EXAM REVISION 2012 VCE Psychology Unit One
EXAM REVISION 2012
VCE PsychologyUnit One
Chapter 1: Nature of Psychology
The roots of psychology lie
in philosophy.
Can be traced back to
Ancient Greek philosophers
such as Socrates, Plato &
Aristotle.
Wilhelm Wundt established
the first laboratory for
investigating psychological
phenomena in 1879.
Chapter 1: Nature of Psychology
Freud developed
Psychoanalysis as
treatment for mental
disorders.
Modern Psychology is
based on empiricism-
gathering data using
methodical research.
Chapter 1: Nature of Psychology
The major perspectives are:
Biological
Behavioural
Cognitive
Socio-Cultural
(Big Ben Chimes Slowly) or
(Big Ben Cats Stroke)
Psychologist vs Psychiatrist
Psychologists are not able
to perform medical
procedures or prescribe
medication as they are not
qualified doctors like
psychiatrists.
Some Types of Psychologists
Sport Psychologist
Forensic Psychologist
Organisational Psychologist
Educational &
Developmental Psychologist
Counselling Psychologist
• Clinical Psychologist
Chapter 2: Research Methods
Population refers to the group of
people of interest to the
researcher. It is the group about
which the researcher wishes to
draw conclusions.
Sample-the members of the
population who have been
chosen to take part ion the
research (A subset of the
population)
Some Guys Prefer IndiViduals That Rock
Sample-eg Two large groups of identical members of the sample kept in
the same environmental conditions . State a specific number (of reasonable
magnitude) in each group, instead of simply describing a ‘large’ group or
replication of the experiment.
Group_ Divide the sample into two groups of equal size-One is the
experimental Group and One is the Control Group.I
Pretest- infection of both groups with the virus against which the drug
has been designed.
Independent Variable-One of the groups then needed to receive no
further treatment (the control group), the other group (the trial group)
receives the drug under investigation
Time after a few days, each of the groups needs to Examined -the
number of mice that have developed the viral disease in each group
counted.
Results- If the number of mice in the trial group is significantly less than
the number in the control group, the drug has been effective.
S Sample
G Allocate to 2 Groups (Experimental group and Control Group)
P Pretreatment
IV State the Independe4nt Variable
T Time
R Results
Sampling
Convenience Sample-readily
available without any attempt
to make the sample
representative of the
population
Random Sample-every
member of population has an
equal chance of being
selected
Stratified Sampling
Random-Stratified Sample- involves identifying all of the people within each stratum of research interest, then randomly selecting samples of proportionate size from each stratum
Descriptive Research
Case Study-an intensive in
depth investigation of some
behaviour or event of interest
in an individual, small group or
situation.
Observational Study-involves
collection of data by carefully
watching and recording
behaviour as it occurs.
Presentation of Results
If you use a graph to show your results,
you would normally graph the
independent variable (the one you
changed) on the x-axis, and the dependent
variable (what you measured) on the y-
axis.
When the dependent variable changes
with time, you can graph time on the x-
axis and the dependent variable on they-
axis.
Continuous Data
Data that can take on an infinite number of values between whole numbers.
Examples: height, temperature and time
This data is presented on a line graph
Growth of Plant
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5
Time (days)
Hei
gh
t (c
m) Control
X
Y
Z
Discontinuous Data (Discrete Data)
Data in which the variable can only take one of a finite set of values
Columns should not touch if data is discrete
Height of Plant
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
control X Y Z
Fertilizer
Hei
gh
t (c
m)
Qualitative Data
Deals with descriptions.
Data can be observed but not
measured.
Colors, textures, smells, tastes,
appearance, beauty, etc.
Qualitative → Quality
Quantitative Data
Deals with numbers.
Data which can be
measured.
Length, height, weight,
speed, time, temperature,
ages, etc.
Quantitative → Quantity
Ethics
Voluntary Participation
Informed Consent
Deception
Confidentiality
Debreifing
Withdrawal Rights
Very
Intelligent
Dudes
Can
Do
Well
Chapter 3: The Visual Perception System
Consists of a complete
network of physiological
structures involved in vision.
Includes eyes, sensory
receptors (retina), neural
pathways and the visual
cortex.
Chapter 3: The Visual Perception System
1. Visual sensation:
Detection or awareness of the presence
of light energy produced by stimulation
of the photo receptors on the retina.
It is a physiological process.
It is the same for everyone without
damage.
.
Perception
2. Visual perception:
Selection, organisation and
interpretation of visual sensations
by the brain into meaningful info.
This is influenced by physiological
and psychological factors,
therefore is a unique experience
for everyone
Response to Light
The human eye is sensitive to a very
narrow band of electromagnetic
spectrum, this is called the visible light
spectrum.
This spectrum starts at short
wavelengths of 380nanometres (1
billionth of a metre), which are
violet/blue and ends at larger
wavelengths of 760nm, which are
orange/red in colour.
