VIEWING COMPREHENSION

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Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the background of the study,

statement of the problem, hypothesis of the study,

conceptual framework, theory base, significance of the

study, the scope and limitation of the study, and definition

of terms.

Background of the Study

Listening, speaking, reading, and writing are the

common macro-skills in English language that students have

known for a long period of time. For teachers and students,

these four macro skills are significant in the teaching and

in the learning process. However, since viewing skills have

become part of the learning process and important means of

communication, it was then included as the fifth of the

macro skills in English language communication.

Viewing is one of the most important skills in

communication because it is a way of portraying information

in the record, thus, giving more emphasis on the importance

of mental faculty that allows a perceiver to give details

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about a target that is difficult to get to normal senses due

to time, distance or shielding. Also, viewing involves

interpreting images for which word stand, and connecting

visual images in videos, computer programs, and websites

with accompanying printed or spoken words (B.D. Roe, E.P.

Ross 2010).

An old adage “a picture is worth a thousand words” is

as true today as it has always been. Professor Albert

Mehrabian (1939), asserted that students take in information

55 percent in visual and only seven (7) percent in text.

From this information it can be concluded that student’s

viewing do play a vital role in the retention of their

knowledge. Just as listening, reading, writing and speaking,

viewing entails giving attention to facts and relationships,

inferences, and to critical analysis (Kathie Johnson and

Connie McDonald, 2007).

The International Reading Association/National Council

of Teachers of English (1996), agreed that being literate in

contemporary society means being active, critical, and

creative users not only of print and spoken language but

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also of the visual language of film and television,

commercial and political advertising, photography, and more.

According to Ignatius Joseph Estroga (2012), a language

professor at Liceo De Cagayan University, viewing enhances

listening skills when students attend to non-verbal

communication and visual elements of performance, video,

television, film and multimedia presentation. Also, viewing

enhances reading when students attend to visual accompanying

print, specific textual techniques, and the assumptions,

perspectives, and quality of a variety media.

It has been a target for Filipino educators to build up

the macro-skills in English their students. For this reason

educators should not focus only to the listening, speaking,

reading and writing skills of the students but also to their

viewing as well since these enhance both their reading and

listening skills. As students view visual messages, they

need to use a range of viewing and strategies to make sense

of the visual images, and accompanying oral and print

language.

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In the case of the second year AB English Language day

and evening students, it is necessary for them to develop

not just in listening, speaking, reading and writing skills

but also their viewing comprehension for them to be literate

and critical enough in engaging themselves into different

varieties of media. It is with this reason that the

researcher is determined to identify the viewing

comprehension level of the AB English Language day and

evening students for they are expected to be well equipped

with life-long skills, one of which is viewing

comprehension.

Statement of the Problem

This paper aims to answer the following questions:

1. What is the viewing comprehension level of the AB

English Language day and evening students in terms of

the following components?

a) Literal

b) Reorganization

c) Inferential

d) Evaluation

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e) Appreciation

2. What is the overall level of viewing comprehension of

AB English Language day and evening students?

3. Is there a significant difference between and among the

viewing comprehension level of the AB English Language

day and AB English Language Evening Program?

4. Is there a significant difference in the overall level

of comprehension of the AB English Language day and

evening program?

Null Hypotheses

The following are the hypotheses of this study to be

tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Ho1: There is no significant difference between and among

the viewing comprehension level in terms of its components

of the AB English Language day and evening students.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the overall level

of comprehension of the AB English Language day and evening

students.

Theory Base

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This study is primarily anchored on the Barrett’s

Taxonomy of Comprehension (1980), which discusses the

different levels of Comprehension namely: literal,

reorganization, inferential, evaluation and appreciation.

The theory assumes that learners move from the literal

understanding to another, until the learner fully

understands and appreciates the cognitive and aesthetic

aspects of the material.

This theory serves as the framework that will support

the present study since it also measures the learners’ level

of Viewing Comprehension base on Dr. Tan Su Hwi (2010), and

the capacity to understand and answer Viewing Comprehension

questions.

