffic between VLANs is
restricted. Bridges forward unicast, multicast and broadcast
traffic only on LAN segments that serve the VLAN to which the
traffic belongs. So the packets are only switched between ports
that are designated for the same VLAN. By confining packet
broadcast on a particular LAN only to the LANs within the same
VLAN, switched virtual network avoid wasting bandwidth, a fault in
traditional switched network where packets are often forwarded to
LANs that even do not require them. Hence offers benefits in term
efficiency use of bandwidth, flexibility, performance and security
[16][17][18][19].
The IEEE 802.1Q standard defines the operation of VLAN Bridges
that permit the definition, operation and administration of Virtual
LAN topologies within a Bridged LAN infrastructure. The IEEE's
802.1Q standard was developed to address the problem of how to
break large networks into smaller parts so broadcast and multicast
traffic would not grab more bandwidth than necessary. The
mechanisms support VLAN in Bridged LAN environment including the
frame format and how the frames are relayed to destinations. Any
frame has a VLAN-tagged to associate with the incoming port’s VID
(VLAN ID). The Filtering Database (FDB) stored addressing
information and frame-filtering information in the form of Mac
addresses and VLAN entries.
Switches are one of the core components of VLAN communication.
Switches provide the intelligence to make filtering and forwarding
decisions by packet and to communicate to other switches and
routers within the network. 802.1Q-compliant switch ports can be
configured to transmit tagged or untagged frames. The switch
implementing the standard is as following typical operations:
First, when a frame enters the switch it is checked for errors.
An error-free frame will be associated with a VID as described
above so that frame’s learning and forwarding is relative to the
VLAN it belongs to. If the Ingress Filtering set to enable and the
incoming port is not a member of this VALN, the frame will be
rejected.
Second, an accepted frame will be submitted to the forwarding
process to be relayed to other ports, and at the same time the
switch observes its source MAC address, source port, VID associated
and other necessary addressing information and automatic using them
to update the FDB. The process of forwarding uses the MAC address
and VID of the frame to index into the FDB to find out where the
frame shall be relayed. And eventually the frame is sent through
those corresponding outbound ports if not filtered out by Egress
Filter, which also decide whether the outgoing frame should carry a
VID. The logical interrelationships are illustrated in Figure
1.
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Figure 1. The VALN logical interrelationships It is obvious that
LANs switches afford essential improvement in performance and
dedicated bandwidth across the networks, with the intelligence
necessary for VLAN segmentation.
3. INFRASTRUCTURE OF VIRTUAL SUBNET INTERNETWORKING
As shown in Figure 2, three groups of mobile nodes form an
internetworking wireless ad hoc network with IP-based Internet. The
communication between each node in this network infrastructure is
established by using VLAN-enabled multi-route equipments and
wireless multi-hop paths. Some MNs in this ad hoc network want to
access the Internet. 加入一些為何使用 VLAN 的關念與想法 First, in order to access
the IP-based Internet and form the virtual network, a set of
VLAN-enabled Multi-route Routers (VMR) is established in advance.
The VMR are connected to the Internet and communicate with the
mobile nodes in wireless ad hoc networks via wireless transceivers.
The VMR consists of three components:
1.) IP-based component with traditional IP-based protocol suite
installed is designed to connect with IP-based Internet (either
wired or wireless);
2.) Ad hoc component with ad hoc related protocols installed is
connected with ad hoc networks through a wireless interface;
3.) VLAN component with virtual LAN related core component of
VLAN communication providing the intelligence to make filtering and
forwarding decisions.
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Figure 2. An internetworking wireless ad hoc network with
IP-based Internet The protocol architecture stacks for mobile nodes
and VMRs are represented in Fig. X. In
the physical layer, a mobile node uses by all the 802.11
variants, including infrared, FHSS, DSSS, OFDM and HR-DSSS,
provides one of the five permitted transmission techniques to send
a MAC frame among those mobile nodes. The standard techniques
detail operational specifications for wireless connectivity for
infrastructure and ad hoc networks within a local geographical
area. The physical layer corresponds to the OSI physical layer, but
the data link layer is split into two sublayers. Medium Access
Control (MAC) sublayer controls the channel allocation details two
operational modes: the Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) and
the Point Coordination Function (PCF). The Logical Link Control
(LLC) sublayer corresponds to hide the differences between the
different 802 variants and makes the network layer transparent.
Besides the wireless LAN standards IEEE02.11, some extended
versions, HiperLan or Bluetooth could also serve this
communication. The network layer is concerned with getting packets
from the source to the destination. Besides an IP-based ad hoc
routing protocol (e.g., proactive protocols and reactive protocols)
is used, we also retool the protocol to enlarged IP address fields
from 32 bit to 48 bit or 128 bit for virtual subnet using at layer
2, or handling ad
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hoc networks of IPv6 addressable computers. In higher layers,
conventional IP-based protocols are applied for wireless
communications.