Anatomy of the Eye
Ciliary muscle: to control the shape of the
lens
Iris: to control the amount of light entering
the lens
Pupil: to allow light through
Lens: to converge light to form a sharp
image on the retina
Cornea: to bend light towards the lens
Retina: to act as a screen for the image
Optic nerve: to carry signals from the retina
to the brain
Process of Sensation & Perception
Reception:
The process of detecting the presence of, or
changes in, light energy in the retina.
Transduction:
The process by which photoreceptors change
electromagnetic energy into electrochemical
energy.
Transmission:
The process of sending and receiving information
in the form of electrochemical energy along a
nerve pathway to the brain.
Selection – The detection and coding of
features of a stimulus, such as size, colour
and movement.
Organisation – The grouping of elements
to be viewed in a meaningful way.
Interpretation – The process by which the
whole is given meaning. This is done by
comparing new info. with info. already
stored in memory.
Perceptual Principles
Gestalt Principles:
German word meaning shape and
form.
‘The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.’
In psychology this is considered
the way we perceive stimuli by
grouping parts into a whole,
complete form. This is an
automatic process.
Closure
The tendency to mentally
fill or ignore gaps in visual
stimuli and perceive the
object to be a meaningful
whole.
Figure Ground
The tendency to perceive points of the
visual stimulus as being more relevant
(the figure) and standing out against a
less relevant background (ground.)
The contour line (or edges) of a shape
helps us to define the object to make
it the centre of our focus, it becomes
the figure while all other visual info.
becomes the ground
Depth Cues
Source of information from
the environment or within our
bodies which helps us to
perceive an object’s distance.
Our retina receives info. as 2D
images, but using depth cues
it’s converted into 3D reality.
Categories of Depth Cues
Monocular – requiring one eye only:
Secondary (info. from external
sources) = Pictorial depth cues
Primary (info. from internal sources
= Accommodation
Binocular – requiring use of both
eyes:
Primary (info. from internal sources)
= Convergence + Retinal Disparity
Visual Illusions
The consistent
misinterpretation/distortion
of real sensory stimuli.
Most illusions occur because
they create a perception that
is inconsistent with the
retinal image.
Muller-Lyer Illusion
2 parallel lines of equal
length are placed side to
side.
The line with the outward
facing arrows is perceived
to be longer.
Explanation
Misapplication of size constancy
The line with inward facing arrows looks like the
closer outside corner of a building & the feathertail
line looks like the further corner of a room.
If 2 lines cast the same retinal image, but one is
further away then the further one must be longer.
Therefore because the feathertail line is perceived
as further away our brain interprets it as longer &
we perceive it as such.
We are said to perceptually expand the more
distant line.
Perceptual Set-Why we Interpret the Way We Do
Perceptual set expectancy:
A predisposition or readiness to
perceive stimuli in accordance
with certain expectations.
This may cause us to select
certain aspects of the stimulus or
ignore other aspects.
Factors Affecting Perceptual Set
Motivation:
Processes that direct & sustain our behaviour
towards achieving a particular goal.
May be influenced by psychological (desires) or
physiological (hunger) factors.
Cultural Factors:
The culture in which we are raised influences
our ideas, knowledge, beliefs & attitudes.
Emotional State:
Different emotions can cause us to perceive
certain stimuli in certain ways.
Chapter 4: Lifespan Development
Age related changes that
occur from birth,
throughout a person’s life,
into and during old age.
Maturation
The orderly and sequential
developmental changes
which occur in the nervous
system and other bodily
structures controlled by our
genes.
Nature vs Nurture
The nature versus nurture debate
concerns the relative importance
of an individual's innate qualities
("nature," i.e. nativism, or
innatism) versus personal
experiences ("nurture," i.e.
empiricism or behaviorism) in
determining or causing individual
differences in physical and
behavioral traits.
Research Methods for Developmental Studies
Cross sectional-selects &
compares groups of
participants of different ages
over a short period of time
Longitudinal- a long term
investigation that follows the
same group of people over
an extended period of time.
Research Methods for Developmental Studies
Cohort-Sequential-
combines the cross-
sectional & Longitudinal.
Eg 3 cohorts of adolescents
aged 14, 16 & 18 every 2
years over a 4 year period.
Chapter 5: Theories of Psychological Development
Perceptual – Gibson
Emotional – Bowlby,
Ainsworth, Harlow
Cognitive - Piaget
Moral -Kohlberg
Psychosocial – Erikson
Psychological
Development
PerceptualGibson
EmotionalBowlby,
Ainsworth & Harlow
CognitivePiaget
MoralKohlberg
Psychosocial
Erikson
Gibson & Visual Cliff
The apparatus used by
Gibson was “the visual
cliff”
Infants who had crawling
experience were fearful of
the apparent drop and
refused to cross over to
their mothers.
Gibson’s theory
Emphasised key processes involved in
perceptual development. These
include:
Role of the infant as an active explorer
The affordance (perceived qualities) of
objects or events that are experienced
The way perceptual exploration
becomes more and more specific and
differentiated (selective) with age
Perceptual development cont.