Appreciation critique,appraise, comment,

appreciate Evaluation analyze,appraise, evaluate justify,

reason, criticize, judgeInferential

Comprehensionpredict, infer, guess

ViewingComprehension

AB EnglishLanguage Day

AndAB English

Language EveningStudents

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Reorganization classify, regroup,rearrange,

assemble, collect, categorize Literal label, list, name, relate, recall, repeat,

Comprehension state

Fig.1 Barrett’s Taxonomy of Viewing Comprehension

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 below shows the variables of the study.

Fig. 2 Schematic Diagram of the Study

Variables of the Study

As shown in Fig. 2, the first variable of the study is

the second year AB English Language day and second year AB

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English Language evening students. The second variable to be

determined by this study is the viewing comprehension level

of the second year AB English Language day and evening

students.

Viewing comprehension refers to the ability of the

participants to understand what they are viewing. It

involves interpreting images, and connecting visual images

in videos, computer programs, and websites.

Significance of the Study

The result of the study will give advantage to the

following:

Students. This study will help students in improving

and strengthening their viewing comprehension skill. By

knowing how skilled they are in terms of viewing and on how

good they are in comprehending viewing materials. It will

give them enough motivation to make use of some strategies

in developing their viewing skills. It will help them

improve and make use of their viewing skill in every class

discussion.

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Teachers. This study will help language instructors to

better facilitate in teaching English communication. The

instructors will also be guided with the strategies towards

a more effective delivery of learning. It will help them

formulate steps in developing the viewing skills of their

students in language communication.

Administrators. This study will encourage designers of

instructions to create and provide materials that will help

teachers in improving the viewing skills of their students

and in providing fine instructions that can contribute in

developing the viewing skills of the students.

Future Researchers. It will be a useful material for

future studies in a sense that it will impart findings about

the viewing comprehension level of the students. It can be

used as a reference for future researchers.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The researcher will conduct the study in the University

of Southeastern Philippines during the second semester of

the school year 2013-2014. The participants of the study

will be the College of Arts and Sciences second year

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students of the University of Southeastern Philippines,

school year 2013-2014.

Definition of Terms

In providing better understanding about the key

concepts of the study, the following terms are operationally

defined.

Second Year AB English Language Day and Evening

Students refers to the participants of the study who are

enrolled in the College of Arts and Sciences in the he S.Y

2013-2014, University of Southeastern Philippines.

Viewing Comprehension refers to the ability of the

participants to perceive meaning from visual presentations

with levels literal, reorganizational, inferential,

evaluation and appreciation comprehension.

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Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the gathered information from

various sources such as books, internet, materials that

support viewing comprehension.

Related Literature

Viewing

Viewing is a process that supports oracy and literacy,

it broadens the ways in which students can understand and

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communicate their ideas . It enhances both listening and

reading skills when students attend to non verbal

communication and visual elements of performance, video

television, film, multimedia presentations, visuals

accompanying print, textual techniques, variety of media and

etc.

According to the English Language Arts (2007), students

encounter thoughts, ideas, and feelings by viewing, as well

as listening and reading. By this, students should be given

opportunities to view a variety of formats including

visuals, drama, and media. As students view visual messages,

they need to use a range of viewing skills and strategies to

make sense of the visual images, and accompanying oral print

and language. Students need to make sense of it and respond

personally, critically, and creatively.

Viewing Comprehension

Comprehension can be assessed, in non-reading contexts

by presenting stories in different media. Stories can be

presented using pictures (Paris & Paris, 2003), aurally, or

via television (van den Broek, Lorch, & Thurlow, 1996).

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Viewing comprehension is based on the presentation of short

instructional videos followed by one or more comprehension

questions concerning the preceding video stimulus.

Using a variety of media such as television and print

to assess comprehension assumes that comprehension skills

transfer across these media. This transfer of skills is

plausible for several reasons. First, television and print

require similar cognitive processes to comprehend (e.g.,

making connections, sequencing events, generating

inferences). Second, research indicates that similar

structural story factors predict what children (both in

kindergarten and elementary school) remember from both

televised and written narratives (Lorch & Sanchez, 1997; van

den Broek, 1996; van den Broek, 1997). Tan Su Hwi (2010),

adapted the Barrett’s Taxonomy of Comprehension in assessing

the viewing comprehension of the students. Barrett’s

Taxonomy discusses the different levels of Comprehension

namely: literal, reorganization, inferential, evaluation and

appreciation.

