Verbal Reasoning 8

VERBAL REASONING 8R 1C 2A 3C 4D 5D 6A 7C 8A 9C 10D 11A 12D 13B 14D 15B 16B 17A 18B 19C 20B 21A 22C 23A 24D 25B 26C 27C 28C 29A 30A 31B 32B 33B 34A 35D 36D 37C 38D 39D 40C 41B 42B 43D 44A 45A 46A 47B 48C 49C 50A 51C 52B 53A 54A 55A 56C 57B 58A 59A 60C 78. The assertion that the introduction of an alphabet changes cognitive habits is:

A) true, on the basis of the low literacy rate in the U.S.

The author makes no reference to the literacy rate in the U.S. or whether it is low or high, so no determination on whether this is true can be made here.

B) supported by objective data in the passage.

This assertion is made in one sentence without elaboration or objective data. The main body of the passage is devoted to the impact of technology, in particular, television, on culture and does not further discuss the impact of introducing the alphabet.

C) perhaps true but not explicitly supported by passage information.

This assertion is introduced in the context of the larger point being made in the paragraph about television’s revolutionary impact on society, which was as great, perhaps even greater than introduction of the alphabet. The assertion functions to set up a comparison, so the author’s assertion must be assumed to be perhaps true in order for the point made about television’s revolutionary impact to be convincing.

D) contradicted by the assertion that television watching is pervasive in the U.S.

The assertion contrasts with, but is not contradicted by the passage assertion about the pervasiveness and cultural impact of television watching in the U.S. See rationale C.

Solution

79. Which of the following findings would most weaken the author’s argument about the extent to which U.S. society has fulfilled the Huxleyan prophecy? A) A high percentage of the U.S. adults who watch television regularly have a good understanding of the

politics and validity of the media.

The author makes a large point about how the television revolution occurred without resistance from a population that unthinkingly believes in technological progress as inevitable. The author

Guess underscores this point about the unthinking acceptance of television by the people in the final paragraph: “Huxley believed that we are in a race between education and disaster, and he wrote continuously about the necessity of our understanding the politics and epistemology of media. . . . he was trying to tell us that what afflicted people in Brave New World was not that they were laughing instead of thinking but that they did not know what they were laughing about and why they had stopped thinking.” It stands to reason, then, that the existence of a U.S. television audience that was sophisticated and understood the politics and validity of the media would most challenge and weaken the passage argument.

B) A high percentage of the U.S. adults who watch television regularly failed to vote in the last presidential election.

This would not necessarily weaken the argument since this could arguably underscore the author’s point about how television has enforced compliance from the people without discussion, opposition, or a vote. It would only follow that, if it were true that television-watching adults were be less inclined to vote, then this would be another instance in which television removed the critical discernment and motivation to engage actively in politics, or even create opposition.

C) More U.S. adults are able to name the judge on the television show “The People’s Court” than are able to name the U.S. chief justice.

This would prove, not weaken, the author’s point about how pervasively television is able to mediate the reality of television-watching adults and remove them from participation in public life. See rationale A.

D) More U.S. adults have read 1984 than have read Brave New World.

Even if this were true, this would have little effect on the author’s conclusions, especially since, unlike the author, U.S. readers would likely not see television culture in light of 1984 or Brave New World. In addition, nothing is said about how many people have read 1984 or Brave New World relative to how many watch television. If the number of readers of these books was much smaller than the number of television watchers, then, even if some of these readers reached the same conclusions as the author, this would have little influence on the culture as a whole.

I missed this question because I...

Solution

80. The passage suggests that if a news commentator presented an editorial agreeing with the Huxleyan warning, many viewers would: A) take whatever action was necessary to combat the danger.

This response would be more likely in the case of an Orwellian culture, which the author states is like “a prison” and “much easier to recognize, and oppose than a Huxleyan [world].”

Guess

B) listen carefully to the commentator and then explain the ideas to others.

The passage suggests the opposite response: “Huxley believed that we are in a race between education and disaster, and he wrote continuously about the necessity of our understanding the politics and epistemology of media. . . . he was trying to tell us that what afflicted people in Brave New World was not that they were laughing instead of thinking but that they did not know what they were laughing about and why they had stopped thinking.” See rationale C.

C) charge that the commentator was irrational or needlessly alarming viewers.

The passage suggests that the commentator would invite this charge: “Those who speak about this matter must often raise their voices to a near hysterical pitch, inviting the charge that they are everything from wimps to public nuisances to Jeremiahs.” The author goes on to explain that the reason television critics are compelled to go to such extremes is to call attention to how the Huxleyan world of television culture appears benign—this commentator might be “the antidote to a culture’s being drained by laughter.”

D) be receptive to learning more about the danger.

The viewers would be unreceptive to learning about the danger, because, according to the author, this world would appear benign. See rationale C.


Solution

Guess

81. One can justifiably infer from the author’s argument that if a presidential election campaign in the U.S. involved trivial candidates and discussion, the public would: A) vote for the candidates they found to be most trivial.

The public would not be drawn to the most trivial candidate because they would not even notice which one was the most trivial. See rationale D.

B) vote for the candidates they found to be least trivial.

According to the author, the public would not be able to discern which candidate was the least trivial. See rationale D.

C) denounce the entire campaign.

In a Huxleyan world, the public would not even be discerning enough to denounce the campaign, which would be a greater likelihood in an Orwellian world.

D) not even notice the triviality.

The most justifiable inference is that the public would not even notice based on the author’s discussion of how television culture took over without even a pretense of a debate. This also can be inferred from the author’s discussion of Brave New World in relation to the Huxleyan world of television culture in the final paragraph: “…he was trying to tell us that what afflicted people in Brave New World was not that they were laughing instead of thinking but that they did not know what they were laughing about and why they had stopped thinking.”


Solution

Guess

82. The author sees the U.S. “consuming love affair” with television as relevant to Huxley’s warning because:

I. television discusses vital matters. II. television is changing people’s way of thinking.

III. technology can cause negative social changes.

A) I only

References to “public business [becoming] a vaudeville act,” “serious discourse [dissolving] into giggles,” and “a culture’s being drained by laughter” suggest that television either does not discuss vital matters or, at best, trivializes them.

B) II only

Option III is also correct. See rationale D.

C) I and II only

Option I is incorrect. See rationale A.

D) II and III only

The author points out how Huxley warns of the negative social consequences of technology: “What Huxley teaches…is that in the age of advanced technology, spiritual devastation is more likely to come from an enemy with a smiling face than from one whose countenance exudes suspicion and hate.” This is then reinforced by a reference to “technological distractions.” The author later makes an even stronger statement concerning technology and negative social change: “To be unaware that technology comes equipped with a program for social change, to maintain that technology is neutral, to make the assumption that technology is always a friend to culture is…stupidity plain and simple.” The author also underscores the idea that technology is changing the way people think: “for it imposes a way of life, a set of relations among people and ideas, about which there has been no consensus, no discussion, and no opposition, only compliance. Public consciousness has not yet assimilated the point that technology is ideology.”


Solution

Guess

83. A study concluding that political experts consider the U.S. presidential election a personality contest rather than a clash of issues would: A) support the author’s point that public business has become another aspect of entertainment.

The author states the seriousness of reducing public business to entertainment: “When . . . people become an audience and their public business a vaudeville act, then a nation finds itself at risk; culture death is a clear possibility.”

B) support the author’s point that no one is warning the U.S. public of the Huxleyan nightmare.

The author does point out that someone is warning of this, but that they are simply not being heard: “Those who speak about this matter must often raise their voices to a near hysterical pitch, inviting the charge that they are everything from wimps to public nuisances to Jeremiahs.”

C) suggest that Orwell was right in saying that Big Brother is watching people.

The author suggests that, in the Huxleyan world, it is the other way around: “Big Brother does not watch us, by his choice. We watch him, by ours.”

D) suggest that people believe in the inevitability of progress.

Accepting the inevitability of progress has more to do with the author’s point about how acceptance of television technology happens almost unnoticed than with the author’s point of how public discourse has become entertainment. See rationale A.

7. What is the main idea of the passage?

A) Those who create literature understand it more

completely than do those who only study it.

The author does not imply this, but, rather, points out that these are two separate activities: “One is creative, an art; the other, if not precisely a science, is a species of knowledge or of learning.” The author then elaborates on this distinction, perhaps even implying that more complete knowledge may come from the study than from the creation of literature: “…useful as the experience of literary creation is, the task of the student is completely distinct. The student must translate the experience of literature into intellectual terms, assimilate it to a coherent scheme which must be rational if it is to be knowledge.”

