Vermiculture

i

Vermiculture in Egypt:

Current Development

and

Future Potential

ii

Vermiculture in Egypt:

Current Development

and

Future Potential

Written by:

Mahmoud Medany, Ph.D.

Environment Consultant

Egypt

Edited by:

Elhadi Yahia, Ph.D.

Agro industry and infrastructure Officer

Food and Agriculture Organizatioon

(FAO/UN)

Regional Office for North Africa

and the Near East, Cairo, Egypt

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Regional Office for the Near East

Cairo, Egypt

April, 2011

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

ISBN 978-92-5-106859-5

All rights reserved. FAO encourages reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Non-commercial uses will be authorized free of charge, upon request. Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes, including educational purposes, may incur fees. Applications for permission to reproduce or disseminate FAO copyright materials, and all queries concerning rights and licences, should be addressed by e-mail to [email protected] or to the Chief, Publishing Policy and Support Branch, Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy.

© FAO 2011

iv

Table of contents

Table of contents ...................................................................................................................... iv List of Photos ............................................................................................................................ vi List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... vi List of tables ............................................................................................................................ vii Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... viii Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. 2 1. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt .............................................................. 3

1.1. Historical background ...................................................................................... 3

1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms ........................................................ 4

1.3. Types of earthworms ........................................................................................ 6

1.4. Vermicomposting species ................................................................................. 6

1.5. Native earthworm species in Egypt ................................................................. 7

1.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting ............................................................... 8

2. Trial of vermiculture and vermicomposting implementation in Egypt ............................... 10

2.1. Principle of vermiculture and vermicomposting ......................................... 10

2.1.1. Bedding ..................................................................................................... 10

2.1.2. Worm Food ............................................................................................... 11

2.1.3. Moisture .................................................................................................... 14

2.1.4. Aeration .................................................................................................... 14

2.1.5. Temperature control ................................................................................ 15

2.2. Methods of vermicomposting ......................................................................... 16

2.2.1. Pits below the ground .............................................................................. 16

2.2.2. Heaping above the ground ...................................................................... 17

2.2.3. Tanks above the ground .......................................................................... 17

2.2.4. Cement rings............................................................................................. 18

2.2.5. Commercial model ................................................................................... 18

2.3. The trial experience in Egypt ......................................................................... 20

2.3. 1. Earthworm types used:........................................................................... 20

2.3.2. Bedding ..................................................................................................... 20

2.3.3. Food ........................................................................................................... 21

2.3.4. Moisture .................................................................................................... 22

2.3.5. Aeration .................................................................................................... 22

2.3.6. Temperature ............................................................................................. 23

2.3.7 Harvesting .................................................................................................. 23

3. Use of compost worms globally in countries of similar climate ......................................... 26 3.1 Vermicomposting in Philippines ....................................................................................... 26

3.2 Vermicomposting in Cuba .............................................................................. 28

3.3. Vermicomposting in India .............................................................................. 29

3.4. Vermicompost „teas‟ in Ohio, USA ............................................................... 32

3.5. Vermicomposting in United Kingdom .......................................................... 33

4. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices in Egypt: gap analysis. . 34

4.1. On-farm organic waste ................................................................................... 34

4.1.1. Weak points in rice straw system in Egypt ................................................ 35

4.2. Urban wastes ................................................................................................... 35

4.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem in Egypt .......................... 35

4.2.2. Main factors contributing to soil waste management problem .................. 36

4.2.3. Waste generation rates ............................................................................... 37

4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are .............................................. 39

v

4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options ................................................ 40

4.3.1. Feeding animals ........................................................................................ 40

4.3.2. Compost .................................................................................................... 40

4.3.3 Landfill disposal or incineration ................................................................. 40

5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce fertilizers in Egypt. ................................. 45

5.1. Fertilizer use in Egypt .................................................................................... 45

5.2. Fertilizer statistics ............................................................................................. 46

5.3. Vermicomposting as fertilizers in Egypt....................................................... 48

5.3.1. Urban waste vermicomposting .................................................................. 49

5.3.2. Vermicomposting of agricultural wastes ................................................... 50

5.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth ...................................................... 50

5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer in Egypt .................. 51

6. Current animal feed protein supplements production in Egypt and the potential to substitute

desiccated compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use of live worms in

aquaculture industries. ...................................................................................................... 53

6.1. Animal and aquaculture feed ......................................................................... 53

6.2. Worm meal ...................................................................................................... 54

6.3. Earthworms, the sustainable aquaculture feed of the future ..................... 56 7. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices and environmental effects

of those practices, e.g. carbon and methane emissions. .................................................... 62

7.1. Emissions from vermicompost ....................................................................... 62

7.2 Total emissions from waste sector in Egypt .................................................. 64

7.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes .............................................................. 66

7.4. Vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment ........................................... 69

8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on greenhouse gas

emission reductions ........................................................................................................... 71

8.1. Background ..................................................................................................... 71

8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements in Egypt ................ 73

8.3. Egypt National Strategy on the CDM ........................................................... 74

8.4. The national regulatory framework .............................................................. 75

9. Analysis of the Egyptian context and applicability of vermiculture as a means of

greenhouse gas emission reduction. .................................................................................. 76

9.1. Profile of wastes in Egypt ............................................................................... 76

9.1.1. Municipal solid waste ................................................................................ 76

9.1.2. Agricultural wastes .................................................................................. 77

9.2. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the solid wastes ......................................... 77

9.3. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the agriculture wastes .............................. 79

References ............................................................................................................................... 80 Annex 1 ................................................................................................................................... 85 General information and FAQ ................................................................................................. 85

vi

List of Photos

Photo 1.1 Rich fertile soil of the Nile Delta enables wide variety of crops

to be grown.

4

Photo 2.1 Open pit vermicomposting - Kirungakottai. 16

Photo 2.2 Open heap vermicomposting. 17

Photo 2.3 Commercial vermicompost operation at KCDC Bangalore, India 18

Photo 2.4 Cement ring vermicomposting 18

Photo 2.5 Commercial vermicomposting unit 19

Photo 2.6 Earthworms used in Egypt 20

Photo 2.7 Trial vermicompost set up at Dokki. 21

Photo 2.8 Mixture of food wastes and shredded plant material ready to be

mixed in the rotating machine.

21

Photo 2.9 The locally manufactured shredding machine. 22

Photo 2.10 The shaded growing beds. 23

Photo 2.11 Harvesting of castings. 24

Photo 2.12 Harvested adult worms from the growing beds. 24

Photo 2.13 Couple of adult worms, with clear clitellum in both of them. 25

Photo 2.14 Worm eggs. 25

Photo 3.1 Earthworm plots showing plastic covers and support frame. 27

Photo 3.2 Windrows vermicomposting method: in Havana, Cuba . 29

Photo 3.3 Women self-help group involved in vermicomposting, to

promote micro-enterprises and generate income.

30

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Commercial model of vermicomposting developed by ICRISAT 19

Figure 5.1 Trends of production, imports and exports (1000 tonnes of

nutrients) of fertilizers in Egypt

47

Figure 5.2 Consumption of nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and total

fertilizers in Egypt.

48

Figure 7.1 Egypt‟s GHG emissions by gas type for the year 2000 in mega

tones of carbon dioxide equivalent.

68

Figure 7.2 Egypt‟s GHG emissions by sector for the year 2000, in mega

tones of carbon dioxide equivalent.

69

Figure 7.3 Layout of the vermifilter. 70

vii

List of tables

Table 1.1 Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) and their

regions of origin.

5

Table 2.1 Common bedding materials. 11

Table 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of different types of feed. 12

Table 3.1 Summary for production of vermicompost at farm scale in

Andaman and Nicobar (A&N) Islands, India.

31

Table 4.1 Municipal solid waste contents 2000-2005. 36

Table 4.2 Distribution of waste according to the sources. 37

Table 4.3 Distribution of wastes according to its sources and Governorates

2007/2008 in tons.

38

Table 4.4 Egypt‟s Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for the period

2007-2012.

42

Table 4.5 Solid waste accumulation in the Egyptian Governorates. 43

Table 4.6 Solid waste amount produced by governorates and the organic

materials percentages For the year 2008.

44

Table 5.1 Physical and chemical analysis of various soil types. 46

Table 5.2 The main types of fertilizers used in Egypt. 47

Table 5.3 Potential nutrients that could be obtained from urban and

agriculture wastes in Egypt.

52

Table 6.1 Chemical composition % of various worm meal (in dry matter). 55

Table 6.2 Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN). 55

Table 6.3 Macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal

(Eudrilus eugeniae).

55

Table 6.4 Different nutrient concentration in manure and fertilizer applied

(average value of triplicate sample analyzed).

58

Table 6.5 Average values (±SD) of physico-chemical parameters of water,

primary productivity of phytoplankton and final body weights and

fish production of Cyprinus carpio (Ham.) in various treatments.

59

Table 6.6 Composition (% dry matter) of tested proteins sources or

supplements for fish feeds.

60

Table 6.7 Amino acid (g/100g protein) profiles of tested protein sources or

supplement as compared to fish meal (FM).

61

Table 7.1 Summary of greenhouse gas emissions for Egypt, 2000. 65

Table 7.2 Egypt‟s greenhouse gas emissions by gas type for the year 2000. 67

Table 7.3 Egypt‟s greenhouse gas emissions by sector for the year 2000. 68

Table 9.1 Summary of identified mitigation measures for solid wastes. 78

viii

Abbreviations

AF Africa

ARC Agricultural Research Center of Egypt

ARE Arab Republic of Egypt

AS Asia

CA Central America

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

CER Certified Emissions Reductions

CH4 Methane

CO Carbon monoxide

CO2 Carbon dioxide

CO2e Equivalent carbon dioxide

COPx Conference of parties number x

DAP Diammonium phosphate

EEAA Egypt Environmental Affairs Agency

EU Europe

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GHG Greenhouse gas

GIS Geographic Information System

GTZ German Technical Cooperation Agency

GWP Global Warming Potential

ha Hectare, 10 thousand square meters

HFC Hydrofluorocarbon

ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change

JA Japan

MA Madagascar

ME Mediteranean

MSW Municipal Solid Waste

MSW Municipal Solid Waste

Mt Million tons

N2O Nitrous oxide

NA North America

NH3 Ammonia

NOx Nitrogen oxides

NSS National Strategy Studies

OC Oceania

PFC's Perfluorocarbons

SA South America

ix

SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride

SWM Solid Waste Management

Tg Teragrams

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNDP United Nations Development Program

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

USA The United States of America

USA Unites States of America

VF Vermifiltration: filtration utilizing earth worms

VOC Volatile Organic Compound

VSS Volatile suspendedsolids

WWTP Wastewater treatment plant

i

1

Introduction

The total amount of solid waste generated yearly in Egypt is about 17 million tons

from municipal sources, 6 million tons from industrial sources and 30 million tons

from agricultural sources. Approximately 8% of municipal solid waste is composted,

2% recycled, 2% land-filled and 88% disposed of in uncontrolled dumpsites.

Agricultural wastes either burned in the fields or used in the production of organic

fertilizers, animal fodder and food or energy production. National efforts are being

exerted to minimize burning the agricultural wastes. There is a great opportunity for

maximizing the economical benefits of organic wastes by utilizing the earth worms as

"biological machines" utilizing the waste for valuable commodities.

Assessment of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions for Egypt revealed that the total

emissions in the year 2000 were about 193 MtCO2e, compared to about 117 MtCO2e

in 1990, representing an average increase of 5.1% annually. Estimated total

greenhouse gas emissions in 2008 are about 288 MtCO2e. Although waste sector

produces the least quantity of greenhouse gases in Egypt, without the organic residues

burned from the agriculture sector, which when added together can be in a higher

rank. Converting organic wastes, whether municipal or agricultural, into

vermicompost can substantially reduce the greenhouse gas emission that could be paid

back through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol.

From another perspective, proper handling of wastes, especially organic, in mega

cities such as Cairo, will reduce the environmental impact on both public and

government. Any effort lead to cleaner streets is highly appreciated. The availability

of organic compost from various sources will have a direct positive impact on

agriculture in Egypt, as most soils of modern agriculture have poor organic matter

contents. The benefits of converting organic wastes into compost to be added to the

soil apply also to similar countries in the Middle East and North Africa.

As general information regarding the utilization of earthworm in composting:

- One thousand adult worms weigh approximately one kilogram.

- One kilogram of adults can convert up to 5 kilograms of waste per day.

- Approximately ten kilograms of adults can convert one ton waste per month.

- Two thousand adults can be accommodated in one square meter.

- One thousand earthworms and their descendants, under ideal conditions, could

convert approximately one ton of organic waste into high yield fertilizer in one

year.

The purpose of this work is to investigating current development of vermiculture

under the Egyptian conditions, and to discuss its potential as an effective means of

converting the carbon and nitrogen in domestic and agricultural organic wastes into

bio-available nutrients for food production, and the potential of vermiculture as means

of reduction the greenhouse gas emissions that have negative impacts on the

environment.

2

Executive Summary

Vermiculture in Egypt dates since Cleopatra. However, the Green Revolution, with its

dependence on fossil fuelled large scale machinery and operations, together with the

damming of the Nile, has in recent times all but removed the environment in which

compost worms, most commonly Eisenia Foetida, can thrive.

The total quantity of solid wastes generated in Egypt is 118.6 million tons/year in

2007/2008, including municipal solid waste (garbage) and agricultural wastes.

Household waste constitutes about 60% of the total municipal waste quantities, with

the remaining 40% being generated by commercial establishments, service

institutions, streets and gardens, hotels and other entertainment sector entities. Per

capita generation rates in Egyptian cities, villages and towns vary from lower than 0.3

kg for low socio-economic groups and rural areas, to more than 1 kg for higher living

standards in urban centers. On a nationwide average, the composition is about 50-60%

food wastes, 10-20% paper, and 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, and plastics, and

the remainder is basically inorganic matter and others.

Currently, solid waste quantities handled by waste management systems are estimated

at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day being produced in cities, and

the rest generated from the pre-urban and rural areas. Final destinations of municipal

solid waste entail about 8% of the waste being composted, 2% recycled, 2%

landfilled, and 88% dumped in uncontrolled open dumps.

The organic wastes in cities can be as large as 10-15 thousand tons per day. After the

swine flu and the government decision to get rid of all swine used to live on the

organic wastes in the garbage collection sites near the cities, earth worms could be the

alternate biological machines that could handle the wastes with greater revenues and

cleaner production. There is a great opportunity for all municipal waste systems to

adapt the vermicompost in their operation.

Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons

per day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal

fodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes. Vermiculture is

also a valuable system for converting most of the organic waste into vermicompost.

With rural awareness and training, vermicompost could be produced in all villages.

The target groups of this book are all growers, including organic agriculture growers,

as well as all organic waste producers from as small scale as households to the large

scale urban solid waste operations. The very rich and valuable organic vermicompost

produce will assist in enriching the soil, especially sandy and newly reclaimed soil,

with organic matter and fertilizers in the form of proteins, enzymes, hormones, humus

substances, vitamins, sugars, and synergistic compounds, which makes it as

productive as good soil.

3

1. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt

1.1. Historical background

The importance of earthworms is not a very modern phenomenon. Earthworms have

been on the Earth for over 20 million years. In this time they have faithfully done their

part to keep the cycle of life continuously moving. Their purpose is simple but very

important. They are nature‟s way of recycling organic nutrients from dead tissues

back to living organisms. Many have recognized the value of these worms. Ancient

civilizations, including Greece and Egypt valued the role earthworms played in soil.

The ancient Egyptians were the first to recognize the beneficial status of the

earthworm. The Egyptian Pharaoh, Cleopatra (69 – 30 B.C.) said, “Earthworms are

sacred.” She recognized the important role the worms played in fertilizing the Nile

Valley croplands after annual floods. Removal of earthworms from Egypt was

punishable by death. Egyptian farmers were not allowed to even touch an earthworm

for fear of offending the God of fertility. The Ancient Greeks considered the

earthworm to have an important role in improving the quality of the soil. The Greek

philosopher Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.) referred to worms as “the intestines of the

earth”.

Jerry Minnich, in The Earthworm Book (Rodale, 1977), provides a historical

overview which indicates that at the end of the last Ice Age, some 10,000 years ago,

earthworm populations had been decimated in many regions by glaciers and other

adverse climatic conditions. Many surviving species were neither productive nor

prolific. In places where active species and suitable environments were found, such as

the Nile River Valley, earthworms played a significant role in agricultural

sustainability. While the Nile‟s long-term fertility is well known and attributed to rich

alluvial deposits brought by annual floods, these materials were mixed and stabilized

by valley-dwelling earthworms. In 1949, the USDA estimated that earthworms

contributed approximately 120 tons of their castings per year to each acre of the Nile

floodplain (Tilth, 1982).

Egypt has historically had some of the most productive and fertile land in the world.

The Nile River not only provides water critical for agriculture, but in times past, the

annual flooding of the Nile deposited nutrient-rich soil onto the land. In recent years,

the Aswan High Dam has virtually eliminated the annual flood which has resulted in a

loss of the beneficial soil deposits leading to a need for organic material on lands used

for agricultural production in Egypt.

Charles Darwin (1809 –1882) studied earthworms for more than forty years and

devoted an entire book (The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of

Worms) to the earthworm. Darwin said, “it may be doubted that there are many other

animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world as have

these lowly organized creatures”.

4

For three millennia (3,000 years), the thriving civilization of ancient Egypt was

strikingly successful for two reasons: 1) The Nile River, which brought abundant

water to the otherwise parched lands of the region; and 2) the billions of earthworms

that converted the annual deposit of silt and organic matter, brought down by the

annual floods into the richest food-producing soil anywhere. Those Egyptian worms

are thought to be the founding stock of the night crawlers that slowly spread

throughout Europe and eventually came to the Western Hemisphere with the early

settlers (Burton and Burton, 2002).

Photo 1.1. Rich fertile soil of

the Nile Delta

enables wide variety

of crops to be

grown.

Source: Author

1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms

The diversity of earthworm community is influenced by the characteristics of soil,

climate and organic resources of the locality as well as history of land use. The

species poor communities are characterized by extreme soil conditions such as low

pH, poor fertility, low fertility litter or a high degree of soil disturbance. The most

significant soil factors affecting the distribution of different species of earthworm are

the C/N ratio, pH and contents of Al, Ca, Mg, organic matter, silt and coarse sand

(Ghafoor et al., 2008).

Europe is the original home of some of most common and productive earthworm

species: Lumbricus rubellus (the red worm or red wiggler); Eisenia foetida (the

brandling, manure worm or tiger worm); Lumbricus terrestris (the common night

crawler); and Allolobophora ealignosa (the field worm). The first two species are the

major „„earthworms of commerce, whose ideal living environments are manure or

compost heaps. The night crawler and field worms, on the other hand, both prefer

grasslands and woodland margins. The main types in Egypt are Alma nilotico and A.

stuhlmannt. Details of distribution of types will be discussed later in this chapter.

Over 3500 earthworm species have been described worldwide, and it is estimated that

further surveys will reveal this number to be much larger. Distinct taxonomic groups

of earthworms have arisen on every continent except Antarctica, and, through human

transport, some groups have been distributed worldwide (Hendrix and Bohlen, 2002).

Earthworms are classified within the phylum Annelida, class Clitellata, subclass

Oligochaeta, order Opisthophora. There are 16 families worldwide (Table 1.1). Six of

5

these families (cohort Aquamegadrili plus suborder Alluroidina) comprise aquatic or

semiaquatic worms, whereas the other 10 (cohort Terrimegadrili) consist of the

terrestrial forms commonly known as earthworms. Two families (Lutodrilidae and

Komarekionidae, both monospecific) and genera from three or four others

(Sparganophilidae, Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae, and possibly Ocnerodrilidae) are

Nearctic.

No native earthworms have been reported from Canada east of the Pacific Northwest

or from Alaska or Hawaii, although exotic species now occur in all of these regions.

Native earthworms in the families Ocnerodrilidae, Glossoscolecidae, and

Megascolecidae occur in Mexico and the Caribbean islands.

Table 1.1. Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) and their regions of

origin.

Family Region of origin

Limicolous or aquatic

Alluroididae

Syngenodrilidae

Sparganophilidae

Biwadrilidae

Almidae

Lutodrilidae

Terrestrial

Ocnerodrilidae

Eudrilidae

Kynotidae

Komarekionidae

Ailoscolecidae

Microchaetidae

Hormogastridae

Glossoscolecidae

Lumbricidae

Megascolecidae

AF, SA

AF

NA, EU

JA

EU, AF, SA, AS

NA

SA, CA, AF, AS, MA

AF

MA

NA

EU

AF

ME

SA, CA

NA, EU

NA, CA, SA, OC, AS, AF, MA

Note: AF = Africa, AS = Asia, CA = Central America,

EU = Europe, JA = Japan, MA = Madagascar, ME = Mediteranean,

NA = North America, OC = Oceania, SA = South America

Source: Hendrix and Bohlen (2002)

6

1.3. Types of earthworms

Earthworm is a common polyphagous annelid and plays an important role in the soil

ecosystem.

Although all species of earthworms contribute to the breakdown of plant-derived

organic matter, they differ in the ways by which they degrade organic matter.

According to their habitat types and ecological functions, earthworms can be divided

into three types: the anecic, the endogeic, and the epigeic.

Anecic (Greek for “out of the earth”) – these are burrowing worms that come to the

surface at night to drag food down into their permanent burrows deep within the

mineral layers of the soil. Example: the Canadian Night crawler (Munroe, 2007).

These species are of primary importance in pedogenesis.

Endogeic (Greek for “within the earth”) – these are also burrowing worms but their

burrows are typically more shallow. Such species are limited mainly to the plant

litter layer on the soil surface, composed of decaying organic matter or wood, and

seldom penetrate soil more than superficially. The main role of these species

seems to be shredding of the organic matter into fine particles, which facilitates

increased microbial activity.