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Literal comprehension refers to the literal

recognition, recall or verification of details, main ideas,

and sequence of events, comparisons, cause-effect

relationships, and character traits. Reorganization

comprehension requires students to synthesize, analyze,

and/or organize information stated in a selection.

Inferential comprehension is demonstrated when students use

the ideas and information explicitly stated in a viewing

material, students intuition and personal experiences as

bases in making intelligent guesses and hypothesis.

Students may infer supporting details, sequence,

comparisons, cause and effect relationships, character

traits, figurative language and predicting outcomes.

Evaluation comprehension deals with judgments and focuses

with reality or fantasy, fact or opinion, adequacy or

validity, appropriateness, worth, desirability and

acceptability. It also refers to judging the language and

effect of the material in the light of appropriate criteria.

It requires responses which indicate that an evaluative

judgment has been made by comparing ideas. Appreciation

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comprehension deals with psychological and aesthetic. It

refers to emotional responses to content, plot or theme,

sensitivity to various literary genres, identification with

characters and incidents, reaction to author’s use of

language, and response to generated images.

Types of Viewing

Visual Literacy

Visual literacy can be defined as the ability to

construct meaning from visual images (Giorgis, Johnson,

Bonomo, Colbert, & Al, 1999). The reader uses the critical

skills of exploration, critique and reflection in order to

make meaning from images. According to Lapp (1999), we can

use the term “intermediality” to describe the combined

literacies needed to read in a multi-media world. They

stress the importance of active reading based on information

visualization and the importance of visual communication to

capture attention, reinforce knowledge, and increase

audience responses. Visual literacy is about interpreting

images of the present and past and producing images that

effectively communicate the messages to the audience.

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The writer John Debes in 1968 was the first one who

used the term “visual literacy”. In a definition given by

Messaris (1995) states that visual literacy is the gaining

of knowledge and experiences about the workings of the

visual media coupled with a heightened conscious awareness

of those workings. Visual literacy includes the group of

skills which enable an individual to understand and use

visuals for intentionally communicating with others

(Ausburn, 1978). Visual literacy is what is seen with the

eye and what is seen in the mind. A visually literate person

should be able to read and write visual language, and must

have the ability to successfully decode and interpret visual

messages and to encode and compose visual communications.

Visual literacy involves developing the set of skills

needed to be able to interpret the content of visual images,

examine social impact, of those images and to discuss

purpose, audience and ownership. It includes the ability to

visualize internally, communicate visually, and read and

interpret visual images. Visual literacy also involves

making judgment of the accuracy, validity and worth of

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images. A visually literate person is able to discriminate

and make sense of visual objects, and images; create

visuals; comprehend and appreciate the visuals created by

others; and visualize objects in their mind’s eye.

Critical Viewing

Research has found out that average students spend an

average of 6-7 hours a day in using media (video games,

computers, video), with the average television viewing at 3-

4 hours each day. This made some research body suggest to

teach children to become critical viewers, give them the

ability to analyze the construction of isolated images, give

them the ability to think critically about the composition

of the picture, and enhance their ability to read word and

worlds (David Considine, 1999).

People continue to regard television viewing as a

passive a process, while others see its potential in

developing new literacies and reinforcing traditional

literacy. In The Harvard Education Letter (1990), it was

reported that video screen is helping children develop new

king of literacy, visual literacy in particular that they

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will need to thrive in a technological world. In a

television or film, the viewer must mentally integrate

diverse camera shots of a scene to construct an image of a

whole.

Television can be used in developing reading skills and

promoting traditional literacy, it is essential that

educators to recognize television as a unique medium and in

order to understand it fully people must be conversant with

its codes, conventions, and characteristics. Jack Solomon

said that television images lull people into thinking that

they are real, that they aren't iconic signs at all but

realities. Since people see them, people trust them, often

failing to realize that, like all signs, they have been

constructed with a certain interest behind them.