B) The methodologies of science and the study of literature have many features in common.

The author makes this point prior to further developing the main idea. See rationale C.

C) There are valid methods for studying literature that differ from the methods of science.

The author explains how some of the methodologies of science and literary study overlap, but then goes on to say that this has not fulfilled expectations and that literary study “has its own valid methods” distinct from the natural sciences: “It should be simply recognized that there is a difference between the methods and aims of the natural sciences and the humanities.”

D) The achievements of the humanistic disciplines have been obscured by the achievements of the physical sciences.

This is only a minor point the author makes in acknowledging that this may be so, but the author also proposes that the humanities can be resuscitated to a place of greater prominence.


Solution

Guess

8. According to the passage, the job of the student of literature is to:

I. discover ways to approach literature intellectually. II. separate the rational from the irrational elements in literary works.

III. integrate the experience of literature as art and the analysis of literature as knowledge.

A) I only

The author defines the task of the literature student as a purely intellectual exercise: “The student must translate the experience of literature into intellectual terms, assimilate it to a coherent scheme which must be rational if it is to be knowledge.” The author goes on to describe some of the methods literary study shares with science such as causality, collection of facts, and quantitative methods, and name the methods common to most disciplines such as “induction and deduction, analysis, synthesis, and comparison.”

B) II only

The author only acknowledges that literature contains irrational elements, but not that the literature student must separate the rational from the irrational. The author implies that the student of literature only must find rational means of explaining literature, which is no different than the task confronting the musicologist or art historian.

C) III only

The author argues against the need to integrate what the author sees as two distinct activities, literature and literary study.

D) I and II only

Only Option I is correct. See rationale A.


Solution

9. The author suggests that both art history and musicology should be approached:A) with a strict scientific methodology.

The author does not advocate this for musicology or art history. The author suggests that the transfer of scientific methodology to literary study “has not fulfilled the expectations with which it was made originally.” By extension, the same would hold true for art history and musicology.

Guess

B) only by those who practice the art form.

The passage opens with the author describing this approach as it applies to literature, then arguing against it. By extension, the author would make the same distinction between music and musicology and art and art history.

C) intellectually, despite their irrational components.

The author discusses the need to approach the study of literature intellectually, despite irrational elements, which is no different than the task facing the art historian or musicologist.

D) with the understanding that they are essentially inaccessible to rational study.

The author explains that it is possible to approach the study of literature rationally, even if literature contains irrational elements. The author extends this argument to musicology and art history.


Solution

Guess

10. Assume that a scholar is planning an extensive study of the children’s story, Red Riding Hood. The author of the passage probably would say that the most important task to be performed is: A) examining the social context in which the story was written.

A discussion of the social context would likely focus on elements surrounding the story without getting inside it. Although useful, this approach would not be what the author advocates because such a study would not translate the experience of the story itself into terms that convey knowledge of the story’s literary elements in particular. Arguably, this would be a socio-historical study more than a literary study

B) comparing the occurrence of words indicating various concepts (family relationships, food, emotional states, etc.).

While this approach would illustrate isolated literary elements in relation to isolated concepts, it would be too fragmented and not create the coherent knowledge the author is looking for. See rationale D.

C) tracing prior literary influences on the structure of the story and its influence on later works.

This would, arguably, be an example of the approach borrowed from evolutionary biology insofar as it would trace the evolution of literature. While the author would not reject that approach, finding it has some validity, the author would not find it entirely satisfactory either. Such a study would mimic science rather than include the valid methods of literary scholarship that are unique to literary study itself. This study would largely focus on matters extraneous to the story itself rather than the experience of the story, which is what the author advocates.

D) isolating the story elements that explain its enduring popularity.

Isolating the story elements into a coherent argument to the end of explaining the story’s popularity would be an example of the kind of approach the author calls for, which is to “translate the experience of literature into intellectual terms, assimilate it to a coherent scheme which must be rational if it is to be knowledge.”


Solution

Guess

11. The reader can infer from the passage that its author believes that the use of “induction and deduction, analysis, synthesis, and comparison” in the study of literature is: A) appropriate, because such methods are common to all intellectual disciplines.

The author is explicit on this point: “There is…a large field in which the methodologies of science and literary study contact or even overlap. Such fundamental methods as induction and deduction, analysis, synthesis, and comparison are common to all types of systematic knowledge.”

B) appropriate, because no certainty about a subject is possible unless information about it is obtained objectively and quantitatively.

While the author acknowledges that literary study may include quantitative methods, such methodologies by themselves would not meet expectations and would exclude the valid methods unique to literary scholarship.

C) inappropriate, because literature, unlike science, includes irrational aspects that cannot be investigated systematically.

The author argues that even irrational elements in literature can be investigated systematically, provided the student is able to translate these elements into intellectual terms and into rational, coherent knowledge.

D) inappropriate, because of the different purposes of the sciences and the humanities.

The author does acknowledge that the methods of literary scholarship “are not always those of the natural sciences.” However, the author also states that the sciences and literary study share many methodologies in common. See rationale A.


Solution

Guess

12. If the author of the passage wants to get the most convincing evidence for passage assertions, the author should: A) investigate the process of creating a literary work.

The author makes a clear distinction between the creation of a literary work and the study of literature and would not find this approach useful.

B) use the scientific method to study irrational elements in a literary work.

Because the scientific method focuses largely on objective, quantitative methods to the end of producing certainty, this method, arguably, may have difficulty in accounting for irrational elements in a way that the methods and intellectual terms unique to literary scholarship may not. Therefore, this would be at best a limited approach and at worst a failed approach, which would not provide the evidence the author needs in order to support the main argument of the passage.

C) apply a particular scientific technique to both a literary work and a problem in the natural sciences.

This approach would exclude methods that are unique to literary scholarship, which would fail to support the author’s main point. See rationale D.

D) compare a literary analysis and a scientific analysis of a literary work.

This approach would be most effective, because the author maintains that literary scholarship shares methods in common with scientific analysis but also uses methods unique to literary study itself.


13. How could the author best clarify the statement that literature is “irrational, or at least contains strongly

Solution

Guess

unrational elements”? A) By providing definitions of both irrational and unrational

Since unrational is not a part of common usage, and not found in standard dictionaries, the author would need to define it, which would be at best a provisional definition and one lacking authority. The distinction would be better served by a specific instance of an unrational element in a specific literary work. See rationale B.

B) By giving an example of an unrational element in a specific work of literature

The word unrational does not represent common usage and the author is clearly coining a word here meant to be distinguished from irrational, which is familiar to common usage. Therefore, this word would be best served by a specific example.

C) By discussing the irrationality of the creative process

This would not explain the implied distinction in degree that the author makes between unrational and irrational.

D) By adding the explanation, “Human behavior is irrational; therefore stories depicting the truth of human behavior are likely to seem unrealistic.”

This statement would not be relevant to the implied distinction the author is making, since it says nothing about what is meant by unrational.


Solution

Guess

14. The passage suggests that the author believes the study of literature to be important because it:A) shows that the scientific method can be applied to a wide variety of disciplines.

The author sees this as less important because the author points out how the scientific method by itself is insufficient for literary study.

B) helps the student to become more creative.

The author does not believe this and takes care to distinguish between literature as a creative endeavor and the study of literature: “…useful as the experience of literary creation is, the task of the student is completely distinct” (italics added).

C) teaches that the truth can be discovered by nonscientific means.

This implies that knowledge and truth, which the author does not discuss, are the same thing. Even if they were the same thing, the author is not simply saying that knowledge (or truth) can be discovered by nonscientific means but, more crucially, that literary study, in particular, offers its own unique form of knowledge.

D) offers a type of knowledge unavailable from other disciplines.

The author makes a point about the unique knowledge produced by literary studies: “Literary scholarship has its own valid methods, which are not always those of the natural sciences but are nevertheless intellectual methods.” The author enlarges this discussion to include the unique contributions to knowledge produced by all of the humanities, of which literary study is a part.


Solution

Guess

15. Assume that contemporary literary studies involving a systematic analysis of text have yielded evidence of underlying attitudes that traditional literary criticism had not detected. How does this assumption relate to assertions made in the passage?

I. It is consistent with the assertion that the transfer of the methods of the natural sciences to art has not fulfilled expectations.

II. It constitutes evidence for the assertion that there is a field in which the methodologies of science and literary study overlap.

III. It is inconsistent with the assertion that philosophy, history, and theology have worked out valid methods of knowing that can be modified to apply to the humanities.

A) I only

The opposite would be true, namely, that this would be an instance in which transfer did fulfill expectations.

