View of culture in studies of human development Contemporary approaches to (sustainable) development Florence Bourdon, MSc.

View of culture in View of culture in studies of human studies of human

developmentdevelopment

Contemporary approaches to Contemporary approaches to (sustainable) development(sustainable) development

Florence Bourdon, MSc

The Green RevolutionThe Green Revolution

In the aftermath of WWIIIn the aftermath of WWII Focus on technological innovationsFocus on technological innovations Transfer of knowledge and agricultural Transfer of knowledge and agricultural

extensionextension Top-down approachTop-down approach Based on the realist-positivist paradigmBased on the realist-positivist paradigm

The realist-positivist paradigmThe realist-positivist paradigm

Reality exists independently of the human observer.Reality exists independently of the human observer. Scientific research allows us to acquire true knowledge Scientific research allows us to acquire true knowledge

about the nature of that reality (laws of nature).about the nature of that reality (laws of nature). Scientists discover the truth, they unravel nature’s Scientists discover the truth, they unravel nature’s

secrets. The expose the naked truth.secrets. The expose the naked truth. The aim of research is to contribute to the stock of The aim of research is to contribute to the stock of

knowledge.knowledge. Scientific research is the source of innovation.Scientific research is the source of innovation. Technology is applied science.Technology is applied science.

Röling, 1996

Policy application and its Policy application and its consequencesconsequences

Structural adjustment programs encouraged by the Structural adjustment programs encouraged by the World Bank: market oriented developmentWorld Bank: market oriented development

Substantial improvement in some countries but not the Substantial improvement in some countries but not the poorestpoorest

Destruction of traditional social networks for Destruction of traditional social networks for subsistencesubsistence

Ecological consequencesEcological consequences

Paradigm shift: the constructivist Paradigm shift: the constructivist perspective in developmentperspective in development

Reality is socially constructed.Reality is socially constructed. Innovation comes from social actors: focus on Innovation comes from social actors: focus on

indigenous knowledge.indigenous knowledge. Norman Long’s actor oriented approach: agency and Norman Long’s actor oriented approach: agency and

strategic rationality.strategic rationality. Bottom-up approachBottom-up approach Use of participatory methods such as PTD Use of participatory methods such as PTD

(Participatory Technology Development), FFS (Farmer (Participatory Technology Development), FFS (Farmer Field Schools), PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal), Field Schools), PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal), etc… etc…

Niels Röling’s work on sustainable Niels Röling’s work on sustainable agriculture: interaction and agriculture: interaction and

learninglearning

Norman Long’s focus on agency is too limited: need to Norman Long’s focus on agency is too limited: need to look at interaction and collective purposes.look at interaction and collective purposes.

The anthropogenic eco-challenge: human beings The anthropogenic eco-challenge: human beings became part of the system as a major force of nature. became part of the system as a major force of nature. Importance of studying relationships.Importance of studying relationships.

An example: water dilemmasAn example: water dilemmasI. Issues for the futureI. Issues for the future

Scarcity of fresh water in large parts of the world. Scarcity of fresh water in large parts of the world. There simply is not enough for everybody.There simply is not enough for everybody.

Even if there is enough for all, lack of access to safe Even if there is enough for all, lack of access to safe drinking water for a very significant number of people.drinking water for a very significant number of people.

Increasing conflicts about the uses of water.Increasing conflicts about the uses of water.

II. Characteristics of water II. Characteristics of water dilemmas (N. Röling, 2001)dilemmas (N. Röling, 2001)

Uncertainty: climate change, behavior of complex Uncertainty: climate change, behavior of complex ecosystems, measurability of underground water flows, ecosystems, measurability of underground water flows, climatic fluxes such as El Niclimatic fluxes such as El Niño.ño.

Multiple stakeholders with different worldviews, life Multiple stakeholders with different worldviews, life goals, incentives, and livelihoods: different nations, goals, incentives, and livelihoods: different nations, upstream and downstream farmers, rich landowners upstream and downstream farmers, rich landowners and small farmers, urban and agricultural uses, etc…and small farmers, urban and agricultural uses, etc…

Separation in space and/or time: consequences of Separation in space and/or time: consequences of human activities on water can appear years after in a human activities on water can appear years after in a different place.different place.

Economic difficulty: costs are externalized and difficult Economic difficulty: costs are externalized and difficult to ascribe to a specific action and/or actor + different to ascribe to a specific action and/or actor + different rules/policies for different territorial units.rules/policies for different territorial units.

The elements of agency: cognitive The elements of agency: cognitive agent in context (N. Röling, 2001)agent in context (N. Röling, 2001)

Values, emotions, goals

ActionsTheory

Perception of context

CONTEXT

Guideline to sustainable management of Guideline to sustainable management of collective resourcescollective resources

according to N. Röling, 2001according to N. Röling, 2001

Access to the resource is limited to a defined set of Access to the resource is limited to a defined set of usersusers

Those with access communicate (a platform for Those with access communicate (a platform for dialogue exists)dialogue exists)

Clear rules for access and useClear rules for access and use A way of monitoring adherence to these rulesA way of monitoring adherence to these rules Payments for monitoring and usePayments for monitoring and use Sanctions for violating the rulesSanctions for violating the rules

Successful examples exist!!!