According to Arthur (1999), video can give students

realistic models to imitate for role-play; can increase

awareness of other cultures by teaching appropriateness and

suitability; can strengthen audio/visual linguistic

perceptions simultaneously; can widen the classroom

repertoire and range of activities; can help utilize the

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latest technology to facilitate language learning; can teach

direct observation of the paralinguistic features found in

association with the target language; can be used to help

when training students in ESP related scenarios and

language; can offer a visual reinforcement of the target

language and can lower anxiety when practicing the skill of

listening.

In deconstructing media representations, it requires

relinquishing the powerful and pervasive notion in our

culture that, seeing is believing, and that what people see

is what they get. The process of reading television

addresses the following elements.

First is interpreting the internal content of the

program. This involves a narrative analysis or the ability

to recall and recognize what happened and why, with

reference to genre codes and conventions. Second is

interpreting the internal construction of the frame. This

process focuses attention on media form and style. It

includes the overall design and look of the picture and

involves such things as camera angles and the various shots

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used. Third is recognizing the external forces and factors

shaping the program. This industrial/sociological approach

looks at issues such as media ownership and control in an

attempt to understand how these factors shape programming. A

simple example would address the relationship between media

ownership and the depiction of women and minorities in the

media. The fourth one is comparing and contrasting media

representations with reality. This includes comparing

television's depiction of the Vietnam War (Tour of Duty,

China Beach) with documentaries or histories of the war. It

might also include studying incidents of violence on

television compared to the national crime statistics or

examining the depiction of groups, races, religions, and

nationalities to detect stereotyping and bias. Fifth one is

recognizing and responding to the potential impact of

television form and content. This focuses attention on

appropriate responses and viewing behavior including writing

to producers and sponsors, as well as using television more

selectively.

Related Studies

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The study of Avner Caspi, Paul Gorsky and Meirna

Privman (2004), entitled “Viewing Comprehension: Students’

learning preferences and strategies when studying from

video”, examines how students at Open University of Israel

studied from video recordings of lecture. It was found out

that reading comprehension strategies are inappropriate for

viewing comprehension, presumed theoretical advantages

associated with instructional video may in fact be

disadvantages, the medium does indeed influence the message,

mismatching medium and message may have deleterious results

on students’ cognitive and affective outcomes and surface-

level orientations to study may be hindered by video.

The study of Avner Caspi, Paul Gorsky and Meirna

Privman (2004), is related to the present study since this

study focus on the viewing comprehension of the

participants. What makes it distinctive from the present

study is that, it studies the learning preferences of the

students while studying from video, while the presents study

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aims to determine and compare the viewing comprehension

level of the participants.

A study conducted by Ulrich Schroeders, Oliver Wilhelm,

Nina Bucholtz (2010), entitled “Reading, listening, and

viewing comprehension in English as a foreign language: One

or more constructs”, evaluated a newly developed viewing

comprehension test of German high school students who

completed reading, listening, and viewing comprehension

tests, all measuring the receptive proficiency in English as

a foreign language. Results showed that the viewing

comprehension task has similar psychometric qualities. The

three comprehension tests are very highly but not perfectly

correlated with each other.

The study of Ulrich Schroeders, Oliver Wilhelm, and

Nina Bucholtz (2010), is related to the present study since

it focuses on viewing comprehension. However, the study

evaluates the viewing comprehension test completed by the

participants, while present study evaluates the viewing

comprehension performance of the participants.

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A study entitled “Children’s Viewing and Representing

Skills Through Digital” by Kho Kay Yong (2012), reported on

four case studies of primary school children in Hong Kong,

focusing on their emerging digital competencies when

engaging with digital text. The study investigated how the

participating children engaged with digital text in the

context of their out-of-school technology use. Results

showed that each have developed a set of digital

competencies in their receptive and productive engagements

to deal with information on screens.

The study of Kho Kay Yong (2012), is related to the

present study since Yong tested the viewing skills of the

students that are involved in digital technology. The

present study differs in a sense that, this study will

determine the viewing comprehension of the students through

video, while the study of Kho Kay Yong is more on observing

the participants development in digital competencies.