B) II only

The author states that analysis is common to all types of systematic knowledge, including literary study. This achievement of contemporary literary studies would provide demonstrable evidence that this was true.

C) I and III only

This would only show that systematic analysis can create new knowledge about literature. It does not logically follow that this added knowledge and methodology would contradict the idea that methods unique only to literary studies have been worked out—these methods would still be unique, even with the addition of one of the scientific methods to the field of literary study. See rationale A.

D) II and III only

Only Option II is correct. See rationales B and C.


Solution

Guess

16. Elsewhere, the author says that “literature is no substitute for sociology or politics,” nor is it “substitute philosophy.” This statement agrees most closely with the passage assertion that: A) literary works are sometimes studied in relation to economic, social, and political conditions.

This does not assert the uniqueness of literary study, but, rather, where it intersects with other disciplines.

B) literary study has its own unique justifications and aims.

The author states: “Literary scholarship has its own valid methods….” This states the author’s main point that, while literary study shares methodologies with other disciplines, it also produces its own unique knowledge.

C) unlike sociology, politics, or philosophy, literature is an artistic pursuit.

The author would say, instead, that literary study is an intellectual discipline, not an artistic endeavor.

D) the methodologies of science and literary study often overlap.

The author takes care to point out that, while there is this overlap, literary study offers methods unique unto itself.

17. According to the passage, the application of the concept of natural selection to extraterrestrials could be

disquieting in its suggestion that: A ) the most intelligent beings may

also be the most aggressive.

The author cites James Trefil’s caution that “if evolution functions approximately the same way on other worlds that it has functioned here…advanced extraterrestrials might still be aggressive, territorial, and quick to reach for the sword. The most disquieting aspect of natural selection…is that it channels intellect to predators.”

B ) not all selection pressures favor predation.

This is an alternative, less disquieting speculation offered in the passage.

C ) extraterrestrials are intellectually superior to humans.

Although it is implied that humans might have something to learn from intelligent extraterrestrials, the actual intellectual superiority of aliens to humans is a speculation never raised in the passage, much less viewed as a disquieting notion.

D ) extraterrestrials may exhibit many recognizable human traits.

The author suggests that this would be a comforting rather than disquieting notion, “for it would imply that ‘human’ nature was something deeper even than we know. Aliens might exhibit many recognizable traits: curiosity, desire for companionship, love of laughter, pleasure in art and culture, and respect for the sanctity of life.”


Solution

Guess

18. According to the passage, speculation about the nature of extraterrestrials would be most crucial to humans in a situation in which: A ) extraterrestrials landed unannounced on Earth.

The author suggests that humans would not have a choice in this case.

B ) humans had the choice of whether to reply to an extraterrestrial contact.

This point is made explicitly in the passage: “…if alien contact occurred by radio, humanity would face the momentous choice of whether to reply. The decision could turn on speculation about what the other beings were like.” Speculation about the nature of the aliens would be even more crucial prior to contacting them, since the option would still exist to avoid them altogether if humans became uncomfortable in their speculations—the wrong decision in this case could have potentially horrible consequences.

C ) extraterrestrials were hostile to humans.

If the aliens were openly hostile, then it logically follows that there would be no need to speculate about their nature, since that would be obvious.

D ) humans could acquire nuclear knowledge without risking self-destruction.

This would only be a crucial question only if aliens had actually been contacted and the circumstances merited it, namely, that the aliens had actually acquired nuclear knowledge and found nondestructive uses for it, which the author assumes is likely. However, the most crucial situation would be one in which humans had to choose whether or not to contact them. See rationale B.


Solution

Guess

19. In stating that alien civilizations might avoid self-destruction through “abhorrent” means, the author apparently intends to counter the views of: A ) James Trefil.

James Trefil suggests that the same evolutionary process that made humans aggressive might make aliens aggressive.

B ) science-fiction writers.

The passage indicates that science fiction writers tend to depict aliens as warlike, a view that is countered by some researchers.

C ) the researcher quoted in the second paragraph.

The researcher’s optimistic outlook on aliens as “no longer menacing” is based on the assumption that they have acquired “the wisdom to control

war.” However, this outlook overlooks the possibility that self-destruction may have been avoided through “means abhorrent” as the author suggests might be a possibility.

D ) military tacticians.

The view of military tacticians in regard to aliens is not represented in the passage. The only reference to military tacticians is an analogy between their view of pacifists and how aliens might view mutually assured destruction.


Solution

Guess

20. According to the author, one comforting aspect of the concept of natural selection in reference to extraterrestrials is the possibility that any extraterrestrials that contacted Earth would: A ) represent the fittest of their species.

This could be disquieting rather than comforting, especially if, as the author suggests in citing James Trefil, this leads to aliens being selected for their aggressive traits.

B ) exhibit recognizably “human” traits.

Such a view is represented as “comforting” in the passage because aliens would also exhibit “human” traits other than aggression: “Aliens might exhibit many recognizable traits: curiosity, desire for companionship, love of laughter, pleasure in art and culture, and respect for the sanctity of life.”

C ) counter the stereotypes of extraterrestrials promoted by science fiction.

The passage suggests that the stereotypes of aliens in science fiction reflect aggressive traits, although in comical ways. The author finds the possibility that they may be aggressive disquieting. See rationale A.

D ) explain to us their means of avoiding nuclear destruction.

In this case, the author is also disquieted by the possibility that such aliens might avoid self-destruction by “means abhorrent.”


Solution

Guess

21. Given the information in the passage, one would expect the nature of an alien civilization that contacted Earth to be: A ) either warlike or pacifistic.

The passage devotes nearly equal time to both possibilities—speculation that aliens may be pacific and speculation that they may be warlike.

B ) warlike by definition.

The author suggests that aliens could be just as easily pacific as warlike. See rationale A.

C ) pacifistic by definition.

The passage argues for the equal possibility that they may be warlike. See rationale A.

D ) ethologically backward.

The issue of whether they are ethologically backward does not come up in the passage, since speculation centers on what human characteristics they will exhibit, characteristics that are either on par with human behavior or in advance of it.


Solution

Guess

22. Assume that the first extraterrestrials to contact Earth are a formerly warlike species that became pacifistic after suffering the consequences of a horrible war. This scenario most strongly supports the characterization of extraterrestrials favored by: A ) James Trefil.

James Trefil suggests that evolution would have selected for aggressive aliens much like it selected for aggressive humans on Earth—he cautions that “if evolution functions approximately the same way on other worlds that it has functioned here…advanced extraterrestrials might still be aggressive, territorial, and quick to reach for the sword.”

B ) the author of the passage.

The passage author does not know if they would be pacific or warlike, which is why, for the author, the more important question to ask aliens would be about their philosophy rather than their technology.

C ) the researchers mentioned in the second paragraph.

The researchers suggest that aliens might have experienced war sometime in their history since they would have acquired “the wisdom to control war” long before traveling in space so that by the time they contacted

humans they would be “no longer menacing.”

D ) science-fiction writers.

The stereotypical aliens presented by science fiction writers are depicted in the passage as tending toward warlike, though in a comical way.

23. The author implies that the reason red tides are difficult to control is that: A ) phytoplankton can multiply

rapidly, covering extensive areas.

The author describes how toxic algae blooms occur: “Barring a shortage of nutrients or light, or heavy grazing by tiny zooplankton that consume the algae, the population’s size can increase rapidly…. Spread over large areas the phenomenon can be both visually spectacular and catastrophic.”

B ) the presence of toxicity in seawater is likely to remain undetected.

The author points out that the science has matured in this area and toxins are therefore more readily discovered.

C ) the toxins increase to dangerous levels within the bodies of small fish.

The author indicates that this is not a control issue and may even be advantageous: “From the human health standpoint, it is fortunate that herring, cod, salmon, and other commercial fish are sensitive to these toxins and, unlike shellfish, die before toxins reach dangerous levels in their flesh.”

D ) human pollution of seawater is not adequately monitored.

Passage information suggests otherwise, that pollution monitoring has expanded: “…the global expansion in aquaculture means that more areas are monitored closely…” and that studies are showing a relationship between red tides and human-caused pollution.


Solution

Guess

24. Assume that a committee of environmentalists who are aware of the information in the passage is appointed to advise Congress on ways to reduce the problem of red tides. The members would probably recommend that: A ) fisheries release their products only in areas that are free of algae.

This would be a less reasonable course of action because, even if the location of algae-free area could be determined, passage information indicates that could change, especially since algae can increase rapidly and algal cells are widespread—“In some cases a milliliter of seawater can

contain tens or hundreds of thousands of algal cells.”

B ) whales and other important marine life be driven away from affected areas.