Epigeic (Greek for “upon the earth”), they are limited to living in organic materials

and cannot survive long in soil; these species are commonly used in vermiculture

and vermicomposting. All earthworm species depend on consuming organic

matter in some form, and they play an important role, mainly by promoting

microbial activity in various stages of organic matter decomposition, which

eventually includes humification into complex and stable amorphous colloids

containing phenolic materials. An example is Eisenia fetida, commonly known as

(partial list only): the “compost worm”, “manure worm”, “redworm”, and “red

wiggler”. This extremely tough and adaptable worm is indigenous to most parts of

the world.

1.4. Vermicomposting species

To consider a species to be suitable for use in vermicomposting, it should possess

certain specific biological and ecological characteristics, i.e., an ability for colonizing

organic wastes naturally; high rates of organic matter consumption, digestion and

assimilation of organic matter, able to tolerate a wide range of environmental factors;

have high reproduction rate, producing large numbers of cocoons that should not have

a long hatching time, and their growth and maturation rates from hatchling to adult

individual should be rapid. It should be strong, resistant and survive handling. Not too

many species of earth worm have all these characteristics.

Those species used in vermiculture around the world are mainly “litter” species that

include, but are not limited to: Eisenia fetida “Tiger Worm”, as mentioned earlier, and

its sibling species E. andrei “Red Tiger Worm”; Perionyx excavatus “Indian Blue”;

Eudrilus eugeniae “African Nightcrawler”; Amynthas corticis) and A. gracilis

“Pheretimas” (formerly known a P. hawayana); Eisenia hortensis and Eisenia veneta

“European Nightcrawlers”; Lampito mauritii “Mauritius Worm”.

7

Additional species used in Australia are Anisochaeta buckerfieldi, Anisochaeta spp.

and Dichogaster spp.

Other worm species involved in vermicomposting are of Family Enchytraeidae

(enchytraeid or pot worms), microdriles (small „aquatic‟ worms), free-living

nematodes (roundworms) (Blakemore, 2000).

In recent years, interactions of earthworms with microorganisms in degrading organic

matter have been used commercially in systems designed to dispose agricultural and

urban organic wastes and convert these materials into valuable soil amendments for

crop production. Commercial enterprises processing wastes in this way are expanding

worldwide and diverting organic wastes from more expensive and environmentally

harmful ways of disposal, such as incinerators and landfills (Padmavathiamma et al.,

2008).

1.5. Native earthworm species in Egypt

The Nile basin is subdivided into three Obligataete subregions: the main (Lower)

Nile, from the Delta to Kartoum (Characterized by Alma nilotico and A. stuhlmannt),

the Upper Nile from Kartoum to Centeral and East Africa (Characterized by A. emini),

and the Ethiopian subregion (Characterized by Eudrilus).

In Egypt Species and locations newly investigated include Allolboplora

(Aporrectodea) caliginosa, associated with the aquatic Eiseniella tetraedra in spring

near the St. Catherine monastery in South Sinai, and Allolboplora (Aporrectodea)

rosea (Eisenia rosea) on the slops of the Mountain of Moses, and near Monastery.

Allolobophoru jassyensis is found in the Delta and Eiseniella tetraedra in Sinai

(Ghabbour, 2009).

The scarcity of earthworm in Egyptian soils is mostly attributable to the aridity of the

climate and to the fact that the majority of cultivated land is under the plough (arable).

In an arid, almost rainless country like Egypt, earth worm, which are highly sensitive

to water loss, cannot move easily from a less to a more favorable place in or on dry

ground. Earthworms are scarce in Egypt because of acreage of favorable soils (e.g.

orchards and forest) is very small. Moreover, in other places (e.g. arable land soils)

the favorable conditions are transient. These favorable conditions are:

1. An undisturbed soil.

2. A regular and adequate water supply.

3. A fine soil texture (to raise the availability of water).

4. A regular and adequate supply of organic matter.

There are several well known species in Egypt, such as Aporrectodea caliginoosa that

can survive in sand dunes soils but numbers decreased with increased proportions of

gravel and sand.

Quantitative sampling for earthworms by hand-sorting was carried out in fourteen

localities in Beheira Governorate and adjacent areas by El-Duweini and Ghabbour

(1965). They collected five different species: 1- Gordiodrilus sp., 2- Pheretima

califonica ; 3-Pheretima Elongate; 4- Allolbophora caliginoosa f. trapezoids and 5-

Eisenia rosea f. Biomastoides. A number of juvenile lumbrivids found in cattle

8

enclosure could not be ascribed with certainty to either of the latter two species and

are therefore recorded separately.

1.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting

Vermiculture is the process of breeding worms. Growers usually pay for their

feedstock, and the worm castings are often considered a waste product. Vermiculture

is the culture of earthworms. The goal is to continually increase the number of worms

in order to obtain a sustainable harvest. The worms are either used to expand a

vermicomposting operation or sold to customers who use them for the same or other

purposes.

Vermicomposting, is a simple biotechnological process of composting, "Vermi" is a

Latin word meaning "worm" and thus, vermicomposting is composting with the aid of

worms, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of

waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicomposting differs from

composting in several ways. It is a mesophilic process, utilizing microorganisms and

earthworms that are active at 10–32°C (not ambient temperature but temperature

within the pile of moist organic material). The process is faster than composting;

because the material passes through the earthworm gut, a significant but not yet fully

understood transformation takes place, whereby the resulting earthworm castings

(worm manure) are rich in microbial activity and plant growth regulators, and fortified

with pest repellence attributes as well (Munroe, 2007). In short, earthworms, through

a type of biological alchemy, are capable of transforming garbage into valuable

material (Nagavallemma et al., 2004). The ultimate goal of vermicomposting is to

produce vermicompost as quickly and efficiently as possible. If the goal is to produce

vermicompost, maximum worm population density needs to be maintained all of the

time. If the goal is to produce worms, population density needs to be kept low enough

that reproductive rates are optimized.

It is known that many extracellular enzymes can become bound to humic matter

during a composting or a vermicomposting process, regardless of the type of organic

matter used, but knowledge of the chemical and biochemical properties of such

extracellular enzymes is very scanty (Benítez et al., 2000).

Vermitechnology has been promoted as an eco-biotechnological tool to manage

organic wastes generated from different sources (Suthar, 2010).

Vermicast, similarly known as worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is

the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by a species of earthworm.

Vermicast is very important to the fertility of the soil. The castings contain high

amounts of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. Castings

contain: 5 times the available nitrogen, 7 times the available potash, and 1½ times

more calcium than found in good topsoil. It has excellent aeration, porosity, structure,

drainage, and moisture-holding capacity. Vermicast can hold close to nine times their

weight in water. It is a very good fertilizer, growth promoter and helps inducing

flowering and fruit-bearing in higher plants. This can even help plants to get rid of

pests and diseases (Venkatesh and Eevera, 2008 ).

9

1.7. Compost vs. vermicompost

Composting, generally defined as the biological aerobic transformation of an organic

byproduct into a different organic product that can be added to the soil without

detrimental effects on crop growth, has been indicated as the most adequate method

for pre-treating and managing organic wastes. In the process of composting, organic

wastes are recycled into stabilized products that can be applied to the soil as an

odorless and relatively dry source of organic matter, which would respond more

efficiently and safely than the fresh material to soil organic fertility requirements. The

conventional and most traditional method of composting consists of an accelerated

biooxydation of the organic matter as it passes through a thermophilic stage (45° to

65°C) where microorganisms liberate heat, carbon dioxide and water.

Vermicomposts contain nutrients in forms that are readily taken up by the plants such

as nitrates, exchangeable phosphorus, and soluble potassium, calcium, and

magnesium. Vermicomposts should have a great potential in the horticultural and

agricultural industries as media for plant growth. Vermicomposts, whether used as

soil additives or as components of horticultural media, improved seed germination

and enhanced rates of seedling growth and development.

However, composting and vermicomposting are quite distinct processes, particularly

concerning the optimum temperatures for each process and the types of microbial

communities that predominate during active processing (i.e. thermophilic bacteria in

composting, mesophilic bacteria and fungi in vermicomposting). The wastes

processed by the two systems are also quite different. Vermicomposts have a much

finer structure than composts and contain nutrients in forms that are readily available

for plant uptake. There have also been reports of production of plant growth

regulators in the vermicomposts. Therefore, it was hypothesized that there should be

considerable differences in the performances and effects of composts and

vermicomposts on plant growth when used as soil amendments or as components of

horticultural plant growth media (Atiyeh et al., 2000).

10

2. Trial of vermiculture and vermicomposting implementation in Egypt

The historical background, geographic distribution of earth worms, types of

earthworms, native earthworm species, formal definitions of vermiculture and

vermicomposting, and a comparison between compost and vermicompost were

introduced in the previous chapter. This chapter deals with the physical requirements

of vermiculture and vermicompost, and ends by the implementation trial of both

vermiculture and vermicompost in Egypt, including all details of this trial.

2.1. Principle of vermiculture and vermicomposting

Compost worms need five basic principles: a hospitable living environment, usually

called “bedding”, a food source, adequate moisture (greater than 50% water content

by weight), adequate aeration, and protection from temperature extremes. These five

essentials are discussed below in more details according to Munroe (2007).

2.1.1. Bedding

Bedding is any material that provides the worms with a relatively stable habitat. This

habitat must have the following characteristics:

- High absorbency. Worms breathe through their skins and therefore must have a

moist environment in which to live. If a worm‟s skin dries out, it dies. The bedding

must be able to absorb and retain water fairly well if the worms are to thrive.

- Good bulking potential. If the material is too dense to begin with, or packs too

tightly, then the flow of air is reduced or eliminated. Worms require oxygen to live,

just as we do. Different materials affect the overall porosity of the bedding through

a variety of factors, including the range of particle size and shape, the texture, and

the strength and rigidity of its structure.

- Low protein and/or nitrogen content (high carbon: nitrogen ratio). Although the

worms do consume their bedding as it breaks down, it is very important that this be

a slow process. High protein/nitrogen levels can result in rapid degradation and its

associated heating, creating inhospitable, often fatal, conditions. Heating can occur

safely in the food layers of the vermiculture or vermicomposting system, but not in

the bedding.

Some materials make good beddings all by themselves, while others lack one or more

of the above characteristics and need to be used in various combinations. Table 2.1

provides a list of some of the most commonly used beddings and provides some input

regarding each material‟s absorbency, bulking potential, and carbon to nitrogen (C:N)

ratios.

11

Table 2.1. Common Bedding Materials:

Bedding Material Absorbency Bulking Pot. C:N Ratio

Horse Manure Medium-Good Good 22 - 56

Peat Moss Good Medium 58

Corn Silage Medium-Good Medium 38 - 43

Hay – general Poor Medium 15 - 32

Straw – general Poor Medium-Good 48 - 150

Straw – oat Poor Medium 48 - 98

Straw – wheat Poor Medium-Good 100 - 150

Paper from municipal waste stream Medium-Good Medium 127 - 178

Newspaper Good Medium 170

Bark – hardwoods Poor Good 116 - 436

Bark -- softwoods Poor Good 131 - 1285

Corrugated cardboard Good Medium 563

Lumber mill waste -- chipped Poor Good 170

Paper fiber sludge Medium-Good Medium 250

Paper mill sludge Good Medium 54

Sawdust Poor-Medium Poor-Medium 142 - 750

Shrub trimmings Poor Good 53

Hardwood chips, shavings Poor Good 451 - 819

Softwood chips, shavings Poor Good 212 - 1313

Leaves (dry, loose) Poor-Medium Poor-Medium 40 - 80

Corn stalks Poor Good 60 - 73

Corn cobs Poor-Medium Good 56 - 123

Source: Munroe (2007).

Researchers in Canada made an experiment to determine the feasibility of mixing

municipally generated fiber wastes (e.g., non-recyclable paper, corrugated cardboard,

and boxboard) with farm wastes (animal manures) and processing the mixture with

worms (large-scale vermiculture) to produce a commercially viable compost product

for farms. The results show that the greatest worm population increases were in the

pure shredded cardboard or in the high-fiber-content cow-manure mixes, but that

biomass changes were more positive in the chicken-manure series (GEORG, 2004).

2.1.2. Worm Food

Compost worms are big eaters. Under ideal conditions, they are able to consume more

than their body weight each day, although the general rule-of-thumb is ½ of their

body weight per day. Table 2.2 summarizes the most important attributes of some

worm food that could be used in an on-farm vermicomposting or vermiculture

operation.

12

Table 2.2. Advantages and disadvantages of different types of feed.

Food Advantages Disadvantages Notes

Cattle manure

Good nutrition; natural

food, therefore little

adaptation required.

Weed seeds make

pre-composting

necessary.

All manures are partially

decomposed and thus ready

for consumption by worms.

Poultry

manure

High N content results

in good nutrition and a

high value product.

High protein levels

can be dangerous to

worms, so must be

used in small

quantities; major

adaptation required

for worms not used to

this feedstock. May

be precomposted but

not necessary if used

cautiously.

Some books suggest that

poultry manure is not

suitable for worms because

it is so “hot”; however,

research in has shown that

worms can adapt if initial

proportion of PM to

bedding is 10% by volume

or less.

Sheep/Goat

manure

Good nutrition. Require

precomposting (weed

seeds); small particle

size can lead to

packing, necessitating

extra bulking

material.

With right additives to

increase C:N ratio, these

manures are also good

beddings

Rabbit manure N content second only

to poultry manure,

therefore good

nutrition; contains

very good mix of

vitamins & minerals;

ideal earthworm feed.

Must be leached prior

to use because of high

urine content; can

overheat if quantities

too large; availability

usually not good

Many U.S. rabbit growers

place earthworm beds

under their rabbit hutches

to catch the pellets as they

drop through the wire mesh

cage floors.

Fresh food

scraps (e.g.,

peels, other

food prep

waste,

leftovers,

commercial

food

processing

wastes)

Excellent nutrition,

good moisture content,

possibility of revenues

from waste tipping

fees.

Extremely variable

(depending on

source); high N can

result in heating; meat

& high-fat wastes can

create anaerobic

conditions and odors,

attract pests, so

should not be

included without

precomposting.

Some food wastes are

much better than others:

coffee grounds are

excellent, as they are high

in N, not greasy or smelly,

and are attractive to

worms; alternatively, root

vegetables (e.g., potato

culls) resist degradation

and require a long time to

be consumed.

Precomposted

food wastes

Good nutrition; partial

decomposition makes

digestion by worms

easier and faster; can

include meat and other

greasy wastes; less

tendency to overheat.

Nutrition less than

with fresh food

wastes.

Vermicomposting can

speed the curing process

for conventional

composting operations

while increasing value of

end product.

13

Food Advantages Disadvantages Notes

Bio-solids

(human

waste)

Excellent nutrition

and excellent product;

can be activated or

non-activated sludge,

septic sludge;

possibility of waste

management revenues

Heavy metal and/or

chemical

contamination (if

from municipal

sources); odor during

application to beds

(worms control fairly

quickly); possibility

of pathogen survival

if process not

complete

Vermitech Pty Ltd. in

Australia has been very

successful with this

process, but they use

automated systems; EPA-

funded tests in Florida

demonstrated that worms

destroy human pathogens

as well as does

thermophillic composting

(Eastman et al., 2001).

Seaweed Good nutrition; results

in excellent product,

high in micronutrients

and beneficial

microbes

Salt must be rinsed

off, as it is

detrimental to worms;

availability

varies by region

Beef farmer in Antigonish,

Nova Scotia, Canada, are

producing certified organic

vermicompost from cattle

manure, bark, and seaweed

Legume hays Higher N content

makes these good feed

as well as reasonable

bedding.

Moisture levels not as

high as other feeds,

requires more input

and monitoring

Probably best to mix this

feed with others, such as

manures

Grains (e.g.,

feed mixtures

for

animals, such

as chicken

mash)

Excellent, balanced

nutrition, easy to

handle, no odor, can

use organic grains for

certified organic

product.

Higher value than

most feeds, therefore

expensive to use; low

moisture content;

some larger seeds

hard to digest and

slow to break down

Danger: Worms consume

grains but cannot digest

larger, tougher kernels;

these are passed in castings

and build up in bedding,

resulting in sudden

overheating.

Corrugated

cardboard

(including

Waxed)

Excellent nutrition

(due to high protein

glue used to hold

layers together);

worms like this

material; possible

revenue source from

WM fees

Must be shredded

(waxed variety)

and/or soaked (non-

waxed) prior to

feeding

Some worm growers claim

that corrugated cardboard

stimulates worm

reproduction

Fish, poultry

offal; blood

wastes; animal

mortalities

High N content

provides good

nutrition; opportunity

to turn problematic

wastes into high-

quality product

Must be

precomposted until

past Thermophillic

stage

Composting of offal, blood

wastes, etc. is difficult and

produces strong odors.

Should only be done with

in- vessel systems; much

bulking required. Source: Munroe (2007).

14

2.1.3. Moisture

The bedding used must be able to hold sufficient moisture if the worms are to have a

livable environment. Earthworms do not have specialized breathing devices. They

breathe through their skin, which needs to remain moist to facilitate respiration. Like

their aquatic ancestors, earthworms can live for months completely submerged in

water, and they will die if they dry out (Sherman, 2003). The ideal moisture-content

range for materials in conventional composting systems is 45-60%. In contrast, the

ideal moisture-content range for vermicomposting or vermiculture processes is 70-

90%. Within this broad range, researchers have found slightly different optimums:

Dominguez and Edwards (1997) found that there is a direct relationship between the

moisture content and the growth rate of earthworms. E. andrei cultured in pig manure

grew and matured between 65 and 90% moisture content, the optimum being 85%.

Until 85% moisture, the higher moisture conditions clearly facilitated growth, as

measured by the increase in biomass. Increased moisture up to 90% clearly

accelerated the development of sexual maturity, whereas not all the worms at 65-75%

developed a clitellum even after 44 days. Additionally, earthworms at sexual maturity

had greater biomass at higher moisture contents compared to worms grown at lower

moisture contents. Canadian researchers in Nova Scotia tested moisture contents with

different bedding materials, i.e. organic materials included shredded corrugated

cardboard, waxed corrugated cardboard, immature municipal solid waste compost,

biosolids (sewage sludge), chicken manure and dairy cow manure in a variety of

combinations. They found that 75-80% moisture contents produced the best growth

and reproductive response (GEORG, 2004).

The moisture content preferences of juvenile and clitellate cocoon-producing (adult)

E. fetida in separated cow manure have been investigated. It ranged from 50% to 80%

for adults, but juvenile earthworms had a narrower range of suitable moisture levels

from 65% to 70%. Clitellum development occurred in earthworms at a moisture

content from 60% to 70% but occurred later at a moisture content from 55% to 60%.

The tolerance limit for low moisture conditions on the growth of E. fetida was

reported to be below 50% for up to 1 month (Reinecke and Venter, 1987). While

Gunadi et al. (2003) found that the earthworm growth rate was fastest in the separated

cattle manure solids with a moisture content of 90% with a maximum mean weight of

earthworms of 600 mg after 12 weeks. The slowest growth rate of E. fetida was in the

separated cattle manure solids at a moisture content of 70%.

2.1.4. Aeration

Worms require oxygen and cannot survive anaerobic conditions (very low or absence

of oxygen). When factors such as high levels of grease in the feedstock or excessive

moisture combined with poor aeration conspire to cut off oxygen supplies, areas of

the worm bed, or even the entire system, can become anaerobic. This will kill the

worms very quickly. Not only are the worms deprived of oxygen, they are also killed

by toxic substances (e.g., ammonia) created by different sets of microbes that bloom

under these conditions. This is one of the main reasons for not including meat or other

greasy wastes in worm feedstock unless they have been pre-composted to break down

the oils and fats.

15

2.1.5. Temperature control

Controlling temperature to within the worms‟ tolerance is vital to both

vermicomposting and vermiculture processes.

2.1.5.1. Low temperatures

Eisenia can survive in temperatures as low as 0oC, but they don‟t reproduce at single-

digit temperatures and they don‟t consume as much food. It is generally considered

necessary to keep the temperatures above 10oC (minimum) and preferably 15

oC for

vermicomposting efficiency and above 15oC (minimum) and preferably 20

oC for

productive vermiculture operations.

2.1.5.2. Effects of freezing

Eisenia can survive having their bodies partially encased in frozen bedding and will

only die when they are no longer able to consume food. Moreover, tests at the Nova

Scotia Agricultural College (NSAC) have confirmed that their cocoons survive

extended periods of deep freezing and remain viable (GEORG, 2004).

2.1.5.3. High temperatures

Compost worms can survive temperatures in the mid-30s but prefer a range in the 20s

(oC). Above 35

oC will cause the worms to leave the area. If they cannot leave, they

will quickly die. In general, warmer temperatures (above 20oC) stimulate

reproduction.

Hou et al. (2005) studied the influence of some environmental parameters on the

growth and survival of earthworms in municipal solid waste. Earthworms attained the

highest growth rate of 0.0459g / g-day at a temperature of 19.7˚C. The shortest growth

period was 52 days at 25˚C, with the largest growth rate 0.0138 g /g-day. At 15˚C,

20˚C and 25˚C, the fastest growth rate appeared, respectively, in 53 days, 34 days and

27 days, with the growth rate 0.0068, 0.0123 and 0.0138 g /g-day.

Activities in all soil organisms follow a typical seasonal fluctuation. This cycle is

related to optimal temperature and moisture, such that a peak in activity usually

occurs in the spring as temperature and moisture become optimal after cold winter

temperatures. In systems where snow accumulates on the soil surface, such that the

soil does not actually freeze, fungal activity may continue at high levels throughout

the winter in litter. Decomposition may continue at the highest rates through the

winter under the snow in the litter. In systems where moisture becomes limiting in the

summer, activity may reach levels even lower than in the winter. When temperatures

remain warm in the fall and rain begins again after a summer drought, such as in

Mediterranean climates, a second peak of activity may be observed in the fall. If these

peaks are not observed, this suggests inadequate organic matter in the soil.