The Miller-Bawden Quadrants:The Miller-Bawden Quadrants:management of the Spruce Budworm problemmanagement of the Spruce Budworm problem

Holism

Reductionism

ConstructivismPositivism

II

Ecocentric

(use natural controls)

III

Holocentric

(critical social learning)

I

Technocentric

(spray)

IV

Egocentric

(pray)

Main conclusions from Niels Main conclusions from Niels Röling’s approachRöling’s approach

Changing view to our natural environment: man as part Changing view to our natural environment: man as part of the systemof the system

Use various ‘scientific’ approaches such as ‘classical’ Use various ‘scientific’ approaches such as ‘classical’ and ‘post-modern’ sciencesand ‘post-modern’ sciences

Need to accommodate multiple realities/perspectivesNeed to accommodate multiple realities/perspectives Importance of trust in resource management dialoguesImportance of trust in resource management dialogues Question: how to build supportive institutions?Question: how to build supportive institutions?

P. Richards and the TAO group approach

How science and technology impact on international How science and technology impact on international developmentdevelopment

And are themselves shaped by culture, history and And are themselves shaped by culture, history and politicspolitics

InterdisciplinaryInterdisciplinary CriticalCritical Grounded in practiceGrounded in practice Importance of institutions and ‘culture’Importance of institutions and ‘culture’

Question to the group: why do we Question to the group: why do we put flowers on graves?put flowers on graves?

Institutions own the ideas for usInstitutions own the ideas for us Pervasive influence of institutions on the way we look Pervasive influence of institutions on the way we look

at a given problemat a given problem Difference between institution and organization: every Difference between institution and organization: every

organization is an institution but not every institution is organization is an institution but not every institution is an organization. Ex: marriage, burying practices, etc…an organization. Ex: marriage, burying practices, etc…

Need to create organizations that go beyond Need to create organizations that go beyond institutional cultures. institutional cultures.

Mary Douglas’ Cultural TheoryMary Douglas’ Cultural Theory

Two dimensionsTwo dimensions::

GridGrid: the degree to which our lives are circumscribed : the degree to which our lives are circumscribed by conventions or rules, reducing the area of life that is by conventions or rules, reducing the area of life that is open to individual negotiation. Ex: the attribution of open to individual negotiation. Ex: the attribution of names to children.names to children.

GroupGroup: the extent to which individual choice is : the extent to which individual choice is constrained by group choice, by binding the individual constrained by group choice, by binding the individual into the collective body. Ex: monastic communities are into the collective body. Ex: monastic communities are high group.high group.

Cultural TheoryCultural Theory

Group

Grid

highlow

high

low

Fatalist

Low cooperation, rule-bound approaches to organizations.

Ex: atomized societies sunk in rigid routines

Individualist

Atomized approaches to organization stressing

negotiation and bargaining.

Ex: ‘government by the market’ thinking

Hierarchist

Socially cohesive, rule-bound approaches to

organization.

Ex: military structures

Egalitarist

High-participation structures in which every decision is ‘up

for grabs’

Ex: environmental NGOs

Perspective takingPerspective taking

« public management is like the drains, in the sense that it « public management is like the drains, in the sense that it normally only grabs attention when there is a nasty smell of some normally only grabs attention when there is a nasty smell of some kind. But the cultural-theory perspective suggests that what kind. But the cultural-theory perspective suggests that what comes as a bad smell is not likely to be the same for everyone. comes as a bad smell is not likely to be the same for everyone. What to one person is an intolerable stink may be scarcely What to one person is an intolerable stink may be scarcely noticeable to another. Views will often diverge sharply on who or noticeable to another. Views will often diverge sharply on who or what is at fault and what should be done to fix the problem. There what is at fault and what should be done to fix the problem. There is no universal agreement on what counts as ‘problem’ and what is no universal agreement on what counts as ‘problem’ and what as ‘solution’, or when the point is reached where the ‘solution’ as ‘solution’, or when the point is reached where the ‘solution’ becomes worse than the ‘problem’. (…) What some may see as becomes worse than the ‘problem’. (…) What some may see as vigorous promotion of order and public safety (for instance vigorous promotion of order and public safety (for instance through ‘zero tolerance’ of street crime) may be viewed by others through ‘zero tolerance’ of street crime) may be viewed by others as a needless provocation of petty offenders or even an all out as a needless provocation of petty offenders or even an all out war on the disadvantaged, only a short step away from the sort of war on the disadvantaged, only a short step away from the sort of rapacity conducted by the fascist and authoritarian states against rapacity conducted by the fascist and authoritarian states against marginal or dissident members of society (cf. Nicholson, 1986). »marginal or dissident members of society (cf. Nicholson, 1986). »

Source: Christopher Hood: The Art of the State, pp24-25

Response to Public Management disastersResponse to Public Management disasters

Fatalist response: ‘resilience’