This would not be a very practicable course of action since it would require vast resources and much effort to drive these animals out. There exists the additional possibility that more animals could enter the area once these were driven out and these efforts process would need to begin all over again.

C ) herbicides be used to destroy all toxic species of algae.

It is reasonable to assume that this measure could be actually counter-productive, since, much like a toxic red tide, the herbicides would cause toxic pollution that could harm marine wildlife and concentrate in the flesh of commercial fish, in turn, affecting human health if the herbicides did not kill the fish before reaching humans.

D ) plant nutrients be removed from wastewater before it is released into waterways.

Passage information suggests that removing nutrients would be the most reasonable course of action, given the data from pollution monitoring of coastal areas: “Coastal waters receiving industrial, agricultural, and domestic waste, frequently rich in plant nutrients, should experience a general increase in algal growth. All phytoplankton species, toxic and nontoxic, benefit, but we notice the enrichment of toxic ones more.”


25. If the author’s information is correct, and if the trends mentioned continue,

Solution

Guess

which of the following changes can be expected? A ) The consumption of fish will become increasingly dangerous to humans.

This is not necessarily true, since most commercial fish die before the toxins concentrate to dangerous levels in their flesh. See rationale B.

B ) The prevalence of large-scale die-offs of fish will increase.

Passage information indicates that red tides are increasing as revealed by long-term studies. As a result, more die-offs are likely: “Algal toxins cause mortalities as they move though the marine food web.” Commercial fish are especially sensitive to these toxins and die even before the toxins reach dangerous levels in their flesh, which indicates the likelihood of increased fish die-offs, especially with the increase in red tides.

C ) The relative number of algal species that are harmless will decrease.

According to the passage, a general increase in algae occurs, including nontoxic as well as toxic algae.

D ) The number of shellfish in coastal waters will decrease.

Unlike commercial fish, shellfish tend to concentrate toxins in their flesh rather than die.


Solution

26. Assume that a worldwide epidemic, especially severe among people in countries with a seacoast, is traced to poisoning by red-tide toxins. What is the most reasonable explanation of this phenomenon? A ) Public anxiety in countries bordering oceans has increased their demand

Guess

for medical attention.

It logically follows that an increase in anxiety could be attributable to a greater prevalence of red-tide poisoning, even if the number of people seeking medical attention grew disproportionately. In other words, the anxiety could be a natural outcome of the presence of an epidemic, but would not explain it.

B ) Contamination has spread to coastal areas in which people swim.

Passage information indicates that red-tide poisoning is caused by ingestion, not simply by swimming. The whales swimming in the infested waters had also been feeding. Toxins also concentrate in the livers and other organs of fish that are eaten by other animals, putting these animals at higher risk. The reason humans have been safe so far is because toxins do not concentrate to dangerous levels in the flesh of commercial fish before they die, so humans do not ingest the toxins by eating these fish.

C ) Food fish have developed increased resistance to the toxins.

This would be the most likely reason for the epidemic, since what protected human health before was the tendency of commercial fish to be especially sensitive to toxins and die off before the toxins could concentrate to dangerous levels in their flesh.

D ) Whales and other marine mammals are avoiding the toxic algae.

This is a nonsequitur—it would not matter whether or not these animals were avoiding the algae if humans were not.


Solution

Guess

27. Which of the following findings would suggest that the author’s concern about the danger of red tides is exaggerated? A ) The whales that died in 1987 succumbed to dramatic fluctuations in water

temperature.

This would only show that in this one incident the cause of death was not red tide, but would not show the author’s wider claims to be exaggerated, which would remain intact unless more broadly refuted. See rationale C.

B ) Chemical spills in the vicinity of the dead whales had caused an extreme level of contamination.

This would only show that these chemicals were responsible for the death of the whales in this particular incident but would not counter the wider claims of the author. See rationale C.

C ) Red tides occur rarely, are easily identified, and grow slowly.

This information would show the author’s claims are exaggerated and even go so far as to refute them, because it would counter the author’s points that red tides are increasing, are not easily identified, since nontoxic algae also change the color of the ocean while toxic ones can produce no discoloration, and that red tides spread quickly.

D ) A readily available substance is an effective antidote to red-tide poisoning.

This antidote would allay some of the concern about the red tides, but not all of them. More red tides would keep occurring requiring more application of the antidote, and they could still do some damage before the antidote could be applied. Since red tides occur more frequently than before, are not easily identified, and expand rapidly, it is also reasonable to assume that these qualities could still prove some obstacle to effective application of the antidote.

28. The primary purpose of the passage is to:

A ) identify the differences between two critical accounts of the growth of the novel in the U.S.

These differences are identified only in the opening paragraph and then refuted in the second paragraph before the author moves on to the main point, the prevalence of novels and readers of novels in the U.S. before the Civil War.

B ) trace the growth and influence of the magazine industry in the U.S. from 1840 to 1860.

This is not the main point but is a key point that supports the main idea by showing that fiction had a wide readership in the U.S. prior to the Civil War. See rationale C.

C ) question the idea that the social and intellectual atmosphere in nineteenth-century America was hostile to fiction.

The author first recounts the “two stories” literary historians tell about the novel in the U.S. prior to the Civil War, both of which cite a time period hostile to fiction. The author then goes on to refute this “powerful critical myth” by showing that a great number of novels were being read in America, especially during 1840 to 1860 when the

number of periodicals expanded and published “more than two thousand reviews of eight hundred separate novels, about half of them of American origin.”

D ) offer contrary evidence to the argument that the Puritan tradition affected the growth of the romance in America.

The passage does not primarily offer contrary evidence to this particular idea alone, but, more generally, to the idea from which this idea concerning the development of the romance derives, namely, that an atmosphere hostile to fiction existed in the U.S. prior to the Civil War.


Solution

Guess

29. Assume that nineteenth-century American publishers could acquire European novels as easily as American novels, and publish them at a higher profit. Would this information, if true, further the passage author’s argument? A ) Yes; it would make more impressive the fact that one-half of the periodical

reviews from 1840 to 1860 were of American novels.

The author makes a key point about the expansion of the number of journals during this period and how these journals ran two thousand reviews of eight hundred novels, around half of them of U.S. origin, in order to show the great public interest in novels by U.S. authors. Therefore, it only follows that the number of American novels being read would be even more impressive, given that publishers in the U.S. could

profit more by publishing European novels.

B ) Yes; it would reinforce the passage author’s view that literary nationalism was not a viable force during this period.

The author does not raise the issue of literary nationalism or hold this view. The statistic that half the novels were American only serves to show that many novels were being written in the U.S. as well as Europe and that the U.S. public was interested in reading them. It is not presented as evidence concerning literary nationalism or whether or not it was a viable force. See rationale A.

C ) No; it would merely demonstrate that American publishers made profit a top priority.

It would more logically follow in this case that publishers were as interested if not more interested in responding to the interest of the U.S. reading public as in making a profit. Otherwise, they would be more inclined to promote European novels over American. This only reinforces the author’s point that the U.S. “was a nation of novel readers” rather than showing publishers were only interested in a profit.

D ) No; it would shed no light on the preferences of the American reading public for novels.

On the contrary, this would show that publishers were interested in responding to the public’s interest in novels, especially American novels, since they could make more profit on European novels. See rationales A and C.


Solution

Guess

30. Which of the following assertions is NOT clearly supported by historical research provided by the passage author? A ) Nineteenth-century American writers now considered major had difficulty

supporting themselves by writing.

The author states: “The small number of American fiction writers who are now called major did, evidently, have trouble supporting themselves as novelists.” However, the author does not present the evidence and leaves this as a simple assertion.

B ) Many novels were being written and read in the U.S. from the 1840s through the 1860s.

The author supports this by citing the actual number of reviews of novels and the number of novels reviewed during this period, two thousand and eight hundred respectively.

C ) American novels were well received by the major American periodicals of the mid-nineteenth century.

The author points out how, from perusing reviews during this period, American novels were well-received by reviewers to the point that staff members of magazines were concerned that reviewers were too quick to praise.

D ) The periodical press in the United States grew in size and influence during the 1840s.

The author provides ample statistics to support this point: “There were fewer than 125 American magazines in 1825; by 1850 there were about 600….” This included a number of journals that had over 100,000 subscribers and Horace Greeley’s Tribune with over 200,000 subscribers.


Solution

Guess

31. What role does the sentence “Scottish common sense philosophy should not be described as an American phenomenon” play in the passage? A ) It introduces a point that will be developed in detail later in the passage.

At no point later in the passage is this statement developed further. The statement is designed to counter one the critical myths referred to in the opening paragraph.