The VMR contains protocols and acts as a default gateway to
communicate between the
conventional Internet and the wireless ad hoc networks. In
response to the purpose for virtual subnet, VMRs are based on
specially-designed Virtual-Subnet aware switches by identifying the
virtual-subnet field in the frame header. Now let us take a look at
the frame format with virtual-subnet tag, which is shown in Fig. #.
The virtual protocol ID is adapted from 802.1Q and has the value
0x8100. The Tag field contains three subfields. The virtual-subnet
identifier is the low-order 12 bits, representing which
virtual-subnet does the frame belong to? On the conventional
Internet side, it runs the usual Internet protocol and our adapted
virtual-subnet protocol. On the ad hoc network side, it sends and
receives packets using an ad hoc routing algorithm (e.g., AODV[ ],
DSDV [] , DSR [] and TORA []). To make the virtual-subnet function
correctly, two different routing tables are used including
configuration tables for mapping virtual-subnet identifier and
access links. The VMR may also contain protocols in higher layers,
in case there is a need for translation in these layers (e.g.,
conversion of usual TCP to TCP for wireless channels).
The architecture partitions a mobile ad hoc network into
logically independent subnetworks. Network nodes are members of
physical and virtual subnets and may change their affiliation with
these subnets due to their mobility.
Initially, the network is partitioned into a set of disjoint
clusters, which are termed physical subnet and are based on node
locality. Members of different physical subnets are clustered
together to form virtual subnets, each of which ideally spans all
physical subnets and is used to provide communication paths among
distant nodes.
Figure #. The Virtual-Subnet frame format To connect the
IP-based Internet communication, the mobile nodes need to discover
the
existence of the VMRs, which it belongs to, and join one of the
VMRs first. This could be done either by listening to a
VLAN-enabled Multi-route Router Advertisement (sending by
VLAN-enabled Multi-route Router) or sending a VLAN-enabled
Multi-route Router Request message (sending by mobile node) at the
initial state as shown at Figure 3. After successful
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VLAN-enabled Multi-route Router discovery, the mobile node
registers with one of the discovered VLAN-enabled Multi-route
Routers. We use Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) with virtual LAN
tag for IPv6 and Mobile IPv6 [20] to manage the multicast
membership and macro-mobility in this internetworking system. Thus,
when registers with a certain VMR, mobile node generates an IP
care-of-address (CoA) with the IP prefix of the selected VMR. If an
mobile node is approaching a new VMR which can serve it better than
the currently registered VMR, a handover procedure is performed
between old and new VMRs. After the switch to the new VMR is
completed, the mobile node generates a new IPv6 CoA with the new
network prefix. Thus, the CoA of a certain mobile node always
contains the information of its current location.
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Figure 3. A VLAN-enabled Multi-route Router Advertisement Due to
the same IP prefix of CoAs, all of the nodes attaching to the VMR
can be regarded
as members of one IP subnet, and the attached VMR can be
regarded as the default gateway for virtual subnet . In other
words, the entire ad hoc network is logically separated into
several virtual subnets (as identified in Figure 4 with different
colours). These virtual subnets are connected to the core IP
network through the gateway routers.
Unicast routing in the ad hoc side is operated in a hierarchical
way based on the subnet partitioning. I.e. packets addressed to a
destination in the same subnet can be directly forwarded, while
packets address to a destination in a different subnet must be
routed through the VMR s (even if there is a direct wireless
multi-hop link between the correspondent nodes).
IP multicast routing is carried out among the multicast routers
only. Hosts are transparent to the routing protocol. Each multicast
routers should obtain the up-to-date information about the
existence of any group member on its local link. The multicast tree
is then built up to deliver the multicast datagrams among all
routers connected to local group members. Hosts may join or leave a
multicast group dynamically. To ensure that multicast packets are
delivered to all links with active receivers, a protocol called
Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) was developed for membership
management between routers and hosts in IPv6. Routers use MLD to
learn which multicast address has listeners on each of their
attached links. On each link, at least one of the routers keeps a
list of multicast addresses having listener on this link. This
list
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is referred as membership list in the rest of this paper. As an
asymmetric protocol, different behaviours for multicast listeners
and routers are specified in MLD. Three types of MLD messages are
defined: Query, Report and Done.
Figure 4: The entire ad hoc network is logically separated into
several subnets
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4. SIMULATION ANALYSIS
Numerous simulations of our proposed protocol have been
performed using the NS2 simulation package. The mobility model used
in each of the simulations is in a random direction. In each
simulation, nodes are initially placed randomly within a predefined
600m x 600m grid area. Each node then chooses a random direction
between 0 and 360 degrees and a speed from 0 to 20 meter/second.
Once the node reaches the boundary of the area, it chooses a period
of time to remain stationary. After the end of this pause time, the
node chooses a new direction, this time between 0 to 180 degrees,
adjusted relative to the wall of the area on which the node is
located. This process repeats throughout the simulation, causing
continuous changes in the topology of the underlying network.
First, we compare the efficiency of the proposed method to
Flooding using computer simulation. Networks are randomly generated
within 600m x 600m grid. There are n nodes in the grid with k VLANs
and nodes can communicate each other within transmission range.