Stress: unpredictability and unintended effects

Blame: the ‘fickle finger of fate’ (or chaos theory interpretation of how organization works

Remedy: minimal anticipation, at most ad hoc response after the event

Hierarchis response: ‘steering’

Stress: expertise, forecasting, and management

Blame: poor compliance with established procedures, lack of professional expertise

Remedy: more expertise, tighter procedures, greater managerial ‘grip’

Individualist response: ‘enlightened self-interest’

Stress: individuals as self-interested rational chosers

Blame: faulty incentive structures through over-collectivization and lack of price signals

Remedy: marketlike mechanisms, competitions and leagues, information to support choice

Egalitarian response: ‘community participation’

Stress: group and power structures

Blame: abuse of power by top-level government/corporate leaders, system corruption

Remedy: participation, communitarianism, whistle-blowing

Views of natureViews of nature

Fatalistic

Nature as capriciousHierarchist

Perverse and tolerant

Individualistic

Benign, you can do anything

Egalitarian

Ephemeral and fragile

Agricultural Production and Institution Agricultural Production and Institution Building after War (P. Richards, 2001)Building after War (P. Richards, 2001)

The caseThe case

Sierra LeoneSierra Leone 52% of the population survived52% of the population survived Distribution of seeds for restarting agricultural Distribution of seeds for restarting agricultural

productionproduction There are no institutions anymoreThere are no institutions anymore How to distribute the seeds?How to distribute the seeds?

How to Distribute the Seeds?How to Distribute the Seeds?

Recreating the former system based on the authority of chiefs?

Building new institutions through collective negociations?

Outcome of collective negociations:

Giving seeds to chiefs to decide of distribution

Giving seeds to people over 40 years

Avoid those considered as treators or unreliable

Target the most needy

Give seeds to every person that can cultivate in equal quantity

Outcome and ConclusionsOutcome and Conclusions

Importance of human rights and justice: the mal Importance of human rights and justice: the mal distribution of aid inputs provided fertile soil for quarrelsdistribution of aid inputs provided fertile soil for quarrels

Creation of a ‘village peace and rights day’ to discuss Creation of a ‘village peace and rights day’ to discuss about the vulnerabilities that facilitated the war and about the vulnerabilities that facilitated the war and prevent it from happening again, with the help of a prevent it from happening again, with the help of a facilitator.facilitator.

« Among people facing extreme survival challenges, « Among people facing extreme survival challenges, attention to human rights must address immediate attention to human rights must address immediate material concerns as well as more abstract issues of material concerns as well as more abstract issues of justice » (P. Richards, 2001)justice » (P. Richards, 2001)

QuestionQuestion

How can we as interculturalists contribute to How can we as interculturalists contribute to sustainable development?sustainable development?

How can interculturalists play a role in a ‘dialogue on How can interculturalists play a role in a ‘dialogue on sustainable resource management’?sustainable resource management’?

How can you use what you learnt here?How can you use what you learnt here? How can it be linked to social responsibility in How can it be linked to social responsibility in

companies?companies? Do big companies have a role to play in sustainable Do big companies have a role to play in sustainable

development? If yes, which one and how?development? If yes, which one and how?

Norman Long and the actor-Norman Long and the actor-oriented approachoriented approach

Agency, social actors and strategic rationalityAgency, social actors and strategic rationality Multiple realitiesMultiple realities Interface encountersInterface encounters Discontinuities in interests, values, knowledge and Discontinuities in interests, values, knowledge and

powerpower Methodologies: participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and Methodologies: participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and

stakeholders analysisstakeholders analysis

Norsemen on GreenlandNorsemen on Greenland

In the Early Middle Ages, the climate was relatively warm. Norsemen had settled on what was then appropriately called Greenland and developed farming communities based on livestock production. Around 1220, they sent a polar bear to the King of Norway as a present. In return, they received a bishop. He wasted no time and began building churches; religious fervour became one of the hallmarks of the Nordic communities. In the 14th century, the climate became cooler. Slowly the conditions turned against the Norse communities and their way of life. Eventually they had to give up and return to Norway. All that now remains of the efforts are the ruins of their churches. Meanwhile, the Inuit who lived on Greenland at the same time effectively adapted their lifestyle to the change in climate and still make their living on the island.

Social dilemmas or ‘the tragedy of Social dilemmas or ‘the tragedy of the commons’the commons’

Commons dilemmas: can be solved if all take less from Commons dilemmas: can be solved if all take less from the common good. Ex: water resources.the common good. Ex: water resources.

Public good dilemmas: can be solved if all contribute Public good dilemmas: can be solved if all contribute more to the public good. Ex: maintaining a dam/a dyke.more to the public good. Ex: maintaining a dam/a dyke.

« The situation in which it is rational for all individuals to make selfish choices, while all would be better off in the end if they made cooperative choices. » (Röling, 2001)

Need to maintain:Need to maintain:

Coherence between values, theories, perceptions and Coherence between values, theories, perceptions and actionsactions

Correspondence or structural coupling with the contextCorrespondence or structural coupling with the context

A story: Norsemen on Greenland