B ) It offers additional support for the points made in the preceding sentence.

The previous sentence in part reads: “…much of what Americans wrote and said about novels was derived from sources in the British Isles.” In the context of the passage argument, the sentence in question is therefore a logical extension of this statement, elaborating on this point by means of specific reference to the origin of Scottish common sense philosophy in the U.S.

C ) It reminds the reader that hostility to the novel originated abroad.

The author never specifically makes the point that hostility to the novel originated abroad, only that “expressed hostility to fiction was no less strong in England than in America,” implying that this could have just as easily been a simultaneous development and that some Americans were simply influenced by what was said and wrote about regarding the novel in England.

D ) It suggests that Scottish common sense philosophy was hostile to fiction.

In citing one of the critical myths of literary history, the passage does not suggest that Scottish common sense philosophy itself was openly hostile to fiction, only that it joined with Puritanism to create an atmosphere hostile to fiction, a fine distinction. In addition, when considering its context

within the passage, the sentence in question functions not to support this idea but to additionally support the preceding sentence. See rationale B.


Solution

Guess

32. Since the 1950s, some literary critics and historians have proclaimed the “death” of the conventional novel in America, attributing its demise to a widespread breakdown of social cohesiveness and an increase in individual isolation. This “death-of-the-novel” theory would be logically consistent with which aspect of the passage? A ) The myth that the Puritan tradition made Americans hostile to the novel

form

The author never explains specifically why the Puritan tradition was hostile to the novel. Therefore, there is no basis for seeing the similarity between that myth and the reasons cited for the death of the novel in the 1950s.

B ) The myth that the literary romance was compatible with the nineteenth-century American milieu

The breakdown of social cohesiveness and individual isolation are two reasons given for why the romance was prevalent, stating that the romance was “a literary form better suited to American imaginative space: the romance, created in an ambience of isolation, alienation, defiance, and apology that left its traces in the work.”

C ) The research findings on nineteenth-century book reviews of American novels

The reviews, far from proclaiming the death of the novel, were largely enthusiastic, giving tacit approval to the form and, if anything, giving it new life.

D ) The research findings on nineteenth-century attitudes toward the novel in England

Beyond implying that Scottish common sense philosophy may have influenced this hostility, the author does not explain the actual reasons behind this hostility, including specifically why Scottish common sense philosophy would contribute to this atmosphere. Therefore, there is no basis for comparing this to the death of the novel theory.


Solution

Guess

33. If the information in the passage is accurate, which of the following would one LEAST expect to find in a randomly selected American magazine published between 1840 and 1860? A ) An article lamenting the abundant reviews of novels by nineteenth-century

American novelists

This would be consistent with the passage argument, which pointed out that novels were being favorably reviewed and that some magazine staff members were concerned about “indiscriminate puffery among reviewers.”

B ) An editorial decrying Americans’ hostility to their own indigenous fiction

The author has pointed out that this hostility, one of the critical myths posited by literary historians, largely did not exist: “…a great many novels were written and published in America at this time of supposed hostility to fiction, and a great many more were being read.” Therefore, such an editorial would be unlikely, especially since half the novels being read by the reading public in the U.S. were American.

C ) A favorable review of a new American novel copied from a British

periodical

This would be consistent with the observation in the passage that “much of what Americans wrote and said about novels was derived from sources written in the British Isles.” Given the passage argument, this presumably could include favorable as well as unfavorable opinions about novels. Therefore, it would not be far-fetched to find a favorable review of an American novel copied from a British periodical in an American periodical, especially given a general atmosphere favorably inclined toward novels in which “American novels were received warmly by reviewers.”

D ) An essay reflecting the influence of Scottish common sense philosophy

Such an essay could very well appear, especially since the author points out that this philosophy had some influence upon life and thought in the U.S.. Another reason such an essay could very well appear would be if reviewers were aware of the influence of this philosophy on opinions concerning the novel and wanted to correct this opinion and offer guidance to readers, which, as the author points out, was one of the roles assumed by reviewers during this period.


Solution

Guess

34. The author treats the ideas of “those on magazine staffs who set themselves up as guardians of critical integrity” as: A ) credible evidence of prevailing attitudes.

The author points out that “American novels were received warmly by reviewers.” So the views on the part of magazine staff represent credible evidence of yet another prevailing attitude at the time as reported by the author, who observes that these staff “complained about indiscriminate puffery among reviewers.”

B ) questionable but intriguing possibilities.

The author presents these staff members as evidence of a prevailing attitude rather than as simply “questionable,” and as actual rather than as simply “intriguing possibilities.” See rationale A.

C ) amusing examples of wrongheaded thinking.

The author does not pass this judgment on these staff members, who simply reflect an attitude at the time, although the author does point out how reviewers were sensitive to the reading public and offered them guidance.

D ) dangerously misinformed opinions.

The author does not pass this judgment but only sees these staff members as being concerned about the lack of standards among reviewers, and not entirely without cause, given the large number of favorable reviews.


Solution

Guess

35. Passage information suggests that the “conventional” novel was: A ) a well-established literary form by the early nineteenth century.

Passage information suggests that the novel was not well-established: “…the ‘conventional’ novel at that time was only in the process of becoming conventional.”

B ) more common in England than in America.

Passage information does not state one way or the other whether the novel

was more common in England than in the U.S. However, it was likely nearly as common in the U.S., given passage information that American periodicals ran two thousand reviews of eight hundred separate novels, half of which were American.

C ) similar in style and subject matter to the romance.

Passage information draws a distinct contrast between the social nature of the novel and the antisocial nature of the American romance.

D ) based on direct observation of social customs.

The author, in discussing one of the critical myths, draws attention to the view of some literary historians that “the sparseness of American social life made conventional novels difficult, even impossible, to write.” By extension, this would imply that the conventional novel was based on direct observation of social customs.


Solution

Guess

36. Suppose lists of best-selling books had existed during the period under study. Which of the following pieces of information derived from such lists would be useful in evaluating the accuracy of the passage author’s conclusions?

I. The degree to which reviewers’ conclusions about the relative popularity of different novels were accurate

II. The extent to which the length of the reviews a book received correlated with its popularity

III. The relative popularity of conventional novels and romances among American readers

A ) I only

Option III is also correct. See rationale D.

B ) III only

Option I is also correct. See rationale D.

C ) I and II only

The author makes no correlation between the length of the reviews the books received and their popularity, simply stating that reviews were of varying length with many of them highly favorable toward the novels they reviewed.

D ) I and III only

The author, even while acknowledging that reviewers and even groups of reviewers were expressing their own opinions in reviewing novels, nonetheless points out that, based on perusing reviews at the time, the reviewers had a fairly precise idea of public preferences and what guidance and correction to this public they were offering. The author also argues that novels were highly popular during this period and many were being written, thus dispelling the critical myth that would-be novelists were writing romances, which were more suited to conditions in the U.S. at the time. It follows, then, that these lists would need to reflect the relative popularity of romances and novels in order to evaluate the accuracy of the passage argument regarding the popularity of novels.


37. Wuthering Heights, written by Englishwoman Emily Brontë in 1847, is

Solution

Guess

considered by most literary scholars to be a romance. What is the relation between this fact and the main argument of the passage? A ) It supports the passage argument by showing that the romance was not a

uniquely American form.

The main idea of the passage is to argue for the prevalence of the novels being written and read in the U.S. during this period and not to argue that the romance is a form unique to the U.S. Therefore, this observation about Wuthering Heights would not be relevant to the passage argument, much less support it. See rationale C.

B ) It strengthens the passage argument by demonstrating that literary scholars are often mistaken in their conclusions.

The literary historians who argued that the romance was better suited to the U.S. during this period were not arguing that the romance was a form unique to the U.S. Therefore, it would not matter if an English novel was widely regarded to be a romance. Moreover, the main point of the passage is not to demonstrate that literary scholars are mistaken in their conclusions; therefore, this represents another reason why the observation regarding Wuthering Heights is irrelevant to the passage argument. See rationale C.

C ) It has little effect on the passage argument because the question of whether the romance is a distinctly American form is not crucial to the author’s point.

This would have little effect on the passage argument because the author focuses on the prevalence of novels being written and read during this period, and not on whether the romance was a distinctly American literary form in this period as some literary historians claim.

D ) It undermines the passage argument because it suggests that an atmosphere of alienation had spread to England from America.

Since the passage argument is not about the relationship between alienation and romances, the point about Wuthering Heights as evidence of

the spread of alienation to England, if true, is irrelevant to the argument. See rationale C.