16

The growth of E. fetida in organic matter substrates with different moisture

contents and temperatures has been studied by various authors in the laboratory. This

species gained weight maximally and survived best at temperatures between 20˚C

and 29˚C and moisture contents between 70% and 85% in horse manure and activated

sludge (Kaplan et al., 1980). Edwards (1988) reported that the optimum growth of E.

fetida in different animal and vegetable wastes occurred at 25-30˚C and at a moisture

content range of 75-90%, but these factors could vary in different substrates.

2.1.5.4. Worms‟s response to temperature differentials.

Compost worms will redistribute themselves within piles, beds or windrows

according to temperature gradients. In outdoor composting windrows in wintertime,

where internal heat from decomposition is in contrast to frigid external temperatures,

the worms will be found in a relatively narrow band at a depth where the temperature

is close to optimum. They will also be found in much greater numbers on the south

facing side of windrows in the winter and on the opposite side in the summer.

Edwards (1988) studied the life cycles and optimal conditions for survival and growth

of E. fetida, D. veneta, E. eugeniae, and P. excavatus. Each of these four species

differed considerably in terms of their responses and tolerance to different

temperatures. The optimum temperature for E. fetida was 25 °C, and its temperature

tolerance was between 0 and 35°C. Dendrobaena veneta had a rather low temperature

optimum and rather less tolerance to extreme temperatures. The optimum

temperatures for E. eugeniae and P. excavatus were around 25 °C, but they died at

temperatures below 9°C and above 30°C. Optimal temperatures for cocoon

production were much lower than those for growth for all these species.

2.2. Methods of vermicomposting

2.2.1. Pits below the ground

Pit of any convenient dimension can be constructed in the backyard or garden or

in a field. It may be single pit, two pits or tank of any sizes with brick and mortar with

proper water outlets. The most convenient pit or chamber of easily manageable size is

2m x 1m x 0.75m. The size of the pits and chambers should be determined according

to the volume of biomass and agricultural waste. To combat the ants from attacking

the worms, it is good to have a water column in the centre of the parapet wall of the

vermin-pits.

Photo 2.1.

Open Pit Vermicomposting

Source: Kirungakottai

(http://www.icasaweb.google.com)

17

2.2.2. Heaping above the ground

The waste material is spread on a polythene sheet placed on the ground and then

covered with cattle dung. Sunitha et al. (1997) compared the efficacy of pit and heap

methods of preparing vermicompost under field conditions. Considering the

biodegradation of wastes as the criterion, the heap method of preparing vermicompost

was better than the pit method. Earthworm population was high in the heap method,

with a 21-fold increase in Eudrilus eugenae as compared to 17-fold increase in the pit

method. Biomass production was also higher in the heap method (46-fold increase)

than in the pit method (31-fold). Consequent production of vermicompost was also

higher in the heap method (51 kg) than in the pit method (40 kg). On the contrary,

Saini (2008) compared the efficacy of pit and heap methods under field conditions

over three seasons (winter, summer and rainy) using, Eisenia fetida. A pit size of 2 ×

0.5 × 0.6 m (length × width × depth); and heap of size 2 × 0.6 × 0.5 m (length × width

× hight) were prepared with the same amount of mixture. The pits and heaps were

made under shady trees, in open field having a temporary shed made of straw, raised

on pillars, to prevent them from direct sunlight and rainfall. The pits had brick linings

and plastered bottoms. The pits and heaps carrying the organic waste mixture were

covered with gunny bags and were watered at 10 liter/pit or heap daily, except on

rainy days, to maintain moisture. On the basis of the results of three seasons, it was

concluded that summer and winter were better for the pit method, whereas the rainy

season favored the heap method for vermicomposting, utilizing Eisenia fetida.

However, if the annual performance of the two methods is compared, the pit method

produced more worms and more biomass. Therefore, on the latter grounds, the pit

method of vermicomposting is more suitable than the heap method in the semi-arid

sub-tropical regions of North-West India.

Photo 2.2.

Open heap vermicomposting

Source: Department of Agriculture,

Andaman & Nicobar:

(http://agri.and.nic.in/vermi_culture.htm)

2.2.3. Tanks above the ground

Tanks made up of different materials such as normal bricks, hollow bricks, local

stones, asbestos sheets and locally available rocks were evaluated for vermicompost

preparation (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

18

Photo 2.3.

Commercial vermicompost operation

at KCDC Bangalore, India.

Source: Basavaiah (2006)

2.2.4. Cement rings

Vermicompost can also be prepared above the ground by using cement rings. The size

of the cement ring should be 90 cm in diameter and 30 cm in height (Nagavallemma et

al., 2004).

Photo 2.4.

Cement ring

vermicomposting.

Source: Nagavallemma et al.

(2004)

2.2.5. Commercial model

This model contains partition walls with small holes to facilitate easy movement

of earthworms from one chamber to another (Figure 2.1). Providing an outlet at one

corner of each chamber with a slight slope facilitates collection of excess water. The

four components are filled with plant residues one after another. Once the first

chamber is filled layer by layer along with cow dung, earthworms are released. Then

the second chamber is started filling layer by layer. Once the contents in first chamber

are decomposed the earthworms move to the chamber 2, which is already filled and

ready for earthworms. This facilitates harvesting of decomposed material from the

first chamber and also saves labor for harvesting and introducing earthworms. This

technology reduces labor cost and saves water as well as time (Twomlow, 2004).

Water is saved by reducing evaporation from the surface during handling from one

room to another in limited distances with minimum exposure to drier air outside.

Tanks can be constructed with the dimensions suitable for operations. with small

holes to facilitate easy movement of earthworms from one tank to the other.

19

Photo 2.5. Commercial vermicomposting unit

Source: Ecoscience

Research Foundation:

(http://www.erfindia.org)

Vermicomposting based on the use of worms results in high quality compost. The

process does not require physical turning of the material. To maintain aerobic

conditions and limit the temperature rise, the bed or pile of materials needs to be of

limited size. Temperatures should be regulated so as to favour growth and activity of

worms. Composting period is longer as compared to other rapid methods and varies

between six to twelve weeks.

Figure 2.1.

Commercial model of

vermicomposting

developed by

ICRISAT.

Source: Twomlow,

2004.

20

2.3. The trial experience in Egypt

2.3. 1. Earthworm types used:

Four types of earthworms were brought to Egypt from Australia. from Australia:

Lumbriscus Rubellus (Red Worm), Eisenia Fetida (Tiger Worm), Perionyx Excavatus

(Indian Blue), and Eudrilus Eugeniae (African Night Crawler).

2.3.2. Bedding

Two types of vermiculture were used. The first was aiming at increasing the

population and known as breeding vermiculture. The other type is the growing system

aiming at converting organic matter into vermicompost.

Commercially available perforated plastic containers, generally used for harvesting

fruits and vegetables, each has the dimensions of 30cm wide, 50cm long and 20cm

height were used for the breeding system. The first 5cm from the bottom was lined by

a mixture of 2/3 shredded cardboard and 1/3 shredded newspaper, as bedding

material. The cardboard and newspaper were wetted in a bucket of water; and

allowing the excess water to run out before using. The next layer was 5cm of pH

neutral castings spread evenly, then 1-2kg/m² of adult worms was supplied. Every 1-2

days, 1-2kg of old manure was added. The surface was covered by 5cm shredded

newspaper to keep moisture.

The growing system was made of brick, with the dimensions 1m width, 0.5m height,

and 3m long, and 0.5m between beds. The bottom of the beds was insulated by 20cm

cement layer with a slight slope in order to facilitate collection of leachate (Photo

2.7).

The sequence of layers for the growing beds was the same as the breeding system

except that the base of the bed was 10cm of cardboard/newspaper moist mixture, and

the worms spread over the surface were the juvenile worms only.

Photo 2.6.

Earthworms used in

Egypt

Source: Auther

21

Photo 2.7. Trial vermicompost set up at

Dokki.

Source: Author

2.3.3. Food

For the feeding of the breeding boxes, a mixture of rabbit manure and fresh kitchen

scraps (citrus not more than 1/3 of food scraps) were used. The feed was mixed well

in the mixing unit until it resembles dairy slurry. This was added in one strip along

lengthwise wall in a maximum 5cm thick and 10cm wide. The feed was supplied

again only when first strip is finished, and the new feed is added along opposite wall.

As for the growing beds, the feed varies over time. Potato wastes from the

manufacturers as potato peels were brought into the site to be dried and used as

needed. Plant wastes from the location were shredded and mixed with animal manure

to be composted for 1-2 weeks. This semi-composted material was the base feed that

goes to the mixing unit with available fruits and vegetable wastes were brought from

the nearby shops. The feed mixture was spread evenly on the surface of the beds.

Photo 2.8. Mixture of food wastes and shredded

plant material ready to be mixed in the

rotating machine.

Source: Author

In order to facilitate the work, a shredding machine was manufactured locally (Photo

2.9) to prepare large plant material before mixed with other fruit or vegetable wastes

using a rotating mixing machine.

22

Photo 2.9. The locally manufactured shredding

machine.

Source: Author

2.3.4. Moisture

The rule of thump is to check manually for moisture on a daily basis to ensure that is

not too dry, and when watering it is important not to make it too wet. Only fresh water

was used. The breeding boxes were rearranged to make the first on the top to become

the first from the bottom in order to avoid moisture variations between the boxes.

The instructions were:

- Water little and often – only the newspaper on the surface should be wet.

- Water after checking the bed surface – if already damp, skip one watering.

- Water should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation.

- Use a spray or mist, not jets of water.

2.3.5. Aeration

The aeration was maintained as the bottom of beds or boxes has sufficient bedding

material, and the surface is only shredded newspaper. The aeration could be a

problem mainly if watering is not done properly leading to too wet conditions.

Only the newspaper on the surface should be wet, and as mentioned earlier, water

should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation. Beds

must be mixed if:

- The bed smells bad.

- The bed is too wet.

- The bed is hot or lukewarm to touch.

- The worms are not distributed evenly on the surface.

- The section of bed turned only when there is no food on the surface of

the bed, and to a depth of 10-15cm only.

23

2.3.6. Temperature

The location of the growing beds was selected in order to avoid strong winds. A

shading roof made of reed mats was installed in order to prevent direct solar radiation

over the beds in summer. The mats were removed during the winter.

Narrower mats were used to cover the beds, as they shade the growing beds, and also

protect from birds, cats or dogs.

The breeding boxes were laid under grape vines grown in a shaded greenhouse. In

winter, the vines were pruned allowing sun to penetrate, while in summer the shading

screens and the shade of the green leaves of the vines were pleasant, not only

temperature wise, but also moisture as well. No other temperature control measures

were used and this made growing and breeding conditions maintained stable over both

summer and winter without major reduction in worms‟ activities. Temperatures

maintained by daily checking. The general practice was to turn the beds or boxes

when conditions were not suitable. When a bed is hot or lukewarm to touch, it must

be mixed gently in order to allow air flow between the layers. In such cases,

precomposted food must be used to prevent over heating from organic matter

decomposition. It should be remembered that earth worms move from one side to

another horizontally, and from the bottom to be close to surface and close or far from

the food according to the comfortable combination of moisture and humidity. In such

dynamic situations, temperature varies over time of the day, season, type of organic

material, the covering material, as well as uniformity of the beds.

Photo 2.10.

The shaded growing beds at Dokki

greenhouse station.

Source: Author

2.3.7 Harvesting

Harvesting is an important procedure for the success of vermiculture operations.

Regardless of the harvesting target, it should be done quickly and simply. The target

of harvest could be castings, adult worms or babies and eggs.

a- Harvesting castings is performed according to the following steps:

- Selecting a growing bed.

24

- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure along each side of bed.

- Waiting 1-2 days

- Scooping out from the centre of the bed some castings.

- Checking for eggs and worms – these should be very limited.

- Collecting castings from centre of bed.

- Spreading castings to dry.

- When castings clump and crumble, pack into plastic bags with pin-

prick holes

Photo 2. 11. Harvesting of

castings.

source: Basavaiah (2006)

b- Harvesting adult worms is performed according to the following steps:

- Selecting a growing bed.

- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure inside 70% shade-cloth along

centre of bed.

- Waiting 1-2 days.

- Collecting worms and castings from side walls.

Photo 2. 12.

Harvested adult worms from the

growing beds.

Source: Author

25

- Checking size of worm – should be approaching reproductive state and

clitellum should be noticeable.

- Placing adult worms in breeding beds.

- Checking castings for eggs - replace in growing bed.

Photo 2. 13.

A couple of adult worms, with clear

clitellum in both of them.

Source: Author

c- Harvesting babies is performed according to the following steps:

- Selecting a breeding bed.

- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure or thin fruit peels (not citrus)

inside 90% shade-cloth along centre of bed.

- Waiting1-2 days.

- Emptying contents straight into growing bed, under newspaper cover.

- Checking for babies that may be caught in shade-cloth.

d- Harvesting eggs is performed according to the following steps:

- Selecting a breeding bed.

- Baiting one side of the bed.

- Wait 1-2 days.

- Scooping out the bed on the opposite side of the bait.

- Checking for adult worms and replace in bed.

- Placing contents directly in growing bed.

- Placing new bedding and food on empty side of breeding bed.

Photo 2.14.

Worm eggs.

Source: Author

26

3. Use of compost worms globally in countries of similar climate

The previous two chapters covered the historical background as well as the trial The

Philippines, Cuba and India are examples of countries with similar overall conditions

to Egypt Their technologies are simple and could be easily adapted to the local

conditions. The United States of America is the model example of advanced

technologies in vermiculture. Such examples will broaden the readers choice with

what could be done in the future. Unfortunately, vermicompost and vermiculture are

very limited in MENA region, Most of the studies look at utilization of local species

to produce vermicompost. For example, Aldadi et al. (2005), Nourbakhsh (2007) and

Yousefi et al. (2009) had some studies in Iran aiming for waste water treatment.

Therefore, the following examples were selected to broaden the picture of commercial

production. One could adapt or modify any of them or even create a newer version.

3.1 Vermicomposting in Philippines

The worms used are Lumbricus rubellus and/or Perionyx excavator. The worms are

reared and multiplied from a commercially-obtained breeder stock in shallow wooden

boxes stored in a shed. The boxes are approximately 45 cm x 60 cm x 20 cm and have

drainage holes; they are stored on shelves in rows and tiers. A bedding material is

compounded from miscellaneous organic residues such as sawdust, cereal straw, rice

husks, bagasse, cardboard and so on, and is moistened well with water. The wet

mixture is stored for about one month, being covered with a damp sack to minimize

evaporation, and is thoroughly mixed several times. When fermentation is complete,

chicken manure and green matter such as water hyacinth is added. The material is

placed in the boxes and should be sufficiently loose for the worms to burrow and

should be able to retain moisture. The proportions of the different materials will vary

according to the nature of the material but a final protein content of about 15% should

be aimed at. A pH value as near neutral as possible is necessary and the boxes should

be kept at temperatures between 20oC and 27

oC. At higher temperatures, the worms

will aestivate and, at lower temperatures, they hibernate. The excess worms that have

been harvested from the pit can be used in other pits, sold to other farmers for the

same purpose, used or sold for use as animal feed supplement, used or sold for use as

fish food or, may even be used in certain human food preparations (Misra and Roy,

2003).

African night crawler was introduced in the Philippines in the 1970s for the

production vermicastings as an organic fertilizer. Its use today remains focused for

this purpose. Recently, with rising cost of imported fishmeal, a study explores on the

commercial farming of the species, specifically on its production economics, and the

technical challenges in husbandry and operation (Cruz, 2005). This project was

funding assistance of the DOST-PCAMRD1 . The site chosen was a flat but slightly

inclining area (around 3%) of approximately 1,000 m2. It is partially shaded by

mahogany trees in the morning and the afternoon. The soil is clay loam with nearly

neutral pH. Water used for the experiment was provided from an adjacent deep well.

1 Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, (Department of Science and

Technology)

27

A total of 8 units of 1 m x 5 m earthworm plots were constructed on bare

ground utilizing roofing material as sidewalls. The sidewalls had a total height of

around 40 cm, of which 3-4 cm was sunk on the ground. Wooden stakes supported

these sidewalls. Each plot was sub-divided into two units of 1 m x 2.5 m beds for ease

of management. The unit was provided with a hapa net lining, to prevent the worms

from digging beneath the substrate and escaping. Plots were covered with a plastic

sheet to protect it from direct sunlight and rain. A horizontal wooden beam stretching

the length of plot and held by vertical poles provided the support for the plastic sheet

cover. Earthworm plots were kept covered with a plastic canopy, and opened only

during inspection or when watering was done.

Photo 3.1.

Earthworm plots showing plastic

covers and support frame

Source: Wormsphilippines.com

Several types of substrates were used in the study; these were sugarcane bagasse,

mudpress, spent mushroom substrate, and cow manure. The plots were watered every

3-6 days, depending on the weather. During the dry months, watering was routinely

done every 3 days.

Based on the data and experience gathered in this study, the cost and return

projection for a larger scale earthworm farm are based on the following key

assumptions:

- 3 full-time workers with a salary of PhP150 (3.33$)/day

- Crop cycle of 60 days (2 months), or 6 production cycles/yr

- Total of 52 units of 2.5 m2 area earthworm plots

- Stocking of 1 bed a day (26 working days a month)

- Harvesting of 1 bed a day (26 working days a month)

- Earthworm stocking biomass of 3 kg/plot and harvest biomass of 9 kg/plot,

fter 60 days (200% biomass gain)

- Total substrate volume of 600 kg/plot/crop cycle based on two 300 kg

loadings

- 70% recovery of vermicastings from total substrate weight

- 20% recovery of vermi-meal from total earthworm biomass

The total operational cost for 52 plots for a 2 month crop cycle is estimated at

PhP80,401.79 (1783.74$), including the cost of equipment depreciation (capital cost

assumed at PhP5,000 per plot, depreciated in 6 crops or 1 year). The total volume of

28

vermicastings produced per crop is 21,840 kg based on a production of 420 kg/plot

(from 600 kg x 70% recovery). The total gross production of earthworm biomass per

crop is 468 kg, based on a yield of 9 kg/plot (from the 3 kg starter and 6 kg of biomass

gain). At the selling price of 0.11$/kg of vermicastings and 0.22$/kg for the

earthworms biomass, gross sales for one crop cycle is estimated at 2356.11$ and

1035.62$, respectively. This would provide the venture a net profit of around 742.73$

every 2 months, and a rate of return of 249.83% annually. The study suggests a

potential for developing the use of earthworms in farm-made moist feeds. Such type

of feed is simple to produce and is proven to work well when properly formulated and

processed. In as much as the production technology for earthworm farming can be

readily adopted at the village level, where organic raw materials abound and where

labor is cheap.

3.2 Vermicomposting in Cuba

In Cuba, different methods are used for worm propagation and vermicomposting. The

first and most common is cement troughs, two feet wide and six feet long, much like

livestock watering troughs, used to raise worms and create worm compost. Because of

the climate, they are watered by hand every day. In these beds, the only feedstock for

the worms is manure, which is aged for about one week before being added to the

trough.

First, a layer of three to four inches of manure is placed in the empty trough, then

worms are added. As the worms consume the manure, more manure is layered on top,

roughly every ten days, until the worm compost reaches within a couple inches of the

top of the trough, about two months. Then the worms are separated from the compost

and transferred to another trough.

The second method of vermicomposting is windrows, where cow manure is piled

about three feet across and three feet wide, and then it is seeded with worms. As the

worms work their way through it, fresh manure is added to the end of the row, and the

worms move forward. The rows are covered with fronds or palm leaves to keep them

shaded and cool. Some of these rows have a drip system - a hose running alongside

the row with holes in it. But mostly, the rows are watered by hand. Some of these

rows are hundreds of feet long. The compost is gathered from the opposite end when

the worms have moved forward. Then it is bagged and sold. Fresh manure, seeded

with worms, begins the row and the process again. Some of the windrows have bricks

running along their sides, but most are simply piles of manure without sides or

protection. Manure is static composted for 30 days, then transferred to rows for

worms to be added. After 90 days, the piles reach three feet high. It has been reported

that worm populations can double in 60 to 90 days.

29

Photo 3.2.

Windrows vermicomposting method:

in Havana, Cuba .

Source: newfarm.org

3.3. Vermicomposting in India

A study on production and marketing of vermicompost was carried out during 2007-

08 in Dharwad District of Karnataka (Shivakumar et al., 2009). The study made an

attempt to analyze the economics of vermicompost production, marketing methods

followed, financial feasibility of vermicomposting and the problems faced in

vermicompost production and marketing in Dharwad District. The players involved in

vermicompost production activities are the farming sector, government organizations,

private organizations and other agencies. This has encouraged many government and

nongovernment agencies to promote vermicompost production. The rough estimates

indicate that Karnataka state produces around 40,000 to 50,000 metric tons annually.

The study pertains to Dharwad district. Two locations of the district, namely Dharwad

and Kalaghatagi were purposively selected and two villages each were randomly

selected from each location. For the economics of production, 10 vermicompost

producers, who followed traditional heap system of vermicomposting, were randomly

selected from each village. Thus, the total sample size was 40 producers. The results

revealed that 70 % of vermicompost producers were illiterate. With regard to family

type of vermicompost producers, it can be seen that as many as 60 % of them had a

family, while 40 percent had joint families. A majority of them (~70 %) had annual

income in the range of $257 to 1070$ followed by around 18 per cent of them having

income of more than $1070 per annum and the rest having annual income of less than

$257. With respect to method of production, heap method of vermicomposting was

followed by 70 % of the producers and trench method was followed by the remaining

30 %. With respect to method of production, a majority of respondents were found to

produce vermicompost using heap method because it costs considerably lower

compared to the trench method of production. The production of Vermicompost

provided part time employment for the family members and hence it generated

additional revenue for the family.