Each VLAN is formed with randomly members. The re-routing adapts
the AODV algorithm.
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In the simulation study, we vary n and k to compare how the
network sizes and VLAN sizes affect the efficiency.
Figure 5 shows the result for network sizes from 50 nodes to 80
nodes with 5 to 8 VLANs. As a consequence of the greater node
density, our proposed method is sufficient to deliver packets to
all nodes in a VLAN group. There are some nodes moving out of
transmission range, which cannot re-route successfully. It shows
that the percentage up to 84% in the 80 nodes existing 8 VLANs by
our proposed method. In the same condition, original flooding
achieves only 80%. The main impact of the improvement is that our
proposed method re-routes successfully before nodes moving out of
transmission range, original flooding has too many redundant
transmissions (control packet flood) to reach destination in
time.
Similar results for the percentage of the overhead of our
proposed method and original flooding are shown in Fig. 6. We
assume the flooding overhead to be 100% for comparing basis. It
shows that the overhead of our proposed method in 5 VLANs is from
50% to 39% when nodes number from 50 nodes to 80 nodes. And the
overhead of our proposed method in 8 VLANs is from 39% to 32% when
nodes number from 50 nodes to 80 nodes. It gives a clear result
that the overhead improves up to 68% in the 80 nodes existing 8
VLANs. Furthermore, compared to different sizes of VLAN, our
proposed method was still efficient when the sizes of VLAN
changing.
Figure 7 refers to a 60-node ad hoc network with 5 VLANs. It
shows the percentage of successful multicast for nodes whose
velocity varies from 0m/s to 20m/s (around 70km/h) using three
different routing protocols, and all the nodes of the addressed
multicast group received the packet more than 90% when the velocity
is less than 10m/s (around 35km/h) for our proposed method.
Furthermore, when the velocity of nodes is more than 4m/s, the
packet delivery ratio of flooding will drop immensely as the
velocity of nodes speeds up.
Delay improvement ratio with respect to flooding is shown in
Figure 8. As expected, simulations show that our proposed method
improves on the average delay of successful packet completion up to
50%.
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Figure 5. the percentage of successful deliver packets
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80
Nodes size
perc
enta
ge o
f ov
erhe
ad 5 VLAN FCVP6 VLAN FCVP
7 VLAN FCVP
8 VLAN FCVP
Flooding
Figure 6. The percentage of the overhead of our proposed method
and original flooding
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Packet Delivery Ratio
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Speed (meters/sec)
Pack
et D
eliv
ery
Rat
io (%
)
FCVPAODVFlooding
Fig. 7: Packet delivery ratio for three different routing
protocols
Delay improvement with respect to flodding Ratio
10
20
30
40
50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20Speed (meters/sec)
Del
ay im
prov
emen
t Rat
io (%
) .
FCVPAODV
Fig. 8: Delay improvement ratio with respect to flooding
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Average Route Acquisition Latency
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Network sizes
Del
ay (m
sec)
.
5 VLANs 10 VLANs15 VLANs 20 VLANs
Fig. 9: Average route acquisition latency
Control Overhead
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Speed (meters/sec)
Pack
ets
50 Nodes100 Nodes150 Nodes200 Nodes
Fig. 10: Control overhead
Figure 9 represents the average route acquisition latency for
the simulations. It indicates that
there is a significant different between the different network
sizes and the numbers of VLAN. The delay is more a factor of the
network sizes, topologies and the queuing delays experienced
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at the individual nodes. Since using the forwarding cache routes
can be discovered with minimal delay.
Figure 10 shows that the amount of overhead in terms of CREQ,
CREP and ACK message sent. The simulations presented utilize the
forwarding cache algorithm with four phases. Each CREQ is broadcast
across the entire VLAN network, so there are a large number of
RREPs generated, specifically in the larger-sized network.
The results present in this session quantify the improvement in
our proposed method that results from the use forwarding cache
table to reduce redundant transmissions. However, if the network
increases greater nodes density, the improvement increases more
obviously.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH In this paper, we have
described the adapted VLAN protocol for ad hoc networks. The
main
objective of our protocol is efficient to progress the
behaviours of VLAN in ad hoc networks. We propose a novel
interoperability network model integrating a self-organizing ad hoc
network and Internet/a conventional network with the same virtual
local area network. Moreover, we describe a protocol to establish
the VLAN broadcast domains by using the IPv6 multicast-membership
in ad hoc networks and perform IP-based network communications in a
multi-switch backbone. Since the VLAN technology functions by
logically segmenting the network into different broadcast domains,
packets can only be delivered between fixed/mobile nodes with the
same VLAN identity (group member). Therefore we can prevent the
broadcast storm problem in MANET.
We plan to identify the suitable cache table refreshing
mechanism on the proposed method in the future works. We will also
generalize the clustering method to progress the behaviours of VLAN
so that they can be applied in ad hoc wireless networks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research is supported by NICI IPv6
Infrastructure Development Division, Taiwan, Grant #I-0400.
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