38. Which of the following statements is inconsistent with information in the passage? A ) Most people believe that the U.S.

energy supply is nearly depleted.

The author notes that “limits on the energy base in the United States began to surface” in the late 1960s and early 1970s when oil production peaked and then began to decline. The author indicates further widespread public awareness by referring to the increasing number of individuals and communities taking the “soft-path” renewable energy approach.

B ) Environmentalism has caused fundamental changes in the U.S. energy policy.

The author discusses the major impact environmentalism had on the burning of coal, causing a switch to oil consumption by utility companies, which then tripled between 1968 and 1973.

C ) The use of domestic oil has been declining in the U.S. in recent years.

The author refers directly to the decline of U.S. oil production.

D ) Since the 1970s, the U.S. government has consistently supported the soft-energy approach.

The author states the opposite: “An increasing number of individuals and communities in the U.S. are shifting to the soft path. A more rapid spread of this approach is being hindered by government (taxpayer) subsidies of the hard-path approach….”


Solution

Guess

39. The author of the passage probably most strongly supports:A ) the acquisition of solar technology companies by large corporations.

The author conveys concern about this because of how the energy companies began acquiring copper mines, since copper is a key part of solar heating and cooling systems. The author implies that this is part of this larger attempt to dominate the solar power industry and control energy production: “Worried that every rooftop could become its own power plant and sensing that the cry for solar energy was a revolt against huge companies, utilities, and staggering electric bills, large corporations spent a share of their public relations budget playing down the solar ‘messiahs.’ At the same time, they began buying up solar technology companies.”

B ) increased utilization of low-sulfur oil by utility companies.

This is unlikely, since the author indicates support for solar energy. See

rationale D.

C ) a switch to nuclear reactors as the primary energy source.

Since nuclear power is part of the hard-path approach, the author would likely not support this, since the author is already critical of subsidization of hard-path energy sectors. See rationale D.

D ) substantial federal subsidies for solar energy research.

The author indicates that taxpayer-supported government subsides of the hard-path approach are hindering the development of the soft-path approach. This includes “inadequate access to capital for the development of solar energy resources.” This criticism of subsidies for the hard-path approach and of inadequate capitalization of solar energy indicates that the author would likely support subsidies for solar power.


Solution

Guess

40. The author of the passage seems to hold the opinion that:A ) U.S. utility companies are unresponsive to public environmental concerns.

The author describes how U.S. companies responded to environmental concerns by switching from coal to imported low-sulfur oil.

B ) the U.S. environmental movement has not fully confronted the energy problem.

The author brings up the environmental movement mainly to show the number of ways it has influenced public policy, including in the area of pollution control, which has influenced the switch from coal to low-sulfur

oil. Beyond that, the author does not discuss how the environmental movement has or has not confronted the energy problem.

C ) large U.S. corporations act primarily according to the profit motive.

By discussing the attempts by energy companies to dominate solar power through acquisitions while at the same time disparaging solar power, the author is suggesting that large corporations are acting mainly through the profit motive in this attempt to remove an energy competitor that would allow individual buildings and homes to create their own power source rather than be dependent on the power the companies provide.

D ) the U.S. Congress is committed to reforming the country’s energy policy.

Nothing indicates that the author thinks the government is committed to reforming energy policy, only that the author is critical of the government for subsidizing hard-path approaches such as oil and gas.


Solution

Guess

41. Which of the following forms of legislation would an advocate of the soft-energy path probably support?

I. Tax credits for corporations that install solar panels in office buildingsII. A mandate to increase the ratio of soft- to hard-energy sources by a

specified amount within ten years III. Cash incentives to homeowners who convert their heating systems

from oil to natural gas

A ) I only

Option II is also correct. See rationale B.

B ) I and II only

The author is critical of the lack of capitalization for solar energy development and government subsidies of hard-path approaches to the energy problem such as oil and gas Therefore, it can be inferred from this that the author would likely advocate tax credits to install solar panels in office buildings and also support an effort to mandate an increase in the ratio of soft- to hard-energy sources with in ten years.

C ) I and III only

These cash incentives would represent a hard-energy approach which the author does not favor. See rationale B.

D ) II and III only

Option III is incorrect. See rationale C.


Solution

Guess

42. Which of the following inferences is justified by information in the passage?A ) The U.S. leads the world in the use of solar energy.

Passage information suggests otherwise: “In 1984…about 18% of all primary energy used in the world and 8.5% of that used in the U.S. came from renewable solar energy resources.”

B ) The burning of imported oil pollutes the air less than does the burning of coal.

The author points out: “Concern about air pollution led to fuel switching, especially by electric utilities, away from domestically produced coal to low sulfur oil….” This implies that low-sulfur oil is less polluting.

C ) Oil companies have a global monopoly on copper production.

Passage information shows that oil companies monopolize “almost 60% of domestic copper production in the U.S.,” but does not indicate one way or the other that these companies similarly dominate world copper production.

D ) The consumption of natural gas has declined in the U.S. since the 1970s.

Passage information indicates that the hard-path approach proposes rapid expansion of oil and gas resources in addition to nuclear fission and coal. However, this proposed expansion is not the same as actual expansion and the author does not indicate anywhere in the passage whether natural gas consumption has actually increased or declined since the 1970s.


Solution

Guess

43. Assume that the soft-energy path is fully implemented in the U.S. by the year 2025. Which of the following phenomena will be considered most outdated at that time? A ) Rows of windmills along the seacoasts

These will be encouraged, since wind is considered a soft-energy resource. See rationale D.

B ) Houses designed and insulated to conserve energy

The author is critical of “outdated building codes that discourage energy conservation,” so it follows that the soft-path approach favored by the author would include houses designed and insulated to conserve energy.

C ) Automobiles powered by liquid fuel distilled from corn

This would be an example of a soft-path approach using vegetable matter as an energy source. See rationale D.

D ) Antipollution devices on the smokestacks of factories

It follows that these devices will not be needed, since soft energy consists of renewable energy from sun, wind, and vegetable matter, which does not require the burning of polluting fuels such as coal, gas, or oil.


Solution

Guess

44. Suppose that an inventor has perfected a solar battery that would allow U.S. homeowners to convert rapidly and inexpensively from traditional electricity to solar power. The passage suggests which of the following scenarios as most probable? A ) Utility companies attempt to purchase the patent on the battery.

The author describes how oil companies acquired copper mines and solar technology companies in an attempt to diversify into this new technology. Given this information, a similar attempt on the part of utility companies to purchase this battery is a most probable scenario.

B ) The government provides business grants to encourage mass production of the battery.

This is a far less probable scenario since the author criticizes the government for subsidizing hard-path approaches rather than soft-path technologies such as solar. It follows that the government would follow basically the same pattern by not offering business grants to encourage mass production of the battery.

C ) Hard-path energy corporations publicly praise the invention.

This is unlikely since the author points out that hard-path corporations disparaged solar power even as they were purchasing solar technology companies. It is probable that these corporations would respond the same way to this solar battery. As in the case of solar energy cited in the passage, the battery would similarly decentralize energy production into individual homes and buildings, which the companies would view as a threat.

D ) The nuclear power industry lobbies for reduced taxes for customers who do not convert to solar power.

The nuclear power industry, a hard-path industry, would likely not need to do this since, according to passage information, the government is already willing to subsidize hard-path approaches to energy.


Solution

Guess

45. Information in the passage suggests that which of the following changes would be most likely to accelerate U.S. progress along the soft-energy path? A ) The price per barrel of imported oil rises from $25 to $50 within a few

months.

Since a sharp rise in prices also implies a decrease in supply, this would accelerate a conversion toward soft-path energy technologies, which are nondepletable and “emphasize diversification and dispersal of energy

sources so as to avoid in the future the sort of dependence we now have on fossil fuels.”

B ) An improved design for nuclear power plants makes radioactive leakage virtually impossible.

This would likely slow progress toward soft-path energy, since it would reduce concerns about nuclear power plant safety and the overall viability of this hard-path energy technology.

C ) Coal-burning plants install furnaces that eliminate the emission of air pollutants.

This would slow progress toward soft-path energy since the elimination of air pollutants would eliminate a major environmental concern about coal-fired plants that is not a concern with soft-path energy such as wind and solar.

D ) Domestic oil production increases to the point that the U.S. is no longer dependent on imported oil.

The author point out: “The turning point [in the consumption of oil] came in 1970, when U.S. oil production reached its peak and then began to decline.” Although the author does not say so directly, this was likely a factor in the shift toward soft-path energy technologies on the part of the “increasing number of individuals and communities in the U.S..” It follows, then, that an end to dependence on imported oil would favor hard-path energy over soft-path.