The total cost of production of vermicompost per ton was 28.6$. The total marketing

cost amounted to $4.3 per ton in channel-I (the producer-seller sold the produce to

30

users in Dharwad) and $3.2 per ton in channel-II (the producer-seller sold the produce

through BAIF to the users in Kalghatagi). The net returns per ton of vermicompost

were $26 in channel-I compared to $24.5 in channel-II. The net present value for the

vermicompost production was $2136.89, the benefit cost ratio at 12% discount rate

was 3.44, internal rate of return was 38% and payback period was 1.71 years.

Some islands in India such as Andaman and Nicobar islands are known for their wide

variety of crops such as paddy, coconut, areca_nut, clove, black pepper, cinnamon,

nutmeg and vegetables. About 2-3 kg of earthworms is required for 1000 kg of

biomass, whereas about 1100 number earthworms are required for one square meter

area. Non burrowing species are mostly used for compost making. Red earthworm

species like Eisenia foetida and Eudrillus enginae are most efficient in compost

making. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale is shown in Table

3.1.

Women self-help groupes (SHGs) in several watersheds in India have set up

vermicomposting enterprises. By becoming an earning member of the family, they are

involved in the decision-making process, which has raised their social status. One of

the women managed to earn earned $36 per month from this activity. She has also

inspired and trained 300 peers in 50 villages. (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

Photo 3.3.

Women self-help group involved

in vermicomposting, to promote

micro-enterprises and generate

income

Source: Nagavallemma et al.

(2004)

31

Table 3.1. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale in Andaman and

Nicobar (A&N) Islands, India:

Parameters Low lying area Hilly area Low lying +

Hilly area

Area (ha) 0.08 5.08 5.08

Cropping System

Paddy-

vegetable

1Coconut/

2Areca_nut

spices

Paddy-vegetable

/ (1 ha) Coconut/

arecanut/spices (1 ha)

Vermicompost requirement

(kg/year)

2500 + 5000

= 7500 2500 7500 + 2500 =10000

Crop residue requirement (kg)

7750 Paddy

system +

homestead waste

1750 from

coconut or

areca_nut

plantations

3000 from paddy

system + 6500 from

plantations

Gliricidia production from

fence (kg) 1250 1250 2500

Cow dung required (kg) 6000 2000 Kg 8000 kg

Number of animals required 1 cow + 4 goats+

10 poultry birds 1 cow 2cow

Total waste for composting (kg)

Earth worms required (kg)

15000

7.5

5000

2.5

20000

10

RCC rings required

Number of units

6 rings

2 (3 rings +

3 rings)

2 rings

1 (2 rings)

8 rings

2 (4 rings+

4 rings)

Expenditure/year

Capital Cost / year (A)

Cost of rings $ 191.8$ 191.8$ 255.8$

Cost of shed $ 53.3 53.3 74.6$

Running cost /year (B)

Labour and Miscellaneous cost 127.9$ 127.9$ 159.86$

Packaging cost 79.93$ 79.93$ 106.6$

Total (A+B) 452.9$ 452.9$ 596.8$

Returns / year

Vermicompost

production (kg/year) 159.8 159.8 213.2

Returns

1438. 8$ 1438. 8$ 1918.2$

Net returns $ /year 985.8$ 985.8$ 1321.6$

Source: MBM-CARI-XIV, Vermicompost Production, central agricultural research institute, andaman

and nicobar islands,, Central Agricultural Research India.: http://cari.res.in/

1 Coconut and arecanut produces around 8100 and 6900 kg of wastes/year, respectively. Hence,

on an average, 7500 kg of wastes will be available per year for composting. If all the available

wastes are utilized for production, the requirement of cowdung will be 5500 kg/year which can be

met from one cow. Including Gliricidia, the total waste availability will be 15000 kg/year which requires 7.5 kg of earth worms and 2 units comprising 3 rings + 3 rings for composting. The total

production will be 7500 kg of vermicompost/year. The additional quantity of 5000 kg/year available can be sold.

2Areca nut is the seed of the Areca palm (Areca catechu), which grows in much of the tropical Pacific,

Asia, and parts of east Africa

32

3.4. Vermicompost „teas‟ in Ohio, USA

These aqueous vermicompost extracts or „teas‟ are much easier to transport and apply,

than solid vermicomposts, and can duplicate most of the benefits of vermicomposts

when applied to the same crops. Additionally, they can be applied to crops as foliar

sprays.

Work at The Ohio State University has shown that vermicompost „teas‟ increased the

germination, growth, flowering, and yields of tomatoes, cucumbers, and other crops in

similar ways to solid vermicomposts. The aerated, vermicompost „teas‟ suppressed

the plant diseases Fusarium, Verticillium, Plectosporium, and Rhizoctonia to the same

extent as the solid.

Vermicompost „teas‟ also suppressed populations of spider mites (Tetranychus

urticae) and aphids (Myzus persicae) significantly.

Additionally, they had dramatic effects on the suppression of attacks by plant

parasitic nematodes such as Meloidogyne on tomatoes both in terms of reducing the

numbers of root cysts significantly and increasing root and shoot growth and Physico-

chemical characteristics of the feed and optimum worm density are important

parameters for the efficient working of a vermicomposting system. The results

showed that E. fetida growth rate was faster at higher stocking densities; however,

biomass gain per worm was faster at lower stocking densities. Sexual maturity was

attained earlier at higher stocking densities. Growth rate was highest in 100% cow

dung at all the stocking densities when compared to textile mill wastewater sludge

containing feed mixtures. A worm population of 27–53 worms per kg of feed was

found to be the most favorable stocking density. Even when the physical conditions

(temperature and moisture) and quality of waste (size, total organic carbon, total

nitrogen, and total available phosphorus) are appropriate for vermicomposting,

problems can develop due to overcrowding of earthworms. This study clearly showed

that when E. fetida was allowed to grow at different stocking densities the worms

grew slowly at higher stocking densities. The maximum body weight of earthworm

was higher at lower stocking densities. Maturation rate was also affected by stocking

rate. Worms attained sexual maturity earlier in crowded containers. Worms of same

age developed clitellum at different times at different population densities. The results

indicate that population of 27–53 worms per kg and 4–8 worms per 150 g/feed

mixture is optimum (Garg et al., 2008).

Most of the research on utilization of earthworms in waste management has focused

on the final product, i.e. the vermicompost. There are only few literature references

that have looked into the process, or examined the biochemical transformations that

are brought about by the action of earthworms as they fragment the organic matter,

resulting in the formation of a vermicompost with physicochemical and biological

properties which seem to be superior for plant growth to those of the parent material.

It has been reported that the storage of organic wastes over a period of time could

alter the biochemistry of the organic matter and could eventually lead to the

stabilization of the organic waste. Nevertheless, we hypothesize that adding

earthworms to the organic wastes would accelerate the stabilization of these wastes in

33

terms of decomposition and mineralization of the organic matter, leading to a more

suitable medium for plant growth(Atiyeh et al., 2000).

3.5. Vermicomposting in United Kingdom

In the UK, although the number of indoor or enclosed systems appears to be

increasing, most vermicomposting systems would appear to be based on either

outdoor windrows or covered shallow beds. There is very little evidence of

mechanisation and the use of labor saving equipment, such as earthworm harvesters,

is rare. The bed is approximately 5m wide, 50m long and 0.5m deep. The beds

typically comprise wooden sides covered in a woven semi-permeable fabric

containing coir or shredded wood chip bedding placed directly on the soil surface.

When installed, the bed would have been inoculated with starting culture of adult

earthworms at a density of approximately 0.5kg earthworms per m3 of bed. Up until

recently, most vermicomposting facilities were modest in size with bed areas around

1,000 m2, but there is now a trend towards much larger units, as much as ten times

this size. Very large units can process large amounts of waste, of the order of

thousands of tonnes per year, making them comparable to many of the smaller

municipal composting operations.

There is very little information available on the nature of the vermicomposting

industry in the UK and what little exists is considered to be commercially sensitive.

There are at least four major suppliers of large-scale vermicomposting systems

currently operating. In year 2000, there were around 90 individual operators with

81,000 m2 of beds. The total investment would have exceeded £1.25 million

(Frederickson, 2003).

34

4. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices

in Egypt: gap analysis.

The most important material for compost production is the organic material. There are

two main sources of organic matter: farm wastes and urban wastes. In order to obtain

such materials, one should understand waste management practices in the area. This

chapter covers such an important subject.

4.1. On-farm organic waste

Agricultural wastes are defined according to the relevant legislation as “waste from

agriculture that includes any substances or object which the holder discards or intends

or is required to discard”. The disposal of biomass represents a problem for industries

and society. It has been estimated that the off-farm disposed plant and animal wastes

are 27 and 12 million tons annually, respectively. Burning of crop residues is a

problem in Egypt, especially rice wastes. Egypt cultivates about 360.000 ha of rice

according to 2008 statistics, with a production of 6 million tons of straw.

It is up to the grower to decide the way of disposing his agriculture wastes. The most

common practice for disposing is by dumping it at municipal waste sites, dumping it

in the desert or by simply burning it. The failure of any management plan to tackle the

agriculture waste, especially rice straw, is based on the assumption that this waste is

free, and the grower has to give it away. In fact the grower realizes that the waste

becomes valuable once collected and ready for transport. On the other hand, as long

as the residues are in his property, no one could force him to hand it over. For him,

burning the residue in site has some agricultural benefits, such as use of minerals of

the ash, or getting rid of insects and diseases on above the ground as a result of

burning.

Even though the practice is well known, farmers in many parts of the world especially

in developing countries find themselves at a disadvantage by not making the best use

of organic recycling opportunities available to them, due to various constraints which

among others include absence of efficient expeditious technology, long time span,

intense labor, land and investment requirements, and economic aspects.

In rural areas, in particular, the implementation of effective solid waste management

systems is faced with a number of constraints. These constraints are related to

environmental conditions, institutional/ administrative issues, financial matters,

technical deficiencies and planning and legal limitations.

As for agriculture waste, two options for treating rice straw are recommended. The

first is to collaborate with the fresh universities graduates to collect such dispersed

produced amount in order to be used in the compost making activities, the other

option is to install small manufactures for fiber processing to produce packages for

exported crops as rice straw could be used as a virgin material.

35

4.1.1. Weak points in rice straw system in Egypt

There is an extreme shortage of the combining, raking and baling machines,

and no enough trucks to transport the ready straw bales (economical problem).

In addition, the un-paved dirt roads that makes the transportation between

farms and market (economical and managerial problems) almost impossible.

On the other hands, agricultural co-operations have to work to provide a

storage place for the ready bales, trucks and some mechanical equipment to

overcome the previous obstacles. To facilitate such work, GIS maps should

provide the farms sites in each governorate and a full study of the road status

that will be used for the transportation.

4.2. Urban wastes

Main four systems were involved in solid waste management before the trend to

privatization; The Governmental system including Cairo and Giza "Cleansing and

Beautification Authorities". These central agencies were responsible for municipal

solid waste activities including regulation of private service delivery. In spite of

creating such powerful entities, they were not effective and faced lots of problems.

The second system is the conventional Zabbaleen (informal waste collectors) system,

which offers door-to-door service in return for the monthly fee. Thirdly, there is the

formal private sector system, which has been introduced in larger cities and some

provincial towns. Each private operator must have a collection license or a service

contract for his assigned area from the local municipality. Finally, there is Non

Governmental Organizations (NGOs), which perform some limited solid waste

services, especially in rural areas and small cities.

4.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem in Egypt

The problem of solid waste management in Egypt has been growing at an alarming

rate. Its negative manifestations, as well as its direct and indirect harmful

consequences on public health, environment and national economy (particularly as

related to manpower productivity and tourism) are becoming quite apparent and acute.

In large cities like Cairo and Alexandria the problem reached such serious proportions

that they called for considerable government intervention and a series of judicious

actions in the short, medium, and long term.

In essence, the problem –as described in the National Waste Management Strategy

2000- lies in the fact that:

"The present systems could not satisfy the served community needs with its various

strata for a reasonably accepted cleansing level, as well as in reducing the negative

health and environmental impacts, or in improving the aesthetic appearance".

36

The clearly evident symptoms of the problem are:

- Various levels of waste accumulations at various places and locations that

became liable to various vectors (rodents and insects) and environmental

pollution, bad smells and appearance, aside from frequent uncontrolled open

burning that all contribute to negative health and environmental impacts.

- Ineffective and environmentally non-sound handling, treatment and recycling

techniques that may pose health risks.

- Prevalent open-dump type of random solid waste disposal as well as

indiscriminate dumping leading to various associated health and environmental

hazards.

4.2.2. Main factors contributing to soil waste management problem

Municipal solid waste contents for the years 2000-2008 and their distribution are

illustrated in Table (4.1) and Table (4.2). The main factors contributing the solid

waste problems in Egypt could be summarized as follows:

- Actions taken in the past were not always sustainable, and the issues were not

addressed in a comprehensive and integrated manner.

- Accurate and reliable data concerning solid waste quantities, rates of

generation, composition does not exist. Numerous attempts to quantify the

problem have been made; however, these attempts are by no means

comprehensive or rigorous.

- Laws are not applicable with very weak mechanisms for enforcement.

- The involvement of the private sector in SWM activities in Egypt has been

minimal till the last decade when the private sector became more involved.

- Ineffective recycling activities, especially with all kinds of waste mixed

together without any plan to encourage sorting at source. Moreover, non-

hazardous and hazardous wastes are mixed through the "waste cycle".

- Low level of public awareness and improper behaviors and practices in

relation to solid waste handling and disposal.

Table 4.1. Municipal solid waste contents 2000, 2005 and 2008

Waste % 2000 Waste % 2005 Waste % 2008

Organic materials 45-55% 50-60% 50-60%

Paper 10-20% 10-25% 10-25%

Plastic 3-12% 3-12% 3-12%

Glass 1-5% 1-5% 1-5%

Metal 1.5- 7% 1.5- 7% 1.5- 7%

Fabrics 1.2- 7% 1.2- 7% 1.2- 7%

Others 11-30% 11-30% 11-30% Source: EEAA (2001) and (2006) and CAPMAS (2010)

37

Table 4.2. Distribution of waste according to the sources in 2000 and 2005

Source Estimated quantity

2000 2005

Municipal garbage 14-15 million ton 15-16 million ton

Industrial 4-5 million ton 4.5 - 5 million ton

Agricultural 23 million ton 25-30 million ton

Sludge 1.5 -2 million ton 1.5 -2 million ton

Clearing banks and

sewage outputs 20 million ton 20 million ton

Hospitals 100 -120 million ton 100 -120 million ton

Construction and

demolition waste 3-4 million ton 3-4 million ton

Source: EEAA (2007)

4.2.3. Waste generation rates

The total quantity of solid wastes generated in Egypt is 118.6 million tons/year in

2007/2008 as shown in Table (4-3) estimates, including municipal solid waste

(garbage), industrial waste, agricultural waste, sludge resulting from sanitation

treatment, hospital wastes, construction and demolition debris and wastes from the

cleaning of canals and drains. Municipal solid wastes (garbage) include remains of

households (about 60 %), shops and commercial markets, service institutions such as

schools and educational institutes, utilities, hospitals, administrative buildings, streets,

gardens, markets, hotels, and recreation areas, in addition to small factories and

camps.

Resource recovery reduces the quantity of raw materials needed in production

processes. It may therefore reduce dependency on imports and save foreign currency.

Reused rubber and plastics, for example, reduce the need for imported raw materials

and the reuse of organic waste as compost reduces the dependence on imported

chemical fertilizers.

Resource recovery saves natural resources, particularly in the form of raw materials

and energy. The recycling of aluminum, for example, results in energy savings 14 of

up to 96%. An environmentally sound waste disposal system should therefore involve

resource recovery as much as possible.

However, waste recovery also creates employment opportunities that can conflict with

environmental and health criteria. Although the reuse of organic waste helps to

prevent environmental degradation and pollution, the recovery methods themselves

are often not environmentally sound and may pose health hazards for workers. Within

solid waste disposal systems environmental, socio-economic and health costs are

rarely considered. The total costs of safe and environmentally acceptable solid waste

disposal are poorly documented and are therefore underestimated. However, it is

against this background that resource recovery needs to be valued and supported in

order to use the potential of recovery to its full extent and to improve existing

practices.

For many people, working in the informal waste sector is the last resort in the daily

struggle for survival. Incomes are usually minimal, and working conditions are often

appalling. Nevertheless, some traders have managed to set up a feasible business that

can earn reasonable profits. All these people provide a valuable service to society as a

38

whole; in many cities the municipal refuse collection and disposal services are

woefully inadequate, particularly in low-income areas, where waste accumulates in

the streets. Improved recovery processes could therefore reduce the amounts of waste

that need to be collected, and thus the costs of municipal waste disposal, and could

help to reduce the risk to human health.

For example, Cairo is renowned for its extensive informal waste recycling system. In

the Cairo metropolitan area, 6000 tons of municipal solid waste is generated daily.

The municipality collects about 2400 tons per day, while informal workers collect

about 2700 tons of household waste per day using a fleet of some 700 donkey carts.

The balance of 900 tons remains on the city streets, vacant lots and the peripheries of

poorly serviced low-income areas of the city.

Table 4.3. Distribution of wastes according to its sources and Governorates 2007/2008

Governorate

Source (ton/month)

Municipal Industrial Agricultural Sludge

m3

Clearing

banks &

sewage

Hospitals

Construction

and

demolition

Cairo 1761668 149914 - - - 49860 811488

Giza 139650 - - - - - 77100

Qalyobia - - - - - - -

Alexandria - 620500 1296506 - - - -

Behira 27330 - 4099.5 5072500 - 1366.5 -

Menofia 3281224 2749.42 20617.7 7168 169239 899.57 5035.83

Gharbia 40860 32.5 10069.6 - - 0.5 -

Kar ElSheih 65600 - 369619 - 3550 33 56

Damitta 1124 337.2 - - - - -

Daqhlia - - 456517 - - - -

North Sinia 14.75 700 2083.3 8.3 - 31.7 283.3

South Sinia 47 - - - - - -

Port Said 18390.1 - - 2205 - 244.11 -

Ismailia 17160 240 2918 369750 25000 35.9 17053

Suis 118625 51666.7 - 18250 37083.3 243.33 760.417

Sharqia 12000 - - - - 11.648 -

Beni Suif 45420 178 - 335.3 - 32.88 975

Minia 13406 53.4 45666.5 218 3186 33.08 2566

Assuit 6120 - - - - - -

New valley 2322 - 6166 416 666 14.7 583

Sohag 2691 382 409 330 250 290 1919

Qena 2046

480m3

15

90m3

340 - 1500 9.5 135

12545m3

Asswan 76003.3 6360 64.1667 0.5833 0.833333 134.46 4080

Red sea 16650

12750m3

- - - - 2.55 1500

100m3

Luxor 550 50 250 120 150 8 360

Total 5649880.15 833278 2215326 8587.88 203541.8 53255 924254.55

13230 m3 90 m

3 - 5462713 m3 37083.3 m3 - 12645 m

3

Source: EEAA (2007).

The informal sector in Egypt plays a significant role in the solid waste services

including waste recycling. This sector has been growing significantly over the last

three decades. Therefore, it is essential to understand and recognize the complex role

of this sector in solid waste services and to benefit from its existing infrastructure and

expertise in any formal initiative (GTZ, 2004).

39

Over the last three decades, the informal garbage collectors have drastically

developed the volume and scope of activities they perform. Solid waste operators in

the informal sector generally perform five functions: collection, transportation,

recovery, trade, and recycling. It is usually a family business where men do the

transportation and trading and women do most of the sorting.

The waste sorting and recovery is almost entirely done in the courtyard of garbage

collector‟s houses. After waste collection and transportation to the Zabbaleen area,

waste is sorted into: (i) organic waste that is fed to the animals, sold to others as

animal feed, or sent for composting; and (ii) non-organic waste that is categorized

into: paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, bones, and residual non-recyclable waste.

Subsequently, another sorting process is then undertaken to sort different sub-types of

each of the main categories while non-recyclable waste is transported to the municipal

disposal site on a monthly basis. The recovered material is sold while the non-

recoverable materials are sent to the municipal dumps. Recyclable materials sorted

into categories and sub-categories of paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, and bones are

transferred to recycling workshops.

In 2000, there were more than 220 recycling workshops in the Zabbaleen area of

Cairo. About 90% own their workshop space (even if informally) while the remaining

10% rent their workshop. A workshop employs six workers on average. The average

area of the recycling workshop is 155 square meters but varies widely depending on

the recycling activity performed. Generally plastic recycling and cloth grinders use up

the most space and their workshops usually have an area more than 200 m2. Metal

recycling industries need less space.

4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are

- Governmental system: municipalities or cleaning authorities (Cairo and Giza)

collect and transfer wastes from the streets, bins, public containers, and supervises

public dumpsites and the operation of composting plants either directly or through

the private sector.

- Traditional “Zabbaleen” (garbage collectors) system: in this system, which date

back to the early twentieth century, collectors collect garbage from household units

and some commercial establishments, and transfer it to their communities

(Zabbaleen villages) for sorting and recycling. Although working conditions and

methods used, that are of minimal costs and do not comply with the requirements of

health and the environment, yet they are considered by clients as a considerably

good service. Further, this system achieves the highest recovery degree possible;

sometimes reach 80% of the garbage collected by Zabbaleen, which is estimated by

3000 tons per day in Cairo (about 30% of the total amount generated daily). Local

private companies: these collect and transfer garbage in a number of Egyptian cities.

They represent a developed model of the garbage collectors‟ system, working in

limited areas under the supervision and control of municipalities or cleaning

authorities. The final disposal of wastes takes place either at the garbage collectors

communities or in public dumpsites.

40

4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options

Since organic material forms all farm wastes and a large proportion of urban refuse,

ways can be sought as to use this resource more effectively. Organic material can be

reused in three ways:

- to feed animals (fodder),

- to improve the soil (compost),

- to produce energy (biogas or briquettes).

The first two options are already very common in economically less developed

countries. In Lahore, Pakistan, for example, 40% of urban refuse is collected by

farmers and used as animal feed and soil amendment.