Another study conducted by Paul van den Broek (2001),

entitled “The Role of Television Viewing in the Development

of Reading Comprehension” explored the relation between

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early television viewing and later reading achievement. The

results of recent research suggest that there is

considerable overlap between the comprehension processes

that take place during reading and those in rereading

television viewing.

The study of Broek (2001), is related to the present

study since both studies highlighted the importance of

viewing skills for comprehension, uses television viewing as

an instrument for the assessment. What makes it different

with the present study is that it explores the role of

television viewing to the reading comprehension of the

participants, while the present study only focuses on the

viewing comprehension of the participants.

A study of Tip Robertson (2011) entitled “Reading While

Watching Video: The effect of Video Content on Reading

Comprehension and Media Multitasking ability”, examines to

what extent video content affects students’ reading

comprehension in media multitasking environments. Two

different videos were used: one, a situational comedy, the

other, an in-depth news report. Results indicate that the

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two videos affected reading comprehension differently, with

the news report interfering more severely than the comedy,

but also more easily ignored when necessary.

The study of Robertson (2011), is relatively related to

the present study since it uses video as an instrument,

while the present study will focus on viewing comprehension.

It differs in the present study in a sense that it explores

the effect of video in the reading comprehension of the

participants, while the present study only determine and

compare the level of viewing comprehension of the

participants.

In a study conducted by Pezdek and Hartman (1983),

entitled “Children's television viewing: attention and

comprehension of auditory versus visual information”, it

examines the relationship between children's attention and

comprehension of auditory and visual information on

television. The major results were that the children

effectively distributed their attention such that they could

process auditory and visual information from television

while performing other activities. Further, the children

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were sensitive to which segments required visual attention

and which did not, and they were able to spontaneously

adjust their pattern of visual attention appropriately.

These results indicate that children utilize a fairly

sophisticated cognitive processing strategy while watching

television.

The study of Pezdek (1983), and Hartman is related to

the present study since it focuses to the participants

comprehension not just in auditory but also in visual

information. What makes it distinctive from the present

study is that, it explores the relationship of the

participants’ comprehension of auditory and visual

information on television while the presents study only

explores the participants’ comprehension in using

Chapter III

METHODS

This chapter describes how the study will be conducted,

the research design to be used in the study, the research

locale, the participants of the study, the research

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procedures, the research instrument and statistical

treatment that will be use in the study.

Research Design

The study will use the descriptive-comparative design

in order to come up with the necessary information.

Descriptive-comparative design is used to describe two or

more groups for comparison.

The design will be used to analyze and interpret the

viewing comprehension level of the second year AB E English

Language day and evening students. The research will use

comparative design in comparing the viewing comprehension

level of the second year AB English Language day and second

year AB English day and AB E nlgiah Language evening

students.

Research Locale

The researcher will conduct the study in the College of

Arts and Sciences, Evening Program, University of

Southeastern Philippines, Obrero Campus, Davao City.

Research Participants

Asking Permission to Conduct the Study

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The participants of the study will be the second year

AB English Language day and evening students, enrolled in

the second semester of the S.Y. 2012-2013 of the University

of Southeastern Philippines.

Research Procedure

The following page presents the step by step procedure

that will be followed by the researcher in conducting the

study.

Selecting Materials for Viewing

Subjecting Material and Test

Conducting the Study

Rating the Answered Test Questionnaires

Subjecting the Rating to validation

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Fig. 2 Flow Chart of the Research Procedures

1. Asking permission to conduct the study

The researcher will submit a letter addressed to

the Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, Dr.

Eveyth C. Deligero, and to the Director of Evening

College, Dr. Danilo C. Galarion, to allow the

researcher to conduct the study. See Appendix A.

2. Selecting Materials for Viewing

The researcher will select one material for the

assessment of the viewing comprehension of the

participants.