46. The primary message of the passage is that one should: A ) understand the profound

importance of sports.

The author makes several statements that emphasize this point: “The institutions of the

state generate a civil religion; so do the institutions of sport.” The author then cites the example of the ancient and modern Olympics and the Super Bowl, which to varying degrees honor the gods and the state and “are constructed around high ceremonies, rituals, and symbols.” The author later reinforces this point: “Sports…are organized and dramatized in a religious way.” The author elaborates on this theme in a way that underscores this profound importance of sports in public life: “…sports flow outward into action from a deep natural impulse that is radically religious: an impulse of freedom, respect for ritual limits, a zest for symbolic meaning, and a longing for perfection.”

B ) appreciate the religious history of sports.

While the religious history of sports plays into the passage argument in the way the author discusses the ancient Olympics, this religious history does not represent the main point but only supports it. See rationale A.

C ) recognize the patriotic impulses in sports.

The patriotic impulses in sports to which the author refers do not represent the main point of the

passage but only support it. These impulses are but one dimension in the larger significance that sports takes on in public life, as the author points out: “Most men and women don’t separate the sections of their mind. They honor their country, go to a place of worship, and also enjoy sports. All parts of their lives meld together.”

D ) distinguish between the ceremony and the excitement of sports.

The author does not make this distinction but, instead, implies that the ceremony and the excitement and drama of sports represent one part of the whole: “Sports…are organized and dramatized in a religious way.”


Solution

Guess

47. A probable reason for the use of the word “godward” is the author’s:A ) faith in a divine presence that is apparent in daily life.

The author takes care to distinguish ‘godward’ from the narrower sense of a divine presence, in particular, pointing out: “I don’t mean that participation in sports, as athlete or fan, makes one a believer in ‘God,’ under whatever concept, image, experience, or drive to which one attaches the name.”

B ) wish to use language that includes all persons, whatever their views on religion.

The author uses this word in the more generic sense of explaining the religious impulses in sports: “Among the godward signs in contemporary life, sports may be the single most powerful manifestation. I don’t mean that participation in sports, as athlete or fan, makes one a believer in ‘God,’ under whatever concept, image, experience, or drive to which one attaches the name. Rather, sports drive one in some dark and generic sense ‘godward.’”

C ) awareness of the similarity of popular spiritual movements to conventional religions.

Popular spiritual movements, or their relationship to conventional religions, are not even discussed in the passage. The author does discuss some of the ways sports takes on the qualities of conventional religion, for example, pointing out how “the rituals, vestments, and tremor of anticipation involved in sports events are like those of religions.”

D ) opinion that attendance at sporting events will lead to a religious revival.

The author never implies that interest in sports will lead to a religious revival, only that contemporary sports incorporate the qualities of religious observances. See rationale C.


Solution

48. The reference to “the classical position” of sports suggests that the author:A ) respects the devoutness and patriotism of athletes.

The author does not suggest that athletes are necessarily devout or

Guess

patriotic, even suggesting otherwise: “The athlete may of course be pagan, but sports are, as it were, natural religions.”

B ) admires the skill of the athletes of ancient Greece.

The author does not use the term “classical position” in reference to the skills of ancient Greek athletes, nor even allude to their skills anywhere in the passage. See rationale C.

C ) understands the historical function of athletics.

The author traces the contemporary phenomenon of sports as a kind of civil religion back to the ancient Greeks. Therefore, the author uses this terminology in the sense of recognizing this on-going function of sports in public life: “The ancient Olympic games used to be both festivals in honor of the gods and festivals in honor of the state—and that has been the classical position of sports ever since” (italics added).

D ) accepts the domination of athletics by religion and politics.

The author neither rejects nor accepts the domination of athletics by religion and politics by using this terminology. The author simply uses it more objectively in order to show how the relationship between sports, politics, and religion is a long-standing historical fact that extends into the present. See rationale C.


49. Which of the following findings would most weaken the author’s assertions about the value of sports in the U.S. culture? A ) People would rather attend religious ceremonies than sporting events.

Solution

Guess

Even if this were true, this would only make a statement about people’s preferences and would have no significant impact on the author’s argument that sporting events take on religious qualities. This would even, in a sense, support the argument, because one explanation for why more people would attend religious ceremonies could be that the conventionally religious would find their particular God in the religious ceremonies that they attend rather than in sporting events, which, as the author contends, take on a religious character without expressing a particular religious faith.

B ) Sports fans fail to recognize the religious impulse in their enthusiasm.

Just because sports fans fail to recognize it does not necessarily mean it is not there—and perhaps they would recognize their religious impulse once the author brought it to their attention.

C ) Only the conventionally religious experience the spiritual dimension of sports.

The author makes the point that sports take on a religious character, driving one “godward” no matter what one’s belief in God may be. If it were true that only the conventionally religious tended to enjoy the spiritual dimension of sports, the author would need to substantially revise this analysis.

D ) Players on a team have stronger feelings about the sport than do fans of the team.

This would not be relevant to the argument, since the feelings of athletes in relation to the feelings of fans in a sport is a matter separate from the matter of the religious dimension of sports.


Solution

Guess

50. The statement “to lose is a kind of death” is an example of the author’s emphasis on the: A ) extent of the emotional investment in sports.

The author makes this statement in the context of discussing the extent of the emotional investment in sports: “In the language of Paul Tillich, sports are manifestations of concern, of will and intellect and passion. In fidelity to that concern, one submits oneself to great bodily dangers, even to the danger of death. Symbolically, too, to lose is a kind of death.”

B ) importance of honoring losers as well as winners.

Honoring losers as well as winners does not enter into the passage discussion at all, much less in reference to this particular point.

C ) unacceptability of losing a sporting competition.

The author, in a sense, makes a case for the acceptability of losing here, by implying that losing, like death, is part of the order of things, a point made earlier in the passage when the author refers to how sports express a larger order of things that includes fate, destiny, and “a sense of participation in the rhythms and tides of nature itself.” The author implies that one who participates in sports submits oneself to losing the way one submits “to great bodily dangers, even to the danger of death.” In other words, one accepts that one may not only lose, but die trying.

D ) consequences of an exaggerated concern with sports.

While the inference could be made that the religious dimension of sports represents evidence of an exaggerated concern with sports, this inference would be external to the passage argument, since the author nowhere states or implies an exaggerated concern with sports. The author suggests otherwise, that concern for sports is not exaggerated but represents a deeply human experience: “They feed a deep human hunger, place humans

in touch with certain dimly perceived features of human life within this cosmos, and provide an experience of at least a pagan sense of godliness.”

51. The passage suggests that behaviorism and type-type identity theory share which of the following weaknesses? A ) They oversimplify mental states

by reducing them to physiological states.

This is only true of type-type identity theory, which “holds that every type of mental experience, such as pain, is identical to a corresponding type of physical event, such as the firing of C-fibers.”

B ) They provide no reason for the existence of pain or other mental states.

Type-type identity theory explains pain as the firing of C-fibers. Behavioralism explains mental states as being created by external events, for example, “the belief that it is going to rain consists of dispositions to act as if it was going to rain.” The author criticizes this view as being limited to a belief taken in isolation and failing to provide a context: “Whether you are disposed to take your umbrella with you depends not just on your belief that it will rain but also your desire not to get wet, your perception of the umbrella in the corner, your further belief that umbrellas are good for keeping

rain off, and so on.”

C ) They ignore the context provided by associated beliefs and feelings.

The passage indicates that behavioralism does not take into account other factors: “You may have a pain in your toe without having a disposition to complain or move your toe because you may be a super Spartan who does not want to give any sign of what you are feeling.” This statement reflects the author’s view that behavior in relation to the toe is governed by its context, namely, the beliefs associated with not wanting to give the impression of being in pain. The type-type identity theory holds that mental experiences have corresponding physical events. The passage notes that this theory is controversial “because of its implication that the physical basis for any type of mental experience must be the same in different creatures,” which ignores the different contexts for the mental life of different creatures.

D ) They assume that all mental events are determined by external physical events.

This is only true of behavioralism.


Solution

Guess

52. In 1979, opioid peptides, which produce pain relief in humans, were found in earthworms. According to passage information, someone who argues on the basis of this evidence that earthworms may be capable of feeling pain is most likely to be a: A ) behaviorist.

A behavioralist would look for behavior in earthworms that acts in ways to remove themselves from the pain.

B ) type-type identity theorist.

The passage points out that one implication of type-type identity theory is “that the physical basis for any type of mental experience must be the same in different creatures.” Therefore, the assumption can be made that, if opioid peptides relieve pain in humans, then earthworms must feel pain in order to need the pain relief provided by opioid peptides.