4.3.1. Feeding animals

Raising animals is the easiest possibility; in most cases organic waste can be fed

directly to domestic animals without pretreatment, but cooking or the addition of

nutrients may sometimes be necessary. This strategy refers to diverting food not

appropriate for human consumption to animal feed. While a potentially useful outlet

for food scraps that otherwise would be disposed, this avenue tends to be limited

primarily to food processors and beer industries and may not be feasible for urban

institutions. In some cases, rural corrections facilities and land-grant colleges have the

appropriate combination of circumstances that allows for the collection and feeding of

certain food scraps to on-site animals.

4.3.2. Compost

Composting is the microbial decomposition of discarded organic materials under

controlled conditions. The end product, compost, is used as an organic soil

amendment. It promotes microbiological activity in soils necessary for plant growth,

disease resistance, water retention and filtration, and erosion prevention. Compost can

be used in various ways. As a soil amendment, compost enhances the physical,

chemical, and biological properties of soil. The macro-nutrient value of compost is

typically not high relative to fertilizers. Compost enriches the soil by increasing

organic matter. Additionally, compost increases soil‟s capacity to hold water. By

amending soil with compost, soil is better able to hold nutrients. Nutrients do not

leach as easily; rather, they are released more slowly to plants, which can reduce the

need for fertilizers. Compost can also suppress fungal diseases in soil, which can be

particularly important to the golf and nursery industries.

The utilization of earth worms, as discussed previously, could play a strong role in

converting organic wastes, whether urban or rural, into a valuable vermicompost

material.

4.3.3 Landfill disposal or incineration

This strategy refers sending organic materials to a disposal facility to be landfilled or

incinerated. This is considered the least desirable strategy from a social,

environmental, and sometimes economic perspective.

41

The garbage from which the recyclable items have been removed is dumped by a

mechanical front-end loader through a grid onto a conveyor belt, which transfers the

garbage to a hopper and finally to a rotating, cylindrical drum, where the compost is

sieved. At the end of the sieve, children anxiously wait for some useful remnants. The

maturity of the compost is determined by measuring the temperature.

Normally, the plant processes 30 tons (60 m3) of compost per shift per day. During the

season when land is prepared for cultivation (November to February) output is

doubled by working two shifts per day. The plant provides jobs for 11 employees (1

consultant, 1 plant manager, 1 technician, 1 electrician, 1 operation and maintenance

manager, 3 security guards, 2 drivers, and 1 messenger). Mechanical parts for the

plant can be bought in Egypt, although some electrical parts have to be imported.

Although the quality of the compost appears to be good, it has been found to contain

small pieces of glass and plastics, and large quantities of heavy metals.

The major pressures on solid waste management in Egypt are exemplified in the

increase in waste quantities generated due to the escalating population, on the one

hand, and the change in consumption patterns in towns and villages alike, on the other

hand, in addition to the lack of awareness and the wrong handling of solid wastes in

general. Various studies on ducted during the last two decades in a number of

Egyptian Governorates and cities point out to a significant decrease in municipal solid

waste collection efficiency totally lacking in some rural areas. Consequently, large

amounts of waste accumulations appeared in streets, vacant land between buildings

and different areas in cities and populated areas throughout the past years. Such areas

have become focal points of environmental pollution and represent significant

pressures on human health as well as on the environment.

42

Table 4.4. Egypt‟s Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for the period 2007-

2012.

Governorate

The cost of the program / million Egyptian pound Total with

million

Egyptian

pound

Remove

Accumula-

tions

Improve

process of

collections &

transportation

Establish

intermediate

station

Establish

recycle

centers

Improve

work in

controlled

Dumpsites

Establish

sanitary

landfill

Cairo --- 13 13 30 40 30 126

Alexandria 15 17 5 5 --- --- 42

Giza --- 30 30 10 10 30 110

Kalyobiya --- 19.5 19.5 10 10 30 89

Dakahilya 60 56.5 16 10 --- 30 172.5

Gharbeya 52 31.5 16 10 --- 30 139.5

Monofiya 6 33 10 10 --- 30 89

Beheira 8 47 13 10 --- 40 118

Kafr-ELShiekh 6 27 10 15 --- 30 83

Sharkia 10 48.5 10 10 --- 30 108.5

Damietta 3 26 10 10 --- --- 64

Fayoum 3 20.5 4 5 --- 15 62.5

Bani Suif 3 22 5 5 --- 30 65

Menia 10 28.5 6 10 --- 30 84.5

Assiut 3 28.5 6 10 --- 30 72.5

Sohag 4.5 35 7 5 --- 30 86.5

Qena 4.5 30.5 7 5 --- 30 82

Luxor 2 2 3 5 --- 15 27

Aswan 6 17 3.5 5 --- 15 46.5

Ismailia 7 17.5 3 5 --- 30 62.5

Port Said 6 7 2.5 5 5 --- 25.5

Suez 10 7.5 2.5 5 5 --- 30

Red Sea 7.5 14 2 5 --- 30 58.5

Matrouh --- 26 5 5 --- 15 51

North Sinai --- 31 4 5 --- 30 70

South 7.5 15 3 5 --- 30 60.5

New Valley --- 15 2 5 --- 10 37

total 234 666 218 220 70 655 2063

Source: EEAA (2008) and (2009).

43

Table 4.5. Solid waste accumulation in the Egyptian Governorates.

Governorate Accumulations in m3 Governorate Accumulations in m

3

Cairo 500000 Menoufia 280000

Alexandria 344830 Kafr_El Sheikh 227000

Giza 500000 Damietta 100000

Behairah 600000 Gharbia 1500000

Qalyubia 500000 Dakahlia 1300000

Sharqia 510000 North Sinai 140000

Matruh 146429 South Sinai 512000

Port Said 359040 Suez 1168550

Ismailia 350000 Red Sea 11885000

Fayoum 292500 Beni Suef 150000

Minya 951000 Assiut 250000

Sohag 281845 Qena 258480

Luxor 107022 Aswan 385240

Total accumulation 23598936

Source: EEAA (2008) and (2009).

44

Table 4.6. Solid waste amount produced by governorates and the organic materials

percentages for the year 2008.

% of organic

material

Total waste

(Ton/Day)

Governorate

50% 10000 Cairo

65% 2700 Alexandria

34% 1014 Port Said

50% 325 Suez

70% 1319 Damietta

60% 911 Behairah

80% 1361 Kafr_El Sheikh

70% 3718 Dakahlia

75% 572 Ismailia

65% 897 Menoufia

65% 2960 Gharbia 70% 717 Sharqia 70% 1738 Qalyubia

60% 9062 Giza

60% 706 Fayoum

65% 924 Beni Suef

50% 785 Menia

75% 187 Assiut

80% 98 Suhag

90% 343 Qena

8% 364 Aswan

50% 164 Luxor

20% 395 Red Sea

25% 917 New Valley

40% 260 Matruh

20% 337 North Sinai

75% 287 South Sinai

43061 Total Source: CAPMAS (2010)

45

5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce fertilizers in Egypt.

The concept of using earthworms to stabilize organic wastes (vermicomposting) is not

new, and is in use on varying scales in a large number of both developed and

underdeveloped countries. The capital cost of establishing systems has proven to be a

barrier to the large scale use of vermicomposting, largely due to the high value placed

on the worms themselves.

Three factors contribute to the economic sustainability of the system. The first is the

provision of a sustainable waste stabilization process, a service which can generate

ongoing income but which, at the moment, is provided at minimal cost. The second is

the creation of a saleable form of soil conditioner in the form of vermicast. The third

is the production of protein in the form of worm-meal, a valuable source of amino

acids, vitamins, long chain fatty acids and minerals for chicken and fish.

Recycling of farm waste and composting is the other alternative to use mineral

fertilizers. The increase in using compost in conventional agricultural will be coupled

by a decrease in fertilizers usage and will result in higher quality production and less

pollution hazards.

Organic agriculture could be one of the important options that have a good

opportunity in a wide zone of the newly reclaimed lands in Egypt. Wider production

of organic material will increase the opportunities of more growers to join the organic

farming.

This chapter sheds the light on the fertilizer needs in Egypt and potentiality of using

vermicompost as a fertilizer in Egypt, especially for organic farming.

5.1. Fertilizer use in Egypt

Application of fertilizers for growing crops is a routine operation in modern

agriculture and one of the essential requirements for a high quantity and quality yield

under extensive agricultural systems. Fertilizers are primary input in extensive

agricultural systems, but they are considered as one of the important sources of air,

water and soil pollution as well as greenhouse gases (greenhouse gases) of climate

change.

Egypt has a long history of using mineral fertilizers. On the other hand, excessive

amounts of soluble salts in the soil can prevent or delay seed germination, kill or

seriously retard plant growth, and possibly render soils and groundwater unusable.

The degree of environmental impacts can depend on the fertilizer application method.

The Egyptian fertilizers first production was from about 75 years ago. Now, Egypt is

ranked as one of the countries that are highly consuming fertilizers in agricultural

activities. The total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2

million Mt, 32% of the total production is exported. Excessive use of such chemical

components have a harmful effect on the Egyptian environment and human health,

46

which needs to find other alternatives such as, organic agriculture that could be one of

the important options that have a good opportunity in a wide zone of the newly

reclaimed lands in Egypt. Moreover, recycling of farm waste and composting is

another alternative for renewing soil fertility that has very low organic content

(Table.5.1). Harvesting the fruits or grains, which is a small proportion of a whole

plant system, and returning the remaining plant residues after composting back to the

soil will result in a minimum need for additional minerals. Substituting any quantity

of chemical fertilizers will result in a cleaner production and environment, as well as

less emissions of greenhouse gases, and consequently the organic farming growers

can get substituted through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto

protocol, which will be discussed in more details in a separate chapter later.

Table 5.1. Physical and chemical analysis of various soil types.

Item North

Delta

South

Delta

Middle &

Upper

Egypt

East Delta West Delta

Soil texture Clayey Clayey Loamy clay Sandy Calcareous

pH (1:2.5) 7.9-8.5 7.8-8.2 7.7-8.0 7.6-7.9 7.7-8.1

Percent total soluble salts 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.4 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.6 0.2-0.6

Percent calcium carbonate 2.6-4.4 2.0-3.1 2.6-5.3 1.0-5.1 11.0-30.0

Percent organic matter 1.9-2.6 1.8-2.8 1.5-2.7 0.35-0.8 0.7-1.5

Total soluble N (ppm) 25-50 30-60 15-40 10 – 20 10 -30

ppm available P (Olsen) 5.4 -10 3.5-15.0 2.5-16 2-5.0 1.5-10.5

ppm available K (ammonium

acetate) 250-500 300-550 280-700 105-350 100-300

Available Zn (DTPA) (ppm) 0.5-4.0 0.6-6.0 0.5-3.9 0.6-1.2 0.5-1.2

Available Fe (DTPA) (ppm) 20.8-63.4 19.0-27.4 12.4-40.8 6.7-16.4 12 - 18

Available Mn (DTPA) (ppm) 13.1-45 11.2-37.2 8.2-51.6 3-16.7 10 - 20

Source: FAO (2005).

5.2. Fertilizer statistics

The demand for food and other agricultural commodities is increasing in Egypt due to

the increase in the population and improvements in living standards. Efforts continue

to improve crop productivity and quality. Appropriate fertilization is one of the most

important agricultural practices for achieving the agricultural improvement (FAO,

2005).

The main commercial types of fertilizers used in Egypt and the percentage of active

ingredients are listed in Table 5.2.

47

Table 5.2. The main types of fertilizers used in Egypt

Element Fertilizer

Nitrogen - urea (46.5 percent N)

- ammonium nitrate (33.5 percent N)

- ammonium sulphate (20.6 percent N)

- calcium nitrate (15.5 percent N)

Phosphate - single superphosphate (15 percent P 2 O 5 )

- concentrated superphosphate (37 percent P 2 O 5 )

Potassium - potassium sulphate (48 to 50 percent K 2 O)

- potassium chloride (50 to 60 percent K 2 O)

Mixed and

compound

fertilizers

-N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn and/or Cu in different formulations for

either soil or foliar application. The micronutrient may be in

either mineral or chelated form.

Source: FAO (2005).

The improvement in fertilizers production is achieved through the last decades. The

total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2 million Mt, 32%

of the total production is exported. The remaining quantity of production after

exporting is less than the demand quantity by about 43%. Therefore, Egypt

compensates the shortage in the demands by importing fertilizers by about 43% of the

total consumption. Figure (5.1.) illustrates the increasing trend of fertilizers

production and export. This increase is mainly due to the rapid agricultural horizontal

and vertical expansion.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

1000 t

on

nes

Production Import Export

Figure 5.1.Production, imports and exports (1000 tonnes of nutrients) trends of

fertilizers in Egypt

Source: FAO ( 2010).

48

The latest fertilizers consumption is shown in Figure (5.2) and illustrates that

phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers are the highest consumed type of fertilizers under

Egyptian conditions. The most recent FAO statistics of 2010 indicated that there is an

increase in nitrogen fertilizer consumption for 2008 (1721105 ton N) and phosphorus

(229911 tons). This increase reached 60 and 61% in 2008 compared to 2002 for

nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively.

In addition, the continuous increase in fertilizers consumption is obvious and

additional increase in fertilizer demand is expected in the next few years.

Consumption in nutrients (tonnes of nutrients)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

1000 t

onnes N

0

50

100

150

200

250

1000 t

onnes P

& K

N P K

Figure 5.2. Nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and total fertilizers consumption in Egypt.

Source: FAO (2010).

5.3. Vermicomposting as fertilizers in Egypt

The production of consistently high-quality vermicompost is especially important to

growers of high-value crops. The influence of production factors, such as the

variability in the characteristics of the organic feedstocks, the length of time of

vermicomposting, and the various parameters used as maturity indicators, are

essential aspects to be considered in developing guidelines for assessing the quality of

vermicompost. The vermicomposting industry anticipates a need for compost quality

indicators as the production, utilization and marketing of vermicompost expands.

Various organic wastes tested in past as feed material for different species of

earthworms include sewage sludge, paper mill industry sludge, water hyacinth, paper

waste, crop residues, cattle manure, etc.

Many studies were conducted in order to evaluate vermicomposting from various

waste sources as follows:

49

5.3.1. Urban waste vermicomposting

Home composting is a tradition in many countries, and is recommended as an

important waste management option in the European Union policy. Advantages are

that the waste does not have to be transported and that home gardens are provided

with nutrients and humus. Furthermore, it has an educational importance in improving

environmental awareness. Limiting conditions to its adoption are the availability of

space for composting and compost application, and the lack of knowledge as to the

correct composting procedure. This includes the selection of substrates that are

suitable for home composting and the provision of suitable process conditions.

In a city like Cairo, there is a possibility of producing vermicompost from individual

houses. Having the suitable amount of earthworms in a double basket system with a

perforated one inside, organic wastes could be vermicomposted without any odors or

side annoyance. Although the system is not widely established, but with the proper

awareness and public support could be implemented. This could both create an

income to the poor families, and produce considerable amount of vermicompost that

goes directly to agricultural activities. In addition, it has the following advantages:

Saves money and the environment

It reduces household garbage disposal costs;

It produces less odor and attracts fewer pests than putting food wastes into a

garbage container;

It saves the water and electricity that kitchen sink garbage disposal units

consume;

It produces a free, high-quality soil amendment (compost);

It requires little space, labor, or maintenance;

It spawns free worms for fishing.

Several options for integrating the Zabbaleen into the international companies‟

contracts were explored during interviews with staff members at CID, raising the

issue of local-global confrontation and the possible contribution of a private–public

partnership. The Zabbaleen could act as sub-contractors, as they implement a

“segregation system”, separating organic from non-organic waste. They could

continue to collect household waste while medical and industrial waste and landfill

management could be handled by multinational companies. Transfer stations could be

established where a major proportion of non-organic waste could be recovered and

directed to existing traders. The Zabbaleen could receive inorganic waste from

companies as input to their recycling businesses, as small communitybased

composting facilities are established. In such ways the traditional informal Zabbaleen

system could be integrated into the new privatized large-scale waste collection system

to the mutual benefit of both sides. Despite such suggestions, recent developments

have demonstrated the unlikelihood of fruitful local–global partnerships. Instead,

international companies favour training the Zabbaleen as waged employees, while

allowing them to search landfill sites for organic waste for their pig-rearing activities

(Fahmi, 2005).

50

5.3.2. Vermicomposting of agricultural wastes

Vermicomposting of crop residues and cattle shed wastes can not only produce a

value-added product (vermicomposting) but at the same time acts as best culture

medium for large-scale production of earthworms.

The composting ability and growth performance of E. eugeniae were evaluated by

using a variety of combinations of crop residues and cattle dung, under laboratory

conditions. The best results in terms of nutrient enhancement in the end product were

recorded in vermicomposted beds as compared to experimental composting without

worms. Moreover, vermicompost showed higher amounts of total nitrogen, available

phosphorous, exchangeable potassium and calcium content. The ready end product

showed relatively lower C:N ratio and comparatively was a more stabilized product.

A considerable amount of worm biomass and cocoons were produced in different

treatments. However, quality of the feed stuff, used in this study was of a primary

importance, determining the earthworm‟s growth parameter, e.g. individual biomass,

cocoon numbers, growth rate. The results suggest that crop residues can be used as an

efficient culture media for large-scale production of E. eugeniae for sustainable land

restoration practices at low-input basis (Suthar, 2008).

5.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth

It is well established that earthworms have beneficial physical, biological and

chemical effects on soils and can increase plant growth and crop yields in both natural

and managed ecosystems. These beneficial effects have been attributed to

improvements in soil properties and structure, to greater availability of mineral

nutrients to plants, and to biologically active metabolites acting as plant growth

regulators.

Earthworm (Eisenia foetida) compost strongly affects soil fertility by increasing

availability of nutrients, improving soil structure and water holding capacity. It has

been suggested that earthworms can increase the velocity of decomposition of organic

residues and also produce several bioactive humic substances. These substances are

endowed with hormone like activity that improves plant nutrition and growth. Humic

acids (HAs) comprise one of the major fractions of humic substances.

An experiment was conducted to pinpoint precisely a biological mechanism by which

vermicomposts can influence plant growth positively and produce significant

increases in overall plant productivity, independent of nutrient uptake. Mixing the

container media with increasing concentrations of vermicompost-derived humic acids

increased plant growth, and larger concentrations usually reduced growth, in a pattern

similar to the plant growth responses observed after incorporation of vermicomposts

into container media with all needed mineral nutrition. Plant growth was increased by

treatments of the plants with 50–500 mg/kg humic acids, but decreased significantly

when the concentrations of humic acids in the container medium exceeded 500–1000

mg/kg. Although some of the growth enhancement by humic acids could have been

partially due to increased rates of nitrogen uptake by the plants, most of the results

reported exceed those that would result from such a mechanism, very considerably.

However, this does not exclude the possibility of other contributory mechanisms by

51

which humic acids could affect plant growth. There is a further alternative explanation

for the hormone-like mode of action of humic acids in these experiments. In our

laboratory, we have extracted plant growth regulators such as indole acetic acid,

gibberellins and cytokinins from vermicomposts in aqueous solution and

demonstrated that these can have significant effects on plant growth. Such substances

may be relatively transient in soils. However, there seems a strong possibility that

such plant growth regulators which are relatively transient may become adsorbed on

to humates and act in conjunction with them to influence plant growth (Atiyeh et al.,

2002).

Vermicompost has been promoted as a viable alternative container media component

for the horticulture industry. The addition of vermicompost in media mixes of 10%

and 20% volume had positive effects on plant growth. The greatest growth

enhancement was on seedlings during the plug stage of the bedding plant crop cycle.

Growth increases up to 40% were observed in dry shoot tissue and leaf area of

marigold, tomato and green pepper. The increased vigor exhibited was also

maintained when the seedling plugs were transplanted into larger containers with

standard commercial potting substrates without vermicompost. Additionally, there

were benefits apparently resulting from the nutritional content of the vermicompost.

All of the plugs were produced without the input of additional fertilization. The

potential exists for growers to use vermicompost-amended commercial potting

substrates during the plug production stage without the use of additional fertilizer

(Bachman and Metzger, 2008).

5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer in Egypt

Considering urban wastes as mentioned in the previous chapter for the year 2005

ranged from 15 to 16 million tons, compostable matter in the wastes as 50-60% and

average collection efficiency as 70%. Egypt has an estimated potential of producing

from urban wastes about 1.99 million tons of compost each year containing about

21,000 ton N, 5,000 ton P, and 10,640 ton K (Table 5.2). Inappropriate solid waste

management and production of poor quality of composts are main constraint in

exploiting such large amount plant nutrients for increasing crop productivity.

On the other hand, agricultural wastes in Egypt could produce almost four times

compost material compared to urban wastes, assuming that 100% of it is organic

material and all of it is accessible to the grower. There are other advantages of this

waste, which are the availability of space and directly linked to the farm. This

minimizes the need of collection and transportation. The amounts of N, P and K that

could be produced from agricultural wastes are almost four folds of that of the urban

wastes.

From both sources, the total composted material is almost 10 million tons, containing

about 10 thousand tons of nitrogen, 20 thousand tons of phosphorus, and 41 thousand

tons of potassium. Nitrogen fertilizer obtained from organic wastes could save up to

5.9% of that consumed in 2008; while more than 10% of phosphorus fertilizers

consumed in 2008 could be saved.

52

Table 5.3. Potential nutrients that could be obtained from urban and agriculture

wastes in Egypt*

Waste Ton/year

Fraction

organic

Fraction

efficiency

collection

Fraction

of waste

to be

compost Quantity, Ton Type

Urban

15500000 0.55 0.70 0.33 1,988,968 Compost

20,815 N

5,088 P

10,639 K

Agriculture

23000000 1.00 1.00 0.33 7,665,900 Compost

80,225 N

19,610 P

41,004 K

Total

9,654,868 Compost

101,039 N

24,698 P

51,642 K

*Estimated as the assumptions of fractions and fixed percent of N, P and K in the

compost.