Analyzing and Comparing Results

Tabulating and Drawing the Conclusions of

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3. Subjecting the Material and Test Questionnaire for

Validation

The researcher will be giving a movie clip from

the 2009 movie “Earth Days”. The movie is all about

the environmental crisis and emergence, during the

1960's and '70's, as the selected material for viewing

comprehension as well as the test questionnaires.

4. Conducting the Study

a. The researcher will be scheduling dates for the

participants. The

researcher will be preparing a video clip that

will be shown to the participants.

b. After watching the video clip, the participants

will answer the test questionnaires made by the

researcher. See Appendix for the viewing

comprehension test questionnaire.

5. Rating the Answered Test Questionnaires

The researcher will be rating the answers of the

participants according to the Barrett’s Taxonomy of

Comprehension Skills.

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6. Subjecting the Rating to Validation

The rating given by the researcher to the

participants will be given to the selected faculty

members for validation.

7. Analyzing and Comparing Results

The results that will be gathered by the

researcher will be analyzed using statistical

treatment. Data gathered will be interpreted which will

be the basis for conclusions and recommendations.

8. Tabulating and Drawing the Conclusions of the Study

The results will be validated, and the researcher

will be tabulating the results and eventually draw

conclusions.

Research Instrument

After watching the video clip, the participants will

answer the viewing comprehension test adapted from Tan Su

Hwi (2010). The test questionnaire was divided into five

levels of Comprehension: Literal Comprehension,

Reorganization, Inferential Comprehension, Evaluation and

Appreciation. The researcher will adapt the Barrett’s

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Ordered Interval Scales from the study of Ihalas and

Fontamillas (2012) to measure the level of Viewing

Comprehension of the AB-English students.

Table 1. Ordered Interval Scale of the Literal Level of Viewing Comprehension (Thomas Barrett, 1980)NumericalValue

DescriptiveEquivalence Interpretation

4-5 Very HighVery proficient in recalling and reorganizing ideas or details in the video clip.

3-3.9 HighProficient in recalling and reorganizing ideas or details in the video clip.

2-2.9 AverageFairly proficient in recalling and reorganizing ideas or detailsin the video clip.

1-1.9 LowQuite proficient in recalling andreorganizing ideas or details in the video clip.

0-0.9 Very LowNot proficient in recalling and reorganizing ideas or details in the video clip.

Table 2. Ordered Interval Scale of the Reorganization Level of Viewing Comprehension (Thomas Barrett, 1980)Numerical

ValueDescriptiveEquivalence Interpretation

4-5 Very HighVery proficient in analyzing, synthesizing, and organizing the information given.

3-3.9 HighProficient in analyzing, synthesizing, and organizing the information given.

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2-2.9 AverageFairly proficient in analyzing, synthesizing, and organizing the information given.

1-1.9 LowQuite proficient in analyzing, synthesizing, and organizing the information given.

0-0.9 Very LowNot proficient in analyzing, synthesizing, and organizing the information given.

Table 3. Ordered interval Scale of the Inferential Level of Viewing Comprehension (Thomas Barrett, 1980)Numeric

alValue

DescriptiveEquivalence Interpretation

4-5 Very High

Very proficient in focusing the ideas behind the information of the video clip and using one’s personal experience as a basis forprobable inferences.

3-3.9 High

Proficient in focusing the ideas behind the information of the video clip and using one’s personal experience as a basis forprobable inferences.

2-2.9 Average

Fairly proficient in focusing the ideas behind the information of the video clip and using one’s personal experience as a basis forprobable inferences.

1-1.9 Low Quite proficient in focusing the ideas behind the information of the t video clip and using one’s personal experience as a basis for

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probable inferences.

0-0.9 Very Low

Not proficient in focusing the ideas behind the information of the video clip and using one’s personal experience as a basis forprobable inferences.

Table 4. Ordered Interval Scale of the Evaluation Level of Viewing Comprehension (Thomas Barrett, 1980)NumericalValue

DescriptiveEquivalence Interpretation

4-5 Very HighVery proficient in understandingthe ideas of the video clip and making judgment about the received information.

3-3.9 HighProficient in understanding the ideas of the video clip and making judgment about the received information.