Exploration and the search for
affordances are important
features of perceptual
development
Affordances are the perceived
and actual properties of
something in the environment
that suggest how it should be
used.
Definition of Attachment
An enduring emotional tie
to a special person,
characterized by a
tendency to seek and
maintain closeness,
especially during times of
stress.
Bowlby’s 4 Key Characteristics of Attachment
Proximity Maintenance-
desire to be near the caregiver.
Safe Haven-
the ability to be able to return to the
caregiver when scared.
Secure Base-
from which infant can explore
surrounding environment.
Separation distress-
anxiety when caregiver leaves
Ainsworth
• Mary Ainsworth researched
• Designed the “strange situation”
• A lab experiment with 8
different episodes of separation
and reunion
• Attached infant will:
• Use mother as a secure base
• Be soothed by the mother
during the reunion
Harlow discovered that baby monkeys deprived of their mothers (left) would transfer their affections to a cloth surrogate. When they needed to eat, they would scamper over to a milk-bearing wire mother, but then quickly return to cuddle with the softer surrogate.
Key principles of Piaget’s theory
• Information is organised into schemas (groups of inter-related ideas)
• Based on principles of – assimilation (process of taking in
new information and fitting it into and making it part of an existing mental idea about objects or the world)
– accommodation (refers to changing an existing mental idea in order to fit new information)
Sucking on her rattle (assimilation), she will eventually develop an understanding that rattles only make noise (accommodation)
1.Object permanence
• Object permanence is the understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be see or touched.
Eg. When a toy is hidden an infant believes that it does not exist anymore
Children are only capable of seeing the world from their point of view and therefore have trouble in seeing things from another person’s point of view
Eg. When told to hide they cover their eyes, because they cant see themselves they think others cant see them either
2.Egocentrism
Understanding that something can change from one stat to another
Eg. The child cannot explain the melting process despite being able to identify the ice-blocks (solid) and the melted ice blocks (liquid)
2.Transformation
2.Animism
Animism is the belief that everything that exists has some kind of consciousness or awareness. Eg: the toy that can feel tired or sad.
2.Reversibility • Is the ability to follow a
line of reasoning back to its original starting point
Eg. a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.
Refers to the idea that an object does not change its weight, mass, volume or area when the object changes its shape or appearance
3.Conservation
3.Classification
Classification is the ability to organise information into categories based on common features. Eg: a banana can belong to a group of yellow
objects as well as belong to the group of fruit.
4.Abstract thinking
Abstract thinking refers to thinking without needing to see or visualise things in order to understand concepts. Eg: understanding concepts such as justice,
honesty, respect
4.Logical thinking
Logical thinking refers to the ability to think in a systematic way and develop a plan to solve problems. Eg: doing algebra
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
♂Level 1: Preconventional (0-9 years)♂ Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
♂ Stage 2: Naively egotistical Orientation
♂Level 2: Conventional (10-15 years)♂ Stage 3: Good Boy/ Nice Girl Orientation
♂ Stage 4: Law & Social Order Maintaining Orientation
♂Level 3: Postconventional (16+years)♂ Stage 5: Legalistic-Social Contract Orientation
♂ Stage 6: Universal Ethical Orientation
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
American male bias
What people say is not always
consistent with what they do
Method of data collection-
young children who may not
understand the stories or
express their thinking.
Cultural differences not
addressed
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial development theory is
based on eight stages of development
Erikson’s theory is based on the idea that
development through life is a series of
stages which are each defined by a crisis
or challenge
The early stages provide the foundations
for later stages so Erikson says that if a
child does not resolve a crisis in a
particular stage, they will have problems
in later stages
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Danish Psychoanalyst
Baltes’ Selection, Optimisation and Compensation Theory
Successful Ageing: Promoting
gains and managing losses.
Optimisation: making the most
of the abilities, resources and
opportunities available to
achieve the optimal or best
outcome.
Compensation: new coping
strategies
Chapter 6: Mental Illness across Lifespan
ADHD is a disorder characterised by inattention, and hyperactive and impulsive behaviour that is more frequent and server than in other children of the same age. Usually symptoms of ADHD become apparent in children before they reach 7 years of age.
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a psychotic illness characterised by distorted perceptions (hallucinations), bizarre thoughts, disorganised speech, disturbed emotions and a deterioration in coping with everyday life.
Dementia is the progressive deterioration of the functioning of neurons in the brain, resulting in memory impairment, a decline in intellectual ability, poor judgement and, sometimes, personality changes. There are many different types of dementia – the most common is Alzheimer's disease.
Dementia can affect different people in different ways, some become bewildered and frightened by the changes and others seem unconcerned and unaware of their deteriorating abilities.
Dementia
Activity: Jelly Bean Command Terms
Name
State
Describe
Distinguish
Explain
Summarise (in one
sentence)