Source: CAPMAS (2010)

53

6. Current animal feed protein supplements production in Egypt and the potential to substitute desiccated compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use of live worms in aquaculture industries.

Production of vermicompost and vermiculture is covered in previous chapters. In

order to utilize the products and byproducts of the industry, clear end-users should be

defined in order to facilitate the development of the industry. One important possible

consumption chain is the utilization in animal and fish feed protein supplement. This

chapter handles such possibilities.

6.1. Animal and aquaculture feed

The basic reason for the poor performance of livestock in developing countries is the

seasonal inadequacy of feed, both in quantity and quality (Makkar, 2002). These

deficiencies have rarely been corrected by conservation and, or, supplementation,

often for lack of infrastructure, technical know-how, poor management, etc. In

addition, many feed resources that could have a major impact on livestock production

continue to be unused, undeveloped or poorly utilized. A critical factor in this regard

has been the lack of proper understanding of the nutritional principles underlying their

utilization.

Poultry waste has been successfully used in ruminant rations in Egypt. The total

bacterial count was considerably lower in sun dried poultry waste compared to the

oven dried waste. Aflatoxins were not detectable in the concentrate mixtures

containing poultry litter. Both feed intake and milk production in ewes was not

affected by the inclusion of 14% poultry waste as a dietary supplement, suggesting

that cottonseed meal and other high protein feed ingredients could be, at least partially

replaced, by poultry waste without any loss in productivity. The weight and age at

puberty of lambs fed a ration containing 17% poultry waste was similar to those given

a ration without any poultry waste. Similarly, poultry waste up to 20% in the diet had

no detrimental effect on growth in cattle and buffaloes and on the reproductive

performance in buffalo heifers evaluated. The inclusion of 15% poultry waste in

mixed concentrate feed decreased the cost of feed by about 10% (Makkar, 2002).

It is an ancient practice in China to feed earthworms to livestock and poultry, i.e. to

dig earthworms from fields to feed chickens and ducks or to graze chicken and ducks

to feed on earthworms at ease. Earthworms are rich in nutrients with high protein.

According to measurements, the crude protein in dry earthworms reaches about 70%,

while in wet earthworms about 10-20%. The amino acids of earthworm protein are

complete, especially the contents of Glutamic acid, Leucine and Lysine, among which

Arginine is higher than fish meal, and Tryptophan is 4 times higher than in blood

powder, and 7 times higher than in cow liver. Earthworms are rich in Vitamin A and

Vitamin B. There is 0.25mg of Vitamin B1 and 2.3mg of Vitamin B2 in each 100 g of

earthworms. Vitamin D accounts for 0.04%-0.073% of earthworms‟ wet weight. In

view of the great effects of El Niño, fish meal from Peru can not meet the market

54

demand in the world. Thus earthworms are the best substitute with the functions of

supplements, anti-diseases and allurement. Earthworms are used as additive to

produce pellet feeds in the USA, Canada and Japan, which account for 50% of the

pellet feed market. However, when earthworms are used as feeds, one must note that

earthworms degrade quickly and should be processed within several hours by hot

wind or freeze drying. In general earthworms contain more pollutants than fish meal

because it is hard to clean residues from the epidermis and seta of earthworms. Some

people realize that it is better to feed earthworms in wet. For fowls, the earthworm

amount could reach 50% and for swamp eel 100% (Kangmin, 2005).

6.2. Worm meal

Worm meal or vermin-meal is an excellent source of protein and nutrients.

Earthworms typically contain over 80% moisture and can be fed directly to animals.

To preserve the worms and process them into to a more convenient food they can be

dried and ground up into worm meal.

In addition to the protein, worms are a valuable source of essential amino acids and

vitamins. The fats in worms are highly unsaturated and no additional antioxidants

need to be added to the worm meal to preserve it.

Worm meal may replace fish meal and meat and bone meal. Broilers fed with

earthworm meal consumed 13% less feed for the same weight gain than those fed

with ordinary broiler diet, but given live in earthworms matured 15 days earlier than

the control group without earthworms (Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual, 2000).

Earthworms are the best bait for anglers. Pay attention to the palatability of various

species of earthworms. It is said that Eisenia foetida can produce a substance fish do

not like. In Australia they culture 3-4 species of earthworms: red wiggler Lumbricus

rubellus, Indian blue Perionyx excavatus, African earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae, and

Eisenia foetida. Table (6.1) shows the different composition of several earth worms.

Different fish prefer different species of earthworms as bait, the palatability of

earthworms is out of question. Table (6.2) shows the richness of vermin meal with

essential amino acids, while Table (6.3) demonstrate the macro and trace mineral

contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus eugeniae).

The protein content of earthworms is complete, containing 8-9 essential amino acids

for human beings, including 9-10% tasty glutamic acid. Compared with other meat,

the protein of earthworms is higher than meat and the lipid, 2% lower than meat.

From the view point of health, earthworms might be one of ideal food with high

protein and low lipid for human beings. In southern China and Taiwan people used to

eat earthworms. There are many dishes of earthworms: mince meat of earthworm as

stuffing for dumplings to increase delicacy and prevent it from going bad. It is said

that spiced sauce from ROK has a big market in SEA. For human consumption a

worm farm should use beer spent grains or mushroom spent substrate to feed

earthworms. The Edible Fungi Scientific Center in Qingyuan as well as Shanghai

Academy of Agriculture has developed artificial logs which do not require pure

hardwood chips. Each year Qingyuan produces some 50,000 tons of used logs. This

substrate of shiitake Lentinus edodes could also generate as much as 5,000 tons of

55

earthworms and in turn can be processed to quality human food. It is said that there

are 200 kinds of food from earthworms in the U.S.A (Kangmin, 2005). Earthworms

are the future of seafood. Not yet, but they will be (Shiner, 2009).

Table 6.1. Chemical composition % of various worm meal (in dry matters) Eisenia

foetida

Lumbricus

terrestils

Allolobophora

longa

Neries sp. Eudrilus

eugeniae

Moisture

Crude protine

Crude fat

Ash

Crude fiber

N-free extract

83.3

57.4

13.2

10.8

0.7

18.2

81.1

56.1

2.1

28.7

-

13.1

78.3

50.4

1.4

35.2

-

12.9

-

47.0

25.2

6.6

-0.6

20.6

85.3

56.4

7.9

13.1

5.9

17.8

Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascua l(2000).

Table 6.2. Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN) Eisenia

foetida

Lumbricus

terrestils

Allolobophora

longa

Eudrilus

eugeniae

Arginine

Histidine

Isoleucine

Leucine

Lysine

Methionine

Phenylalanine

Theronine

Tryptophan

Valine

3.67

1.39

2.85

4.90

4.16

0.83

2.65

3.07

0.67

3.11

3.17

1.38

2.20

4.11

3.52

1.11

2.02

2.48

0.44

2.30

3.15

1.01

2.24

3.57

3.43

0.5

2.65

2.11

-

2.46

4.95

1.58

2.82

5.22

4.50

1.04

2.47

3.22

0.63

3.39

Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascua l( 2000).

Table 6.3. Macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus

eugeniae) Calcium

Phosphorus

Sodium

Iron

Zinc

Copper

Cadmium

%

%

%

mg/kg

mg/kg

mg/kg

mg/kg

1.5

0.9

0.2

100.0

122.5

7.8

21.0

Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual (2000).

The key to the multi-pronged success of earthworms as aquaculture fodder is their diet

of organic wastes. Land-based pollution, such as festering animal manure, is an

enormous problem for coastal fisheries impacted by runoff. Britain alone produces 84

megatons of cow manure, 9 megatons of pig waste and 5 megatons of chicken waste

each year, much of which flows to the coast as runoff. This pollution is a significant

contributor to the declining productivity of wild fish stocks, as fish struggle to cope

with their heavily contaminated environment. Earthworms solve this problem by

converting land animal wastes into high-protein aquaculture feed. Earthworms

convert cow manure into dry matter at a remarkable 10 percent clip, such that

Britain‟s 84 megatons of cow manure could produce 8.4 megatons of dehydrated

56

earthworms, delivering a protein punch of 5.9 million tons. The recipe is

uncomplicated: find crap, add worms, wait, then harvest, dry and grind.

The rock-solid implications of earthworms for aquaculture have already been verified.

Two species of worms were fed to a group of trout, a classic intensive aquaculture

species, while another group was fed commercial trout pellets made from fishmeal.

The results were splendid: the earthworm-fed fish grew as well or better than their

fishmeal-fed counterparts. Another study indicated the effectiveness of earthworm

feed on tilapia aquaculture, finding that tilapia actually grew better with earthworm

supplements than with fishmeal.

Using earthworms as fish feed presents a truly novel method for reducing the impact

of aquaculture on marine ecosystems. The benefits are threefold. Earthworms eat

polluting manure, improving water quality of coastal fisheries and aiding in recovery

from over-fishing. Eliminating fishmeal from aquaculture diets will also significantly

reduce overall stress on wild fisheries as well as allow for production cost control

independent of the price of wild fish. Thirdly, and not insignificantly, earthworms can

be used in place of fishmeal to feed land animals such as cows, pigs and chickens. At

present, land animal consumption accounts for a great deal of fishmeal intake, and

transitioning livestock to an earthworm diet will take huge pressure off wild fisheries.

Earthworms are a triple-win solution to intensive aquacultures‟ appetite for fishmeal.

The worms are by no means a silver bullet as they cannot solve all of aquaculture‟s

problems immediately. Pollution from intensive crustacean aquaculture will remain a

serious threat to coastal habitats until the lagoons are either moved inland or farmed

less intensively. This is to say nothing of mollusk aquaculture, a genuine champion of

sustainable protein production.

Earthworms, with an important high protein component, are used to feed chickens,

pigs, rabbits, and as a dietary supplement for ornamental fish or other fish species

difficult to raise and Some authors claim that in breeding of aquarium fish it is

essential to use a variety of food.

Vermicompost produced in ecological boxes can be used for feeding plants and the

created biomass can be a highly nutritious food for animals, because it consists of 58–

71% protein, 2.3–9.0% fat depending on earthworm species and the way earthworms

are fed with organic waste.

6.3. Earthworms, the sustainable aquaculture feed of the future

Aquaculture is a booming global industry: from 2002 to 2006, world aquaculture

production increased from 40.4 million metric tons to 51.7 million metric tons. Over a

three-decade span from 1975 to 2005, aquaculture production grew tenfold. During

this same span of time, however, wild capture fell from 93.2 to 92.0 million metric

tons. The inherent exhaustibility of the oceans necessitates that economically efficient

and environmentally responsible aquaculture fill the gap between supply and demand

for finfish and shellfish worldwide.

57

Genetic contamination and pollution, both chemical and biological, are serious

blemishes on the face of responsible aquaculture; however, the solution is simple.

Floating or land-based solid-wall tanks, such as those already in use in British

Columbia, eliminate escapes altogether. Wastes and uneaten feed, all collected within

the tank, are pumped through a filter, eliminating their respective eutrophying and

polluting effects. The real problem with status quo aquaculture isn‟t genetic

contamination or pollution, but rather the inefficiency and un-sustainability of

fishmeal as used for fish feed.

Carnivorous finfish aquaculture, the type employed in salmon and tuna farming,

typically depends on fishmeal, an oily paste made from ground fishes such as

mackerel and sardines, for feed. Each pound of farmed fish for human consumption

demands many pounds of fishmeal throughout the farming process, presenting a

serious barrier to the expansion of responsible aquaculture. Tilapia, a onetime dining

hall staple, is only 25 percent calorie efficient, meaning that it takes four tons of

fishmeal to grow only one ton of tilapia. Sardines and mackerel serve as important

sources of protein worldwide and as the diet of larger, commercially valuable stocks.

New sources of feed must be developed in order to facilitate industrial expansion and

ease aquaculture‟s strain on the world‟s over-fished oceans.

Organic manures if not decomposed completely before application in aquaculture

pond may deteriorate the water quality as they utilize oxygen during decomposition.

Therefore, the amount of any organic manure to be added in the pond mainly depends

upon its biological oxygen demand (BOD), as their excessive use may cause severe

dissolved oxygen depletion in the pond and results in production of toxic gases like

CO2, H2S, NH3, etc., and can spread parasitic diseases.

A study suggests higher potential of utilizing vermicompost as compared to cow dung

and hence can be used more effectively for manuring semi-intensive carp culture

ponds without affecting the hydro biological parameters. In developing country like

India, agriculture and livestock work in integration, where livestock waste (mainly

cow dung) is the most commonly used organic manure in agriculture and aquaculture.

Hence, the small scale on farm integration of vermicomposting of livestock and

agriculture waste with the rural aquaculture (extensive/semi-intensive) holds ample

scope for developing economically and ecologically sustainable farming system for

the socio-economic upliftment of rural population in developing countries (Kaur and

Ansal, 2010).

The research on Carassius auratus, showed that a 10% supplement of E. fetida

earthworms in food, given to those fish, caused a doubling of their biomass. The

research on P. reticulata, fed on earthworms only, also showed benefits. Compared to

the group fed with Bio-vit, the fish were characterized by a larger number of broods

and larger numbers of surviving fry. From this research it can be seen that E. fetida is

a highly nutritious food that is eagerly eaten by all age groups of the examined species

of fish. For the advocates of the ecological box, it means another possible use of one

of its products. That is because in addition to using the vermicompost, it gives another

possibility of feeding selected aquarium fish with the produced biomass of

earthworms. The results of the research not only indicate the possibility of reducing

58

the cost of fish-keeping, but also better results of that culture (Kostecka and Paczka,

2006).

Three meals were formulated from the earthworm (Endrilus eugineae) and maggot

(Musca domestica) and fish (Engraulis encrosicolus). These meals were evaluated as

a potential replacement for fishmeal. This is because fishmeal could be very

expensive at times. The three meals were used in feeding the catfish (Heterobranchus

isopterus) for 30 days. On the basis of weight increment, the best growth performance

was produced by maggot meal. It was followed by earthworm and fish meals,

respectively. Based on food conversion ratio maggot meal was again the best,

followed by earthworm and fish meals respectively. The importance of supplementary

feeding was evidenced in the higher weight increment in fish that were fed than those

that were not fed. Maggot and earthworm meals could therefore be a whole or partial

replacement for fishmeal. The difficulty in the harvesting or rearing maggots and

earthworms may however reduce this potential (Yaqub, 1991).

The use of vermicompost in pisci-culture is gaining its increased recognition for the

conservation of energy and optimum but economical utilization of available resources

with simultaneous pollution control. Vermicompost is hazard free organic manure,

which improves quality of pond base and overlying water as well as provides

organically produced aqua crops. The additions of manures affect the relative

abundance of the plankton and their community structure in aquatic system. Proper

combinations of inorganic nutrients (NPK) are the major factors that influence the

growth and production of plankton in a pond. Vermicompost contains all the major

organic nutrient components of N, P and K along with some necessary micronutrients

for plankton growth (Table 6.4).

In aquaculture industry, capital investment apart, there are also operating expenses,

mainly for seed, fertilizer, feed and labors. Among those, the cost of feed and

fertilizer constitute about 70% of the total expenses. For this reason there is need for

searching out chapter sources for feed and fertilizer. So, this is particularly significant

in developing nations, where fish farmers are unable to buy costly fish feed and

chemical fertilizer vermicompost forms an abundant alternative natural resource for

less expensive manure and fish feed for higher fish yield. However, the amount of

available nitrogen and phosphorus from vermicompost is less when compared with

conventional fertilizers and research should be oriented to increase its nitrogen and

phosphorus concentration through alteration of substrate composition.

Table 6.4. Different nutrient concentration in manure and fertilizer applied (average

value of triplicate sample analyzed)

Parameters Available N

(mg·g-1)

Available P

(mg·g-1)

Available K

(mg·g-1)

Dry weight of fertilizer

and manure used (g)

Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 18 ± 0.07 46 ± 0.05 Nil 3.04

Vermicompost 1.5 ± 0.05 1.4 ± 0.08 1.0 ± 0.05 99.0

Compost 1.0 ± 0.08 0.55 ± 0.09 1.0 ± 0.05 252.0

Souce: Chakrabarty et al, (2009).

Sample of soil, compost, vermicompost and DAP were analyzed for available P, N

content as well as for organic carbon. The dry weights of the fertilizer and manure

59

were ranged from 3.04 to 252.0 g in different treatments (50 kg P2O5 content basis)

(Table 6.5).

Table 6.5. Average values* (±SD) of physio-chemical parameters of water, primary

productivity of phytoplankton and final body weights and fish production of

Cyprinus carpio in various treatments. Parameters Control (T-1) Compost

(T-2)

Diammonium

phosphate

(T-3)

Vermicompost

(T-4)

Temperature (˚C) 30.0 ± 4.3 30.0 ± 5.1 30.0 ± 4.9 30.00 ± 5.5

pH 7.06 ± 0.4 7.26 ± 0.6 7.14 ± 0.1 7.43 ± 0.6

Dissolved oxygen (mg l-1

) 6.01 ± 0.9 6.21 ± 1.1 7.74 ± 1.0 7.02 ± 1.2

Ortho phosphate (mg l-1

) 0.09 ± 0.09 0.19 ± 0.06 0.52 ± 0.10 0.30 ± 0.14

Organic phosphate (mg l-1

) 0.08 ± 0.19 0.27 ± 0.15 0.20 ± 0.14 0.35 ± 0.21

Total phosphate (mg l-1

) 0.10 ± 0.10 0.66 ± 0.16 0.88 ± 0.25 0.68 ± 0.21

NO3–N (mg l-1

) 0.06 ± 0.08 0.12 ± 0.06 0.28 ± 0.03 0.16 ± 0.04

Total inorganic N (mg l-1

) 0.06 ± 0.005 0.40 ± 0.02 0.80 ± 0.04 0.62 ± 0.03

Total inorganic nitrogen (N)/total

phosphate (P)

1.6 0.61 0.90 0.91

Community respiration (mg C m-2

h-

1)

20.13 ±±9.3 28.13 ± 12.5 35.79 ± 18.2 38.58 ± 13.1

Final mean body weight (g) 18.24 ± 2.3 22.25 ± 3.6 39.50 ± 4.3 45.77 ± 3.9

Fertilizer/manure added (g) 0 252 3.04 99

Stocking density 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00

Initial average individual length

(cm)

1.40 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02

Initial average individual weight (g) 2.40 ± 0.01 2.40 ± 0.03 2.40 ± 0.04 2.40 ± 0.02

Final average individual length (cm) 4.20 ± 0.03 6.80 ± 0.06 7.60 ± 0.04 8.80 ± 0.07

Final average individual weight (g) 3.76 ± 0.01 8.29 ± 0.05 12.92 ± 0.03 16.76 ± 0.07

Growth increment (g fish-1

day-1

) 0.0151 0.0654 0.1169 0.1595

Production of fish (kg ha-1

90 day-1) 385.92 1,952.64 3080.45 3,970.56

Total weight gain (TWG) (g fish-1

) 0.57 2.45 4.38 5.98

Survival (%) 85 88 87 90

*Each average value applies to 90 days samples.

Source: Chakrabarty et al. (2009).

Where:

Absolute growth (AG) = final body weight - initial body weight

Growth increment (GI) = final body weight - initial body weight /

number of culture days after fish introduction

Total weight gain (TWG) = final body weight - initial body weight /

initial body weight

The demand for organically cultured food for human consumption is increasing across

the globe and for this reason organic aquaculture is the need of the present time. Wide

variety of organic manures such as grass, leaves, sewage water, livestock manure,

domestic wastes, night soil and dried blood meal have been used.

6.4. Possibilities of worms as animal feed in Egypt:

For a long time, extensive fish farming was the type practiced in Egypt, where only

chemical and/or organic fertilizers were applied for promoting the natural productivity

of ponds. Agricultural by-products such as wheat bran and rice bran were used for

supplementation in some farms. As the technology of fish farming has developed,

60

aquaculture started to exert some significant demand on fish feed. In 2001, there are

twelve feed mills that produced about 68 500 tons of specialized feeds. Most of feeds

are produced for self-sufficiency to support the needs of Governmental fish farms, but

some quantities are available for sale to private sector. Because of the cost, such mills

produce fish feeds of 18-32% protein of sinking type pellets, however, higher protein

floating feeds could be produced upon request. High quality fish meal provide the

major component in the commercial fish feeds and may constitute up to 60% of the

total diet for marine species, with higher levels being used in starter and fingerling

rations. Generally, a good range of raw materials is available for fish manufacture in

Egypt. However, price and competition from the human food and animal feed

industries limits the choice. High quality feed materials are in short supply and are

expensive. Apart from fish meal (imported and indigenous), the main available

protein sources are: soybean meal (hexane-extracted), cottonseed meal (expeller),

meat meal, poultry offal meal and feather meal. Other possibilities for new feed

materials may be the wide spread marine macroalgae or fresh water weed hyacinth.

On local basis, there is a scope for their incorporation into fish feeds particularly for

tilapia and mullets. Tables 6.6 and 6.7 show the proximate composition of the tested

feed ingredients, namely: acid fish silage (AFS), fermented fish silage (FFS), soybean

meal (SBM), a mixture of FFS and SBM (MIX), green macroalga Ulva meal (UM)

and red macro-algae Pterocladia meal (PM) compared to fish meal (FM) from

different sources and their amino acid profiles, respectively.

Table 6.6. Composition (%dry matter) of tested proteins sources or supplements for

fish feeds Ingredient Protein Lipid Ash Moisture NFE Fiber DE

AFS1 72.90 13.12 12.76 73.28 1.22 - 164

AFS2 73.40 17.10 8.30 - 1.20 - 178

AFS3 63.00 22.10 9.68 75.00 - - 177

FFS 56.67 12.7 20.04 0.98 - - 135

SBMG 44.80 20.60 5.40 5.50 29.20 - 161

SBMB 44.00 1.80 8.00 8.94 37.26 - 103

SBMD 44.00 4.00 6.53 11.00 38.17 7.30 110

UM 17.44 2.5 32.85 3.69 41.47 5.47 64

PM 22.61 2.18 37.3 3.05 28.29 9.62 35

FM1 72.05 10.94 7.00 5.00 8.98 1.02 160

FMD 61.00 8.95 20.72 6.20 9.73 - 136

FMD 61.00 5.00 16.60 5.00 16.70 0.70 127

Source: Wassef (2005).