2-2.9 AverageFairly proficient in understanding the ideas of the video clip and making judgment about the received information.

1-1.9 LowQuite proficient in understanding the ideas of the video clip and making judgment about the received information.

0-0.9 Very LowNot proficient in understanding the ideas of the video clip and making judgment about the received information.

Table 5. Ordered Interval Scale of the Appreciation Level ofViewing Comprehension (Thomas Barrett, 1980)Numerical Descriptive

Interpretation

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Value Equivalence

4-5 Very High

Very proficient in expressing anemotional response and a personal response to understand the received information completely.

3-3.9 High

Proficient in expressing an emotional response and a personal response to understand the received information completely.

2-2.9 Average

Fairly proficient in expressing an emotional response and a personal response to understand the received information completely.

1-1.9 Low

Quite proficient in expressing an emotional response and a personal response to understand the received information completely.

0-0.9 Very Low

Not proficient in expressing an emotional response and a personal response to understand the received information completely.

Statistical Treatment

The data that will be gathered by the researchers will

be tabulated and statistically analyzed based on the

purposes of the study. The researchers will use the Mean

Score to determine the level of Oral Competence and T-test

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for Paired Observation in comparing the means of the two

variables.

The formula for the mean score is shown below.

x=∑i=1

nxi

n =∑ ofthescoresofeachparticipants

numberofpaticipants

The formula for the T-test of Paired Observations is

shown below.

t=d−do

sd

√n

Where:

d is the mean of the di (difference between the two

observations) with computational formula

d=∑ din

=differencebetweenthetwoobservations

numberofparticipants

do is the value being tested (do= 0 in this case)

sd is the standard deviation of the dis with the

computational formula

sd=√n (di2)−(di)2

n(n−1)

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n is the total number of paired observations

REFERENCES

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BANDURA, A., ROSS, D., & ROSS, S. A. (1961) Transmission ofaggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal ofAbnormal and Social Psychology, 63, p. 575-582.

Bell, T., Cockburn, A., McKenzie, B. & Vargo, J. (2001).Digital lectures: If you make them, will students use them?Constraints on effective delivery of flexible learningsystems. Interactive Multimedia Electronic Journal ofComputer-Enhanced Learning 3(2). Available online:http://imej.wfu.edu/articles/2001/2/06 (Retrieved:01/08/2004).

Broek,.(2001). The Role of Television Viewing in the Development ofReading Comprehension. University of Minnesota

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[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eBPo0t69bi4]

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APPENDIX A

Assessment for Learning Questions Level of Viewing (Singapore’s English Language Syllabus, 2010)

Assessment for Learning Questions Level of Listening & Viewing based onBarrett’s Taxonomy

1. Where did the event took place? o Cafe o Library o Stock room o Cafeteria

Literal Comprehension

2. What did the lady ask for? o Books o Time o Food and drinks

Literal Comprehension

3. How can you describe the people’s reaction inside the library? o Annoyed

Reorganization

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o Surprised o Amused o Alarmed4. I can tell the reaction of the librarianfrom: o Her body language o Her tone of voice o Her gesture o The words she used

Reorganization

5. If you were the librarian, how will you react?

Reorganization

6. How can you describe the librarian’s reaction? o Disapproving o Shocked o Suspicious o Indifferent

Reorganization

7. Why do you think the lady ordered french-fries, burger and milk shake in the library?

InferentialComprehension

8. Why did the librarian react in this manner?

Inferential Comprehension

9. Did the lady understand the librarian’s reply? o Yes o No

InferentialComprehension

10. What was the intention of using ablond lady in the commercial?

Evaluation

11. What does the phrase “Beauty is nothing without brains” implies?

Evaluation

12. Do you think the lady is mentallyimpaired?

Evaluation

13. What are the characteristics of Evaluation/

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the Mercedes Benz that can be compared to the lady?

Appreciation

14. Would the humor aspect be lost iftheblond lady was replaced by: (i) a dark haired lady (ii) a (blond) male

Evaluation/Appreciation

14. What connection does the commercial want to make between a blond lady and the Mercedes Benz car?

Evaluation/Appreciation