C ) functionalist.

A functionalist would look for a greater context for why opioid peptides occur in earthworms, including their “whole system of interdependent functions” as earthworms, which suggests that opioid peptides may occur in earthworms for quite different reasons than they occur in humans

D ) nonscientist.

This assumes that a nonscientist will have the expertise to isolate opioid peptides in humans and earthworms, know how they function and why,

and be interested in looking into the occurrence of these in humans and earthworms, none of which is likely.


Solution

Guess

53. The author apparently believes that “crude behaviorism”:A ) does not take internal context sufficiently into account.

The author reflects concern that “crude behavioralism” does not take context into account: “A particular belief taken by itself cannot be identified with particular behavioral dispositions because the relevant behavioral dispositions are determined by various beliefs taken together plus various desires and other mental states.”

B ) should be replaced by type-type identity theory.

The author does not believe this, and notes that type-type identity theory has a similar problem to behavioralism—it is too reductive in its outlook.

C ) can explain only actions that are predictable.

The author would not make this point and, arguably, would not believe any action is predictable, but is governed by context, which is variable. See rationale A.

D ) assumes that beliefs and feelings do not exist.

The author does not make this assumption. Earlier in the passage the author implicitly acknowledges that behavioralism assumes the existence of beliefs and feelings, since the author uses one example of behavioralism based on response to pain and another example of behavioralism based on

response to a belief.


Solution

Guess

54. Suppose that a mountain climber is offered a replacement for the rope by which the climber is suspended. If the climber accepts the replacement rope, with which of the following conclusions about this acceptance would the author be LEAST apt to agree? A ) It constitutes evidence of a belief in the weakness of the original rope.

The author would disagree with this conclusion because it is too reductive, representing the type of conclusion a behavioralist would reach. The author rejects this type of conclusion in the example of the umbrella: “Whether you are disposed to take your umbrella with you depends not just on your belief that it will rain but also your desire not to get wet, your perception of the umbrella in the corner, your further belief that umbrellas are good for keeping rain off, and so on.”

B ) It is one of many possible results of a belief in the weakness of the original rope.

The author would likely accept this conclusion, based on how it takes into account the way “beliefs function in relation to desires, intentions, perceptions, emotions and inference.”

C ) It is probably influenced by beliefs other than a belief in the weakness of the original rope.

The author would be more likely to agree with this conclusion since it takes into account other beliefs that may not result in such obvious external outcomes, which according to critics, behavioralism fails to account for.

D ) It indicates the operation of brain processes associated with changing ropes

while climbing.

The author would be more likely to agree with this conclusion, since it reflects a view that several associated brain processes are at work here. See rationale A.


Solution

Guess

55. If asked, most adults would affirm that giraffes do not wear hats in the wild. Such beliefs are apparently constructed from relevant general knowledge rather than stored as explicit information. Is the conclusion that certain beliefs are only implicit consistent with functionalism as the author explains it? A ) Yes, because implicit beliefs come into existence when there is a need for

them

The author explains: “Functionalism holds that mental events of a certain sort are to be identified as those underlying events, whatever they are, that function in a relevant way.” The affirmation that giraffes do not wear hats in the wild is an example of a mental event based on the underlying event of general knowledge functioning in a relevant way.

B ) Yes, because implicit beliefs are underlying physical events rather than dispositions to behave

Implicit beliefs are mental events, not physical events. Type-type identity theory, not functionalism, would hold that they are physical events.

C ) No, because implicit beliefs are irrelevant to desires, intentions, perceptions, and feelings

Functionalism sees beliefs as relevant: “…to understand the way beliefs function, you have to understand the way beliefs function in relation to

desires, intentions, perceptions, emotions and inference.”

D ) No, because implicit beliefs have no function

Functionalism holds that beliefs are one of the functional processes. See rationale C.

56. According to the author’s description of the monitor theory, learned rules are most useful when a student of a second language is: A ) showing the habits of an

underuser.

While “underusers” may have low levels of learned competence,learned rules are not useful to them, since “underusers” could “still achieve very high levels of communicative accuracy through acquisition.” The only situation in which learned rules would be useful to “underusers” is when they are taking a grammar test—see rationale C.

B ) beginning to study the language.

The author points out that learned rules are “not very helpful in normal communicative situations, particularly in the beginning stages.” Monitor theory holds that acquired rather than learned rules are more useful to second-language students.

C ) taking a grammar test.

In explaining the monitor theory, the author notes: “Krashen’s monitor theory thus explains that oral proficiency in communication is not necessarily related to the ability to achieve high scores on standard grammar tests….” Therefore, it follows that learned rules would be most useful when students are taking a grammar test.

D ) attempting to engage in conversation.

The author points out that most people cannot monitor learned rules in normal communication and that learned rules can actuallyinterfere with oral communication.


Solution

Guess

57. According to the author, Krashen would classify people who frequently correct their own grammar while speaking as: A ) superusers.

“Superusers” do not fall so precisely into this category—they “are consciously able to apply learned rules quickly and efficiently so that a listener would not notice the monitoring at all.” The proficiency of “superusers” is what distinguishes them from “overusers” who reduce language proficiency by overemphasizing correctness.

B ) overusers.

The author points out how “overusers” put too much emphasis on this: “‘Overusers’ spend so much time and effort on correctness that it often seriously interferes with communication.”

C ) optimal users.

“Optimal users” find a proper balance by monitoring their speech only enough to improve their grammar but not so much that it interferes with their ability to communicate smoothly.

D ) underusers.

“Underusers” “rarely use their learned competence [but] might still achieve very high levels of communicative accuracy through acquisition.”


Solution

Guess

58. Which of the following findings about the value of grammar tests would be most troublesome for the monitor theory? A ) The scores of beginning language students are good predictors of their oral

proficiency.

Monitor theory asserts that there is little relationship between good performances on grammar tests and oral proficiency. Therefore, this finding would represent a strong challenge to monitor theory.

B ) The scores of beginning language students are poor predictors of their oral proficiency.

This would prove far less troublesome to monitor theory since this exception is explained by the fact that many language instructors tend to be “superusers” who are able to use knowledge of grammar rules to improve oral proficiency.

C ) The scores of language instructors are good predictors of their oral proficiency.

In explaining the monitor theory, the author notes: “Krashen’s monitor theory thus explains that oral proficiency in communication is not necessarily related to the ability to achieve high scores on standard grammar tests….” Therefore, it follows that learned rules would be most useful when students are taking a grammar test.

D ) The scores of language instructors are poor predictors of their oral proficiency.

This would still be consistent with monitor theory in the case of those language instructors who are not “superusers.” See rationales A and C.


Solution

Guess

59. The author states that underusers might “achieve very high levels of communicative accuracy entirely through acquisition”. Which of the following items of information provided elsewhere in the passage most helps to clarify this statement? A ) Children develop their ability to speak in informal situations.

The author cites overwhelming evidence “that students who wish to communicate must acquire this ability in much the same way that speakers, adults or children, acquire it in natural situations.” Given this,

“underusers” most resemble children in how they acquire oral proficiency.

B ) Learned rules of grammar have limited usefulness for language students.

This does not clarify why “underusers” achieve language proficiency, and is only relevant to the extent that learned rules have especially limited usefulness for “underusers.”

C ) Some people can apply learned rules so efficiently that their monitoring is not noticeable.

These people, namely, “superusers” are so different from “underusers” in how they acquire language proficiency that their example does not clarify why “underusers” achieve fluency.

D ) Modifications of utterances are usually initiated by prior knowledge.

Since this kind of modification can only happen through learned competence, which is low in “underusers,” this does not clarify how “underusers” acquire oral proficiency.


Solution

Guess

60. The passage suggests that an effective way for second-language learners to improve their fluency would be to: A ) drill themselves repeatedly on everyday vocabulary.

This would only allow second-language students to increase their vocabulary, which monitor theory suggests would be of limited use, especially if they could not put this vocabulary to use in actual situations.

See rationale C.

B ) use audiotapes to learn grammar while sleeping.

Assuming that this method is effective, it would only be effective for learning grammar and would not be effective in normal communicative situations.

C ) use the second language to request information.

Using the second language to request information would be an example of the kind of natural situation that, according to monitor theory, allows language learners to improve their fluency.

D ) perform mental exercises to increase their memory.

This would only be effective for cognitive- based knowledge such as learning about correct grammar and syntax, which require memorization. Monitor theory would view this as having very limited use for improving fluency, which requires practice in natural situations, not memorization. See rationale B

Verbal Reasoning 8

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