NFE: Nitrogen free extract, by difference; DE: Digestible energy (MJ/Kg); AFS: acid fish silage;

FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal (G: germinated; B: boilled fullfat; D:

defatted); MIX: mixture of FFS and SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal (D:

domestic product; I: imported Manhaden).

61

Table 6.7. Amino acid (g/100g protein) profiles of tested protein sources or

supplement as compared to fish meal (FM) Amino acid (AA) AFS FFS SBM MIX UM PM FM

Indispensable (IAA)

Arginine (ARG)

Histidine (HIS)

Isoleucine (ILE)

Leucine (LEU)

Lysine (LYS)

Methionine (MET)

Phenyl-alanine (PHE)

Threonine (THR)

Valine (VAL)

Tryptophan (TRP)

Total IAA

Dispensable (DAA)

Aspartic Acid (ASP)

Serine (SER)

Glutamic Acid

(GLU)

Glycine (GLY)

Alanine (ALA)

Tyrosine (TYR)

Proline (PRO)

Cysteine (CYS)

Total (DAA)

Total amino acids

03.62

02.36

02.66

04.43

05.27

01.81

02.36

02.60

03.01

00.63

28.75

05.97

02.62

08.81

03.50

03.74

02.04

02.60

00.73

30.01

58.76

02.86

01.33

01.87

03.73

03.95

01.35

02.30

01.41

02.41

00.36

21.57

05.59

04.30

03.64

06.09

04.49

01.25

04.30

02.97

03.86

36.94

15.20

04.15

13.03

03.14

03.54

04.03

04.46

01.13

48.68

85.62

06.20

02.48

03.27

00.51

05.44

02.22

03.06

03.74

03.94

00.72

31.58

05.85

02.80

03.47

05.21

05.62

04.40

04.45

03.94

07.46

43.20

11.54

04.48

09.35

05.53

07.19

03.31

05.15

01.27

47.82

91.02

04.46

02.70

04.53

05.92

06.90

03.26

04.78

04.23

06.69

43.47

10.59

04.08

10.22

07.49

07.23

03.65

04.64

01.51

49.41

92.88

05.88

02.48

04.41

05.71

04.42

02.50

03.87

03.76

04.75

00.80

38.58

02.04

00.66

03.30

04.13

01.47

01.47

00.97

12.57

51.15

Source: Wassef (2005).

AFS: acid fish silage; FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal; MIX: mixture of FFS

and SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal.

There is still a great opportunity for Egypt to use the tremendous amount of organic

wastes to be used as meal not only for poultry, rabbits, ducks, and geese, but also for

aquaculture and large animals. The only missing part is to create awareness and to

develop capacity building programs in a well established demonstrated sites

representing different geographic regions of the country.

62

7. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices

and environmental effects of those practices, e.g. carbon and methane

emissions.

The main beneficiaries of this work are the agriculture producers in general and

organic farming producers specifically. Previous chapters covered all aspects of

production of vermicompost and vermiculture. As an organic grower interest, the

environmental positive impacts of utilizing such methods of production, it is

important to understand how vermicompost contribute to improve reducing the

production of greenhouse gases, and consequently help mitigating the global

warming. This chapter aims at highlighting on-farm and urban organic waste

management practices and the environmental effects of those practices.

7.1. Emissions from vermicompost

Composting has been identified as an important source of CH4 and N2O. With

increasing divergence of biodegradable waste from landfill into the composting

sector, it is important to quantify emissions of CH4 and N2O from all forms of

composting and from all stages. The study focused on the final phase of a two stage

composting process and compared the generation and emission of CH4 and N2O

associated with two differing composting methods: mechanically turned windrow and

vermicomposting. The mechanically turned windrow system was characterized by

emissions of CH4 and to a much lesser extent N2O. However, the vermicomposting

system emitted significant fluxes of N2O and only traces amounts of CH4. High N2O

emission rates from vermicomposting were ascribed to strongly nitrifying conditions

in the processing beds combined with the presence of de-nitrifying bacteria within the

worm gut (Hobson et al., 2005).

Different other reports from several countries stated that any possible emissions of

greenhouse gases by earthworms from soil or vermicomposting systems is extremely

small when compared with the well-documented emissions of nitrous oxide, methane

and carbon dioxide from inorganic fertilizer manufacture, landfills, manure heaps,

lagoons, crop residues in soils and manure from pigs and cattle in housed systems.

While there will be N2O emissions from all these sources, there is no justification for

suggesting that environmentally-friendly and energy-efficient systems for producing

vermicomposts and composts should be restricted because of their potential to

produce greenhouse gases. The global production of nitrogenous greenhouse gases in

agriculture should be compared from all sources before vermicomposting is publicly

condemned in such a sensational way (Edwards, 2008).

Recent research has shown that certain types of vermicomposting can generate

significant amounts of N2O. These initial findings indicate a need for more research to

be conducted before any sound recommendations on vermicomposting can be given.

Since the amount of emissions from composting depends on the specific composting

method used and on how well the process is managed, it is not possible to give a

63

definitive answer to the question of how much composting contributes to climate

change. Most studies on emissions from composting have been carried out in

developed countries where conditions differ from the target countries of this study.

Nevertheless, several environmental agencies have concluded that when composting

is done properly, it generates very small amounts of greenhouse gases (IGES, 2008).

Chan et al. (2010) investigated greenhouse gas emissions from three different home

waste treatment methods in Brisbane, Australia. Gas samples were taken monthly

from 34 backyard composting bins from January to April 2009. Averaged over the

study period, the aerobic composting bins released lower amounts of CH4 (2.2 mg·m-

2·h

-1) than the anaerobic digestion bins (9.5 mg·m

-2·h

-1) and the vermicomposting bins

(4.8 mg.m

-2.h

-1). The vermicomposting bins had lower N2O emission rates (1.2 mg m

-2

h-1

) than the others (1.5–1.6 mg·m-2

·h-1

). Total greenhouse gas emissions including

both N2O and CH4 were 463, 504 and 694 mg CO2e m-2

·h-1

for vermicomposting,

aerobic composting and anaerobic digestion, respectively, with N2O contributing

>80% in the total budget. The greenhouse gas emissions varied substantially with

time and were regulated by temperature, moisture content and the waste properties,

indicating the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emission through proper

management of the composting systems. The results suggest that home composting

provides an effective and feasible supplementary waste management method to a

centralized facility in particular for cities with lower population density such as the

Australian cities.

In terms of greenhouse gas emissions during the maturation process, the windrow

composting process was characterized by emission of CH4. Emission of greenhouse

gases from vermicomposting was predominantly N2O with comparatively little CH4

emitted, demonstrating that sufficiently aerobic conditions were maintained in the

vermicomposting beds to inhibit CH4 production. The global warming potential of the

vermicomposting maturation system was estimated to be approximately 30 times

greater than that for the windrow composting system. The emission of greenhouse

gases from these types of composting systems requires further investigation.

Vermicomposting by worms decreases the proportion of 'anaerobic to aerobic

decomposition', resulting in a significant decrease in methane (CH4) and volatile

sulfur compounds which are readily emitted from the conventional (microbial)

composting process. Vermi-composting of waste organics using earthworms therefore

has a distinct advantage over the conventional aerobic composting as it does not allow

the greenhouse gas methane (CH4) to be formed. Molecule to molecule, methane is a

20-25 times more powerful greenhouse gas than CO2. Earthworms can play a good

part in the strategy of greenhouse gas reduction and mitigation in the disposal of

global organic wastes as landfills also emit methane resulting from the slow anaerobic

decomposition of waste organics over several years. However, recent research done in

Germany has found that earthworms produce a third of nitrous oxide (N20) gases

when used for vermicomposting. Molecule to molecule N:0 is a 296 times more

powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2). This needs further study (Daven

and Klein, 2008).

64

7.2 Total emissions from waste sector in Egypt

Total emissions for 2000 amounted to about 193 megaton of carbon dioxide

equivalent1. With the total emissions for 1990 amounting to about 117 megaton of

carbon dioxide equivalent., The average greenhouse gases emissions increase is about

5% annually. In this respect, the estimated total greenhouse gases emissions for 2008

are about 288 megaton of carbon dioxide equivalent. Egypt‟s specific greenhouse

gases emissions for 2000 amounted to 2.99 megaton of carbon dioxide per capita,

while direct CO2 emissions per capita in 2000 amounted to 1.98 ton per capita.

The total greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 of carbon dioxide, methane, nittrogen

oxide, Perfluorocarbons, haloflorocarbons, sulpher hexafloride (excluding emissions

from land use change), for the world amounted to 29,910 megaton of carbon dioxide..

The total 1990 emissions of Egypt amounted to about 117 megaton of carbon dioxide,

based on emissions of dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide (EEAA, 1999). These figures

denote that the share of Egypt in the total World emissions in 1990 was 0.4%.

Egypt‟s total emissions are about 193 dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide, including

emissions of manure management, agriculture soil, and field burning of agricultural

residues, and emissions from some sources of sub-categories, such as methane

emissions from aerobic waste water treatment plants, nitrogen oxide emissions from

domestic wastewater and emissions from incineration, all of which were not included

in the 1990 figures. Moreover, more updated figures for activity data were used for

solid waste generation and wastewater generation for the year 2000. Based on this and

taking into account the world total emissions for the year 2000, amounting to 33,017

megaton of carbon dioxide equivalen, Egypt‟s share in the total world emissions for

2000 was 0.58% (EEAA, 2010).

1 Each of the greenhouse gases has a global warming potential (GWP) value compared to CO2, which has global

warming potential=1. All quantities of green house gases are converted to CO2 equivalent quantities by

multiplying the weight of such gas by its GWP to obtain the CO2 equivalent weight.

65

Table 7.1. Summary of greenhouse gases emissions for Egypt, 2000, as of its Second

National Communications1 submitted in July 2010.

Greenhouse gases

Source & Sink

Categories

CO2

(Kt)

CH4

(Kt)

N2O

(Kt)

PFCs

(Kt)

SF6

(Kt)

HFCs

(Kt)

Total

(Mt

CO2e)

Total National

Emissions & Removals 128,227 1,877 79

160

(tons)

5

(tons)

28

(tons) 193.3

ALL ENERGY

(Fuel Combustion &

Fugitive)

106,629 447 581

(tons) --

5

(tons) -- 116.3

Fuel combustion 105,161 3 559

(tons) --

5

(tons) -- 105.5

Petroleum & energy

transformation industries 41,436

930

(tons)

130

(tons) --

5

(tons) --

Industry 26,987 680

(tons)

180

(tons) -- -- --

Transport 27,120 1 222

(tons) -- -- --

Small combustion 9,389 188

(tons)

25

(tons) -- -- --

Agriculture 229 10

(tons)

2

(tons) -- -- --

Fugitive emissions from

fuels 1,469 444

22

(tons) -- -- -- 10.8

Oil & Natural Gas 1,469 444 22

(tons) -- -- --

INDUSTRIAL

PROCESSES 21,594 -- 16

160

(tons) --

28

(tons) 27.8

Cement production 17,251 -- -- -- -- -- --

Lime production 31 -- -- -- -- -- --

Iron and steel industry 1,576 -- -- -- -- -- --

Nitric acid production -- -- 16 -- -- -- --

Aluminum production -- -- -- 160

(tons) -- -- --

Ozone Depleting Substitutes -- -- -- -- -- 28

(tons) --

Ammonia production 2,736 -- -- -- -- -- --

1 As per Kyoto Protocol, Egypt submitted it's Second National Communication for Climate Change to

the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC) in June 2010.

66

Greenhouse gases

Source & Sink

Categories

CO2

(Kt)

CH4

(Kt)

N2O

(Kt)

PFCs

(Kt)

SF6

(Kt)

HFCs

(Kt)

Total

(Mt

CO2e)

AGRICULTURE -- 599 62 31.7

Agriculture soils -- -- 33 -- -- -- --

Enteric fermentation -- 385 -- -- -- -- --

Manure management -- 28 28 -- -- -- --

Rice cultivation --

118 -- -- -- -- --

Field burning of

agricultural residues -- 68 1 -- -- -- --

WASTE 3 832 10

(tons) -- -- -- 17.5

Solid waste disposal on land -- 557 -- -- -- -- --

Wastewater treatment -- 275 10

(tons) -- -- -- --

Waste incineration 3 -- -- -- -- -- --

Source: EEAA (2010).

7.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes

The global N2O emission from crop residue has been estimated at 0.4 tera gram

nitrogen per year, using the IPCC default emission factor of 1.25% of applied residue

N emitted as N2O. However, this default emission factor is based on relatively few

experimental studies. Recent experiments showed that the emission factor for crop

residues can vary considerably with residue quality, particularly the carbon/nitrogen

(C/N) ratio and the amount of mineralizable N. Generally, higher emissions follow

incorporation of residue with lower C/N ratios. It could be concluded that earthworm

activity has the potential to increase N2O emissions from crop residues up to 18-fold;

that the earthworm effect is largely independent of bulk density; and that earthworm

species, specifically, impact N2O emissions and residue stabilization in soil organic

matter. However, earthworm-mediated emissions of N2O mostly resulted from residue

incorporation into the soil, and disappeared when plowing of residue into the soil was

simulated. Our results suggest that, irrespective of earthworm activity, farmers may

decrease direct N2O emissions from crop residues with a relatively low C/N ratio by

leaving it on top for a few weeks before plowing it into the soil. However, field

studies should confirm this effect, and possible trade-offs to other (indirect) emissions

of N2O should be taken into consideration before this can be recommended (Rizhiya

et al., 2007).

67

Over the past three years, a comprehensive research program on vermicomposting has

been developed at the Ohio State University. This has included experiments

investigating the effects of vermicomposts on the germination, growth, flowering, and

fruiting of vegetable plants such as bell peppers and tomatoes, as well as on a wide

range of flowering plants including petunias, marigolds, bachelor‟s button,

chrysanthemums, impatiens, sunflowers, and poinsettias. A consistent trend in all

these growth trials has been that the best plant growth responses, with all needed

nutrients supplied, occurred when vermicomposts constituted a relatively small

proportion (10% to 20%) of the total volume of the container medium mixture, with

greater proportions of vermicomposts in the plant growth medium not always

improving plant growth. Some of the plant growth responses in horticultural container

media, substituted with a range of dilutions of vermicomposts, were similar to those

reported when composts were used instead (Atiyeh et al., 2000).

Table (7.2) and Figure (7.1) present Egypt‟s total greenhouse gas emissions by gas

type, for the year 2000, while Table (7.2) and figure (7.2) present Egypt‟s total

greenhouse gas emissions by sector for the year 2000.

Table 7.2. Egypt‟s greenhouse gas emissions by gas type for the year 2000.

Gas

Emissions

(mega ton CO2

equivalent)

Emissions

(%)

Carbon Dioxide, CO2 128.2 66.3

Methane, CH4 39.4 20.4

Nittrogen oxide, N2O 24.4 12.6

Perfluorocarbons, PFC 1.1 0.6

Sulpher hexafluoride, SF6 0.1 0.1

Haloflorocarbons, HFC's

blend 0.1

0.1

TOTAL 193.3 100

Source: EEAA (2010).

68

Figure 7.1. Egypt‟s greenhouse gases emissions by gas type for the year 2000 in

mega ton CO2 equivalent.

Source: EEAA (2010).

Table 7.3. Egypt‟s greenhouse gases emissions by sector for the year 2000

Sector

Emissions

(mega ton CO2

equivalent)

Emissions

(%)

Fuel Combustion 105.5 55

Fugitive Fuel Emissions 10.8 6

Agriculture 31.7 16

Industrial Processes 27.8 14

Waste 17.5 9

TOTAL 193.3 100

Source: EEAA (2010).

CO 2 ; 128.22 ; 66%

CH 4 ; 39.44 ; 20%

N 2 O ; 24.36 ; 13%

PFC ; 1.04 ; 1% SF6; 0.11; 0%

HFC's blend; 0.05; 0%

69

Figure 7.2. Egypt‟s greenhouse gases emissions by sector for the year 2000, in mega

ton CO2 equivalent.

Source: EEAA(2010).

Table (7.3) and figure (7.2) show the change of sectors‟ contribution to Egypt‟s total

inventory. It is clear that the total greenhouse gas emissions of Egypt increased in

2000 to be 165% of that in 1990. During this period Egypt‟s population increased by

123% with an increase in the GDP of 277% (Ministry of Economic Development,

2007). The ratio of GDP, at the 1981/82 fixed prices, for the year 2000 to that for

1990 is 151%, denoting that the increase in greenhouse gas emissions seems to be

correlated to the GDP increase rather than the population growth. It is clear that

emissions from agriculture are the second after fuel combustion and before industrial

processes.

7.4. Vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment

There is another important use that helps the environment which is the use of

vermiculture as a biological filter for domestic waste water. use of earthworms in

filtration systems, which has been termed vermifiltration (VF) (Xing et al., 2010).

Since then, several studies have been conducted to evaluate the use of vermifilters in

domestic wastewater treatment, municipal wastewater treatment, and swine

wastewater treatment processes, as well as in simultaneous sludge reduction

processes. However, less attention has been given to the use of vermifilters to dispose

of excess sludge directly. Moreover, most studies conducted to evaluate VFs have

only focused on the contamination purification efficiencies, but the interactions

between earthworms and microorganisms, which are very important for understanding

the sludge stabilization mechanisms involved in VFs, have not been fully investigated.

A study was conducted to explore the feasibility of using a VF to stabilize sewage

sludge while focusing on elucidating the earthworm–microorganism interactions

responsible for the decomposition of organic matter in the vermifilter. Additionally,

this investigation sought to identify the primary mechanism by which sewage sludge

stabilization in the vermifilter occurs based on the chemical and spectroscopic

Fuel Combustion ; 105.51 ; 55%

Fugitive fuel;

10.81; 6%

Industrial Processes; ;

27.77; 14%

Agriculture ; 31.72 ; 16%

Waste ; 17.49 ; 9%

Fuel Combustion Fugitive fuel emissions Industrial Processes Agriculture Waste

70

properties of the treated sludge, the microbial community in the biofilm, and the

earthworm–microorganism interactions in the vermifilter reactor. The results of this

study provide useful information regarding the use of a vermifilter for the optimal

sewage sludge treatment. A cylinder shaped vermifilter (30 cm in diameter and 60 cm

in depth) that was naturally ventilated was equipped with a 0.5-inch polypropylene

pipe with holes to ensure uniform distribution of the influent (Figure 7.3). The

vermifilter contained a 0.5 m filter bed of ceramic pellets (6–9 mm in diameter). A

layer of plastic fiber was placed on the top of the filter bed to avoid direct hydraulic

impact on the earthworms and to ensure an even influent distribution. The influent

sludge was introduced to the vermifilter via a peristaltic pump. After passing through

the filter bed, the treated sludge entered into a sedimentation tank below the

vermifilter and the supernatant in the sedimentation tank was recycled.

Figure 7.3. Layout of the Vermifilter

Source: Zhaoa et al. (2010).

The vermifilter may be an efficient technology for stabilization of excess sludge from

domestic Waste Water Treatment Plants. The volatile suspended solids (VSS)

reduction in the VF reached 56.2–66.6%, which met the criteria for aerobic and

anaerobic sludge stabilization (>40%). The presence of the earthworms in the VF

induced an additional 25.1% reduction in volatile suspended solids. On average, the

earthworm–microorganism interactions were responsible for approximately 46% of

the improvement in the VSS reduction. Moreover, a detailed characterization of

sludge and earthworm cast samples revealed that earthworms in the VF improved the

microbial activity by transforming insoluble organic materials into a soluble form and

selectively digesting the sludge particles of 10–200 μm to finer particles of 0–2 μm,

while enhancing the bacterial diversity in the biofilm. Additionally, improved sludge

settleability with a compact structure and low SVI values (33–45 mL/g) were

achieved in the presence of earthworms, which was favorable for further sludge

processing (Zhaoa et al., 2010).

71

8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on

greenhouse gas emission reductions

Vermicompost is one of the activities that could mitigate the greenhouse gases

(GHGs) that cause global warming. Both urbane wastes and agricultural residues

produce considerable amounts of greenhouse gases as described in the previous

chapter. According to the environmental regulations, the reduction of greenhouse

gases could be a source of financial benefits for vermicompost producers. Therefore,

this chapter deals with examples of reducing the emissions through vermicomposting,

which may assist the firms working in this business to sell their carbon reduction in

what is called "carbon market". Every ton of CO2e reduced could be sold with around

10 Euros according to pre-signed contract. The mechanism that regulates such activity

is the clean development mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto prorocol. Under the CDM

industrialized countries can purchase greenhouse gas emission reductions from

developing countries to help meet their obligations under the Kyoto Protocol.

8.1. Background

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) proposed under article 12 of the Kyoto

Protocol is an important potential instrument to promote foreign investment in

greenhouse gas emission reduction options while simultaneously addressing the issue

of sustainable development.

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of the Kyoto Protocol programs

for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Under the CDM, an

industrialized country with a greenhouse gas reduction target can invest in a project in

a developing country without a target and claim credit for the emissions that the

project achieves. German companies, for instance, invested in a wind power project in

Egypt, thus replacing electricity that would otherwise have been produced from coal.

Egypt then sold the credit for the emissions that have been avoided to Germany

which, in turn, used them to meet its own greenhouse gas reduction target.

Both sides benefit from CDM projects. For industrialized countries, the CDM greatly

reduces the cost of meeting the reduction commitments that they agreed to under the

Kyoto Protocol. Developing countries receive financial and technical assistance in

upgrading their energy infrastructure and can sell certified emission reductions for

profit. This diversification of external earnings will reduce oil-exporting countries'

dependence on the highly volatile world oil price.

Egypt is striving to develop efficient, transparent and strong criteria and institutions

for the marketing, approval and control of CDM projects, thus making the country

attractive for international CDM investors and ensuring the efficient implementation

of CDM projects. The private sector will play an important role in this process, be it

as project hosts, in project design and implementation, or in the verification of

emission reductions. Donors and governmental authorities are the potential facilitators

of CDM projects. Environment 2007 therefore intends to increase awareness and

bring together businesses and the various financing institutions in order to ensure their

full participation in the CDM process.

72

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – UNFCCC was

agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

(UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, 1992. This agreement aims at the stabilization of

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, at a level that would prevent dangerous changes

to the climate.

The UNFCCC adopted Kyoto Protocol at the third conference of parties (COP3) in

Kyoto, Japan in 1997. The Protocol sets binding commitments by 39 developed

countries and economies in transition, listed in Annex B, to reduce their greenhouse

gas emissions by an average of 5.2 per cent on 1990 levels (the first commitment

period, 2008 - 2012).

The UNFCCC divides countries in two main groups: Annex I parties that include the

industrialized countries and countries with “economies in transition” /EITs (the

Russian Federation, the Baltic States and several other Central and Eastern European

countries). All the others are called non-Annex I countries.

Annex I countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol can invest in projects that both

reduce greenhouse gases and contribute to sustainable development in non-Annex I

countries. A CDM project provides certified emissions reductions (CERs) to Annex I

countries, which they can use to meet their greenhouse gas reduction commitments

under the Kyoto Protocol. Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol sets out three goals for the

CDM: i) To help mitigate climate change; ii) To assist Annex I countries attain their

emission reduction commitments, and iii) To assist developing countries in achieving

sustainable development.

In addition to contribute towards sustainable development, CDM project candidates

looking for approval under the CDM must lead to real, measurable reductions in

greenhouse gas emissions, or lead to the measurable absorption (or “sequestration”) of

greenhouse gases in a developing country. The six greenhouse gases and gas classes

coming from varied sources of the economy are: carbon dioxide "CO2" (source: fossil

fuel combustion; deforestation; agriculture); methane "CH4" (source: agriculture; land

use change; biomass burning; landfills); nitrous oxide "N2O" (source: fossil fuel

combustion; industrial; agriculture); hydrofluorocarbons "HFCs" (source: industrial

/manufacturing); perfluorocarbons "PFCs" (source: industrial/manufacturing); sulphur

hexafluoride "SF6" (source: electricity transmission; manufacturing(.

The baseline for a CDM project is the scenario used to show the trend of

anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions that would occur in the absence of the

proposed CDM project. The baseline basically shows what would be the future

greenhouse gas emissions without the CDM project intervention. Each CDM project

has to develop its own baseline. Once a baseline methodology has been approved by

the Executive Board, other projects can use it too. For small-scale projects, guidance

is provided on standard baselines.

Greenhouse gas emissions from a CDM project activity must be reduced below those

that would have occurred in the absence of the project. It must be shown that the

project would not have been implemented without the CDM. Without this

“additionality” requirement, there is no guarantee that CDM projects will create

73

incremental greenhouse gas emissions reductions equivalent to those that would have

been made in Annex I countries, or play a role in the ultimate objective of stabilizing

atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations.

CERs generated by CDM projects that are used by Annex 1 countries to meet their

Kyoto targets allow emissions in these countries to rise. Therefore if CERs are

awarded to activities that would happen without the CDM project, i.e. for reductions

that would occur anyway, Annex 1 emissions are allowed to rise without a

corresponding cut elsewhere, thereby raising global emissions. The only winners are

the buyers of cheap credits, because host countries do not receive new investment and

climate change is not being mitigated.

CDM projects assist developing countries to achieve sustainable development.

Industrialized countries have developed domestic policies to comply with the Kyoto

Protocol. This has led to a growing demand for carbon credits. Developing countries

may supply such carbon credits. While many factors influence the size and stability of

the global market, facts indicate that this market would move billions of dollars a

year, increasing foreign investment capital flow in developing countries.

According to the Kyoto Protocol, investments in various sectors of non-Annex I

countries may qualify for CDM credits in 1) energy fuel combustion: energy

industries; manufacturing industries and construction; transport; other sectors; 2)

Fugitive emissions from fuels: solid fuels; oil and natural gas; 3) industrial processes:

mineral products; chemical industry; metal production; other production; production

and consumption of halocarbons and sulphur hexaflouride; 4) solvent; 5) agriculture:

enteric fermentation; manure management; rice cultivation; agricultural soils;

prescribed burning of savannas; filed burning of agricultural residues; 6) solid waste

disposal on land; wastewater handling; waste incineration; 7) land-use, land-use

change, and forestry: afforestation; reforestation; avoided deforestation for thermal

energy in small-scale projects.

8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements in Egypt

Clean Development Mechanism is one of Kyoto Protocol three mechanisms which

include Joint Implementation and Emissions Trading. The aim from applying CDM is

the implementation of projects reducing greenhouse gas emissions from different

sectors such as industry, waste recycling, transport, switching to usage of natural gas

as a fuel, and afforestation to absorb greenhouse gas. These projects contribute to

achieving sustainable development goals, create job opportunities, produce additional

financial return from selling carbon reduction certificates as a result.

During 2007, NCCC held 6 meetings (3 for the Egyptian Bureau for CDM (EB-CDM)

and the Egyptian Council for CDM (EC-CDM)). Seventeen CDM projects have been

approved and Letters of No-Objection (LoN) have been issued (first phase of project

approval). Such projects include:

1. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, Delta Fertilizers and Chemical

Industries.

74

2. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, KIMA Chemical Industries.

3. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, Nasr Fertilizers and Chemical

Industries.

4. Fuel switching and reduction of clinker, National Cement Company.

5. Fuel switching in industrial processes, El-Delta Steel Company.

6. Equipment replacement and fuel switching, El-Max Salinas Company,

Alexandria.

7. Land filling, treatment, and recycling, Southern Region, Cairo Governorate.

8. Installation of cogeneration unit operating by gas recovered from the industrial

processes, Alexandria Carbon Black Company.

9. Replacement of fuel oil by natural gas, Dakahlia Spinning and Weaving

Company.

10. Replacement of light oil and coke gas by natural gas as a fuel for furnaces, Nasr

Forging Company.

11. Fuel Switching from Light Oil to Natural Gas in Spring and Transport Needs

Manufacturing Co.

12. Methane Reduction by Composting of Municipal Waste from Cairo North and

West.

13. Capture and flaring of biologically-generated methane from Abu Zaabal

landfills,Qalyubia.

14. Replacement of light oil by natural gas, Damietta Spinning and Weaving

Company.

15. Reduction of sodium carbonate, Nile Oils and Detergents Company.

16. Reduction of CO2 emissions, Egypt for Oils and Soap Company.

17. Switching fuel from heavy oil to natural gas, El-Nasr Wool and Selected Textile

Company (STIA).

8.3. Egypt National Strategy on the CDM

Egypt has participated to the National Strategy Studies (NSS) Program, launched by

the Government of Switzerland and the World Bank in 1997.

This program has assisted Egypt in the development of the CDM Strategy which was

undertaken in collaboration with the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs and

Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA).

The Egypt‟s NSS on the CDM aims at mainstreaming environment into the relevant

sectors and minimizing the environmental impacts of development, through

identification of priority policies and planning for their implementation.

1- Ratification on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change, the issuance of Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment,

and the participation in various international workshops and conferences

related to climate change to avoid having any international obligations on

developing countries, including Egypt .

2- Ratification of Kyoto's Protocol, and the establishment of the Egyptian

Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism (DNA);

75

consisting of the Egyptian Bureau and the Egyptian Council for Clean

Development Mechanism.

3- Ministry of Electricity and Energy: establishment several projects in the field

of New and Renewable Energy (Wind - Solar - Hydro - Bio), and encouraging

Energy Efficiency Projects .

4- Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs: establishing guiding schemes for

private sector to encourage investments in the field of clean energy projects,

waste recycling, and afforestation .

5- Maximizing the benefit from Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms through

implementing Clean Development Mechanism Projects .

In addition to the State's concern in maximizing the benefit from Kyoto Protocol

Mechanisms, especially Clean Development Mechanism, it established the

Egyptian Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism

(DNA-CDM), instantly after ratifying the protocol and its entrance into force in

2005. The DNA has achieved tangible progress in several sectors, 36 projects

have been approved within the framework of the Mechanism. This is including the

sectors of: New and Renewable Energy, Industry, Waste Recycling, Afforestation,

Energy Efficiency, and Fuel Switching to Natural Gas. This is for an estimated

total cost of 1200 Million US Dollar. These projects are considered as a source for

attracting foreign investments, providing employment opportunities, and

contributing in the implementation of Sustainable Development plans in Egypt.

8.4. The national regulatory framework

The law number 4 of 1994 and its executive regulation contain the national policy and

regulatory framework governing the growth and competitiveness of the agro residue

based biomass sector. In the protection of air environment from pollution section

article (36) said that in carrying out their activities, establishments subject to the

provisions of this law are held to ensure that emissions or leakages of air pollutants do

not exceed the maximum limits permitted and Article (38) Concern about dump, treat

or burn garbage and solid waste, while Article (42) talk about the consideration which

should be given by the competent bodies, according to their activities, when burning

any type of fuel or other substance, and the Precautions, Permissible limits, and

Specification of Chimneys While Article (45)Talk about the necessary precautions

and procedures laid down by the Ministry of Manpower and Employment to prevent

the leakage or emission of air pollutants inside the work. Annex I contain the

executive regulation of law number 4 of 1994 which governing the growth and

competitiveness of the agro residue based biomass sector.

76

9. Analysis of the Egyptian context and applicability of vermiculture

as a means of greenhouse gas emission reduction.

In the waste sector, the Egyptian relevant ministries, in collaboration with concerned

governorates, have developed several plans and programs over the past ten years to

improve the process of collection, reuse and recycling of waste, yet there are several

barriers to achieving the goals of these programs. These include financial constraints

for the mitigation of greenhouse gass emissions from the waste sector; the significant

dependence on external financial support, as grants and concessionary loans,

complicating the planning process and slowing down implementation; limited public

awareness about the economic benefits of reuse and recycling of waste leads, leading

to the hesitation of funding institutions to consider waste management activity as a

viable option; the need of technology transfer and high investments for some waste

treatment options, such as anaerobic digestion; the weak enforcement of existing laws

and regulations for violations in handling waste.

9.1. Profile of wastes in Egypt

9.1.1. Municipal solid waste

Waste in Egypt can be considered as constituted of solid waste and wastewater. The

total annual amount of solid waste produced in Egypt is about 17 Mt according to the

year 2000 estimates. The amount of accumulated solid waste (i.e. waste not collected

and dumped in disposal sites but rather dumped on roads and empty lands) was

estimated to be about 9.7 Mt for the year 2000, with a total volume of 36,098,936 m3

(EEAA 2007). This solid waste can be categorized into municipal waste, industrial

waste, agriculture waste, waste from cleaning waterways and healthcare waste.

Household waste constitutes about 60% of the total municipal waste quantities, with

the remaining 40% being generated by commercial establishments, service

institutions, streets and gardens, hotels and other entertainment sector entities. Per

capita generation rates in Egyptian cities, villages and towns vary from lower than 0.3

kg for low socio-economic groups and rural areas, to more than 1 kg for higher living

standards in urban centers. On a nationwide average, the composition is about 50-60%

food wastes, 10-20% paper, and 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, and plastics, and

the remainder is basically inorganic matter and others.

Currently, solid waste quantities handled by waste management systems are estimated

at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day being produced in cities, and

the rest generated from the pre-urban and rural areas. Various studies indicate low

waste collection efficiencies, varying between less than 35% in small provincial

towns to 77% in large cities.

Final destinations of municipal solid waste entail about 8% of the waste being

composted, 2% recycled, 2% landfilled, and 88% dumped in uncontrolled open

dumps. In this respect, 16 landfills exist in Egypt: 7 in the Greater Cairo Region, 5 in

the Delta governorates and 4 in Upper Egypt. Their capacities range between 0.5 and

77

12 Mt per day. They are usually operated by private entities. Recently, 53 sites have

been identified for new landfills, and the construction of 56 composting plants

throughout the country is underway.

9.1.2. Agricultural wastes

Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons

per day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal

fodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes.

9.2. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the solid wastes

As a non-annex I country, Egypt is not required to meet any specific emission

reduction or limitation targets in terms of commitments under the UNFCCC, or the

Kyoto protocol. However, mitigation measures are already in progress. Egypt is fully

aware that greenhouse gas emissions reduction, particularly by major producers, is the

only measure that could ensure the mitigation of global warming and climate change.

The mitigation measures in this section are based on those described in national plans

and country studies documents (Table 9.1).

Six main criteria have been selected for prioritization of mitigation measures in the

waste sector according to Egypt's Second National Communication. These entail

investment costs; payback periods; greenhouse gases emission reductions potentials;

duration of implementation; priority in national strategies/programs; and contribution

to sustainable development. Mitigation options, concluded from a multi-criteria

analysis, were combined for each sub-sector in order to generate a number of

scenarios for solid waste and wastewater. The lowest greenhouse gas emitting

scenario was selected for implementation during the period 2009 to 2025.

Mitigation measures under one or more of appropriate treatment categories, the

associated emission reduction potential, and investment costs calculated for 25 years

lifetime in simple linear amortization cost, are summarized in tables (III.6) and (III.7)

for solid waste and wastewater, respectively (EEAA, 2007).

78

Table 9.1. Summary of identified mitigation measures for solid wastes.

Mitigation Measure

Emission

reduction

potential

(ton CO2e per

ton MSW)

Investment cost

(US$/ton MSW)

Composting and recycling facilities 0.38 0.92

Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with

electricity generation only,

composting, and recycling

< 0.3 2.07

Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with

substitution in cement kiln,

composting, and recycling facilities

< 0.3 1.97

Anaerobic digestion with recycling

(flaring biogas) 0.342 12.16

Anaerobic digestion with recycling

facilities (with electricity

generation)

0.547 16.16

Source: EEAA (2010).

The Egyptian relevant ministries, in close collaboration with concerned governorates,

have developed several plans and programs over the past ten years to improve the

process of dealing with waste reduction, reuse, recycling and/or proper disposal.

These plans and programs lead to the reduction in emissions from the waste sector.

Yet there are several barriers to achieving the goals of these programs. These

comprise the following:

Although financial support for mitigation of greenhouse gases emissions from

the waste sector in Egypt has increased significantly over the last years, it still

represents a clear constraint in the implementation of the intended programs.

The significant dependence on external financial support, as grants and

concessionary loans, complicates the planning process, and slows down

implementation.

The limited public awareness about the economic benefits of mitigation options

in the waste sector leads to the hesitation of funding institutions to consider

waste management activity as an economically viable option.

Technology transfer represents another barrier mainly in anaerobic digestion

technologies as it needs high capital investment and skills to operate correctly.

Some technologies are designed on site-specific bases, which are not optimal for

other regions. Highly local skilled experts and extensive studies are needed for

proving the suitability and applicability of the technology according to different

varying local conditions in Egypt.

All parties in the waste sector are relatively of limited environmental

management experience and the mechanisms for coordination with EEAA are

not well established. Furthermore, privatization of the waste sector lacks clear

79

modalities for partnership, particularly with regards to private-public

partnership.

Weak enforcement of existing laws and regulations for violations in handling

waste reduces the opportunity for achieving the goals of the planned programs.

9.3. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the agriculture wastes

As the activities of agriculture are too complicated and the share of emission from all

agriculture activities is almost 16%, it was not mentioned in the mitigation options for

the National Communication of Egypt. Although no studies have been reported on the

mitigation from the agricultural wastes, vermicompost could save considerable

amounts of greenhouse gases from reducing the amount of crop residues burned.

Further studies are still required to elaborate on this subject.

80

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85

Annex 1

General information and FAQ

WORM FACTS

SMALLEST: Less than an inch

LARGEST: 22 Foot found in South Africa

An earthworm has a brain, five hearts, and “ breathes” through its skin

An earthworm produces its own weight in casts everyday

There are over 1 million earthworms in one acre of soil

Earthworms can burrow as deep as fifteen feet

Earthworms are 82% protein and are a food source for many people around the

world

Eating earthworms can reduce cholesterol, as the basic essential oil of

earthworms is Omega 3

Benefits of Earthworms

Increased moisture absorption

Improved soil aeration and drainage

Leaching counteracted by nutrient-rich castingsbrought to the surface

Nutrients are pre-digested, making them readily available to microorganisms

and plants

Worm castings form aggregates which improve soil structure

Castings neutralize soil by buffering acid and alkaline conditions

Worm tunnels create fertile channels for the growth of plant roots

The bottom line: Earthworms increase crop yields while building soil fertility

reserves.

FAQ Compost Worm -

Do compost worms also eat normal earth or only rotting organic material?

Although the compost worms Eisenia foetida and Eisenia andrei are not commonly

found in mineral grounds, scientific investigations show that they also eat mineral

earth. However, they select an organic enriched fraction from the bulk soil

(approximately by a factor 2), which is also typical for soil dwelling worms.

Therefore, compost worms can also be used to clean contaminated mineral grounds.

Can compost worms be used for decontamination of mineral soils?

Yes, because they eat mineral soils too. Experiments were done with the harbour

sludge of Rotterdam.

Eisenia andrei is commonly used in standard toxcicity tests and in bioassays for

contaminated soils (Cortet et al., 1999).

86

How long will the material ingested by the compost worm be in his gut?

In adult compost worms (Eisenia andrei) appr. 3 to 4 hours, in juvenile worms appr.

11 to 13 hours. The scientists expected the opposite (a longer retention time for adult

worms).

For Eisenia foetida 2.5 h were measured at 25°C, independent from the weight or the

length of the worm. At 18°C the retention time was about 3.5 hours.

Lumbricus terrestris shows a retention time of 20 hours. Other worm species 11 to 13

hours (Lumbricus festivus, Lumbricus rubellus, Allolobophora caliginosa).

How do compost worms multiply?

Like all earthworms, compost worms have female and male gender organs

(hermaphrodite). If they pair off, the genitals come mutually to narrow contact. These

are localized in the wide rings (clitellum) of adult worms. This ring walks in the

course of the next days on and on to the back and is shored up, in the end, so that a

yellowish cocoon originates which has the form a lemon. After a certain time, out of

this small mites are slipping.

How often does a conception take place with the mating of compost worms?

It comes to 61% of the matings to the transfer of sperm. Of it a mutual transfer of

sperm takes place in 88.2% of the cases, in 9.8% the transfer occurred only in one

direction. Merely in one case a self conception occurred.

Is a self-fertilization also possible with compost worms?

Although reported very often with earthworms, a self-sperm transfer could be clearly

documented in 2003 for the first time. This occurs very seldom and was observed with

Eisenia foetida. Self conception is an extreme form of inbreeding. The genetic

diversity is lowered what normally leads to a reduction in fitness of the species. For

this reason mechanisms of self-incompatibility have been developed in many species.

Which compost worm multiplies faster? Eisenia foetida or Eisenia andrei?

Scientific investigations from the year 2003 showed that Eisenia andrei multiplies

much faster under the elective conditions of the study. The percentage of the worms,

that produced cocoons was substantially higher (33% compared with 3.5%). Also the

number of the produced cocoons was higher with Eisenia andrei, likewise the slip rate

of the mites from the cocoons. The life ability of the cocoons was possibly equally

high with both species.

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What do eat compost worms?

Fungi are probably a primary source of food for many earthworm species. Rotting

material from plants, which is richly colonized with it, is the most popular "meal" for

the worms.

Slows the composting process down because the fungi in the compost are eaten

by the worms?

On the contrary, in the general, it is even accelerated. More diverse fungal

communities inhabited earthworm-processed substrates than were found in fresh

substrates. This, although it is generally believed that fungal hyphae are destroyed and

may be a preferred food source for earthworms. Worms probably accelerate the

composting process by both grazing and dispersal, and indirectly by their effects on

the substrate (burrowing and casting).

Can earthworms nibble at living roots?

No! The earthworms to which also the compost worms belong, attack no living roots.

They live on the dead plant material colonized richly with micro-organisms. In

addition, they have no tools (teeth, grater plates or other things) by which they could

nibble at roots. The earthworm in the flowerpot or plant patch does not harm the

plants.

Are certain fungi preferred by earthworms as food?

Earthworms can make a good distinction between the different kinds of fungi.

Lumbricus terrestris prefers Fusarium oxysporum and Mucor hiemalis, other tested

mushrooms are only sometimes eaten or are avoided even completely. In case of the

compost worm Eisenia foetida it was shown, that the black melanine containing

fungus C. cladosporioides was the most attractive in contrast to Aspergillus niger

which was the least attractive. For Eisenia andrei still no investigations were done.

Does a quicker worm composting take place if the plant leftovers are inoculated

with certain fungi before?

This is possible, however, for the normal leisure gardener too exaggeratedly and also

not necessary. Investigations proved that a previous addition of A. flavus accelerates

the growth of Eisenia andrei. Mucor sp. should accelerate the growth with five other

earthworms. Nevertheless, with Eisenia andrei M. circinelloides shows the opposite

effect.

What role do composting worms play besides the use as humus producer, fish

bait and animal food?

The compost worms Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei play an important role in the

ecotoxicological assessment of compounds in soil and are the recommended OECD

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earthworm test species. This species has been used to examine the relative toxicity

and predict the short and long-term effects of toxic substances on earthworm

populations in field soil. The composting worm (Eisenia fetida) is representative of

three other species of earthworms (Allolobophora tuberculata, Eudrilus eugenia, and

Perionyx excavus). For Eisenia fetida a very large toxicological literature database is

existing.

I2196E/1/04.11

ISBN 978-92-5-106859-5

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