Vascular plant diversity of riparian system along Thutha River ...

Vascular plant diversity of riparian system

along Thutha River, Kerala

Final Project Report

Submitted to

Back to Lab Research Fellowship Programme

Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment

By

Jisha K

Post Graduate and Research Department of Botany

Govt. Victoria College

PALAKKAD

KERALA STATE COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND

ENVIRONMENT

WOMEN SCIENTISTS DIVISION

BACK TO LAB PROGRAMME

1. Project Reference No : 07- 33/BLP/WSD/KSCSTE/2016

2. Name and Address of the Woman Scientist :

Jisha K

Woman Scientist

Post Graduate and Research Department of Botany

Govt. Victoria College, Palakkad

Mob No: 9746455614

Email : [email protected]

3. Name and Address of the Scientist Mentor :

Dr. Maya C Nair

Associate Professor and Head of the Department

Post Graduate and Research Department of Botany

Govt. Victoria College, Palakkad

Mob: 9400728998

Email: [email protected]

4. Title of the project : Vascular plant diversity of riparian system

along Thutha River, Kerala

5. Broad area of Research : Life Science

6. Specific area : Taxonomy

7. Date of Start of the project : 29- 03- 2017

8. Total sanctioned amount of Project : 18,03,400/-

9. Date of completion : 29- 09- 2020

10. Expenditure as on 29-09-2020 : 17,99,329/-

Jisha K Dr. Maya C Nair

(Woman Scientist) ( Scientist Mentor)

AUTHORIZATION

The project entitled “Vascular plant diversity of riparian system along Thutha River,

Kerala” by Jisha K, was carried out under the “Back to lab programme” of Women Scientists

Division, Kerala State Council for Science Technology and Environment, Govt. of Kerala. The

work was carried out at Post Graduate and Research Department of Botany, Govt. Victoria

College, Palakkad under the mentorship of Dr. Maya C Nair. The project was initiated on 29th

March 2017 with sanction No: 07- 33/BLP/WSD/KSCSTE/2016, and scheduled completion

by 29th September 2020. As per the schedule the field and laboratory works were completed

by 29th September 2020 with a financial expenditure of Rs. 17,99,329 lakhs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am gratefully obliged to submit my profound gratitude to the authorities of Women Scientist

Division, KSCSTE, Govt. of Kerala for providing support and fellowship under Back to Lab

Research Fellowship Programme for the smooth conduct of this research programme.

This research work has been guided by the Scientist Mentor, Dr. Maya C. Nair, Associate

Professor, Department of Botany, Govt. Victoria College, Palakkad and I express my sincere

gratitude for her sustained enthusiasm, creative suggestions, motivation and exemplary

guidance throughout the course of the research work.

I express my sincere gratitude to Dr. P. M. Radhamany, Professor, Department of Botany,

Kerala University, Thiruvananthapuram for her incredible support throughout the course of

research work.

I am very much glad to express my gratitude to Dr. P. Haridasan, Principal, Govt. Victoria

College, Palakkad for providing necessary facilities at the esteemed institution. I express my

deep sense of gratitude to the former Principals of the institution, who have given immense

support during the different stages of the research programme.

I wish to thank the Directors, Curators and Librarians of the Herbarium of the Botanical

Survey of India-Coimbatore (MH); Calicut University Herbarium (CALI); Kerala Forest

Research Institute, Peechi (KFRI) and Centre for Medicinal Plant Research, Kottakkal

(CMPR) for allowing me to consult the herbarium and library.

My special thanks to Dr. Amitabachan, A. K. H. Assistant Professor, Department of Botany,

MES Asmabi College, Vemballur, Dr. Joby Paul, Assistant Professor, Department of Botany,

St. Thomas College, Thrissur, Dr. Prabhu Kumar K. M, NBRI, Lucknow and Mr. Naveen

Kumar (formerly at CMPR) for their valuable advises during the course of study.

I am thankfully acknowledging the Department of Forests, Govt. of Kerala for giving

permission and support for entering in to the various forest divisions.

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Dr. C. Unnikrishnan Warrier (Late) and Dr.

Manjula P., Centre for Water Resource Development and Management, Kunnamangalam for

their support and valuable suggestions. My special thanks to Dr. Sabu T, Dr. Thrivikramji,

Dr. Crips, Dr. Vinod Kumar, Mr. Prasood and Mr. Arun (Centre for Environment and

Development, Thiruvananthapuram) for their help during GIS mapping.

I humbly acknowledge the continuous support and encouragement provided by the members of

‘Nila Vicharavedi’, Cheruthuruthy.

Jisha K

CONTENTS

Page

No.

Abstract

List of Abbreviations

List of tables

List of Annexures

List of Figures

List of Plates

INTRODUCTION 1

Riparian ecosystem 1

Riparian vegetation 2

Significance of riparian vegetation 2

Riparian vegetation and rivers in Kerala 3

Bharathappuzha and Thuthappuzha sub basin 3

Habitat modifications and threats to riparian systems in river basins 4

Flood August 2018 and river basins in Kerala 5

Objectives of the present investigation 5

Relevance of the study 5

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 7

Floristics 7

Floristic studies in India 7

Floristic studies in Kerala with emphasis on riparian elements 8

Riparian vegetation research - World Scenario 10

Riparian vegetation studies of regulated rivers 13

Riparian vegetation research in India 13

Riparian vegetation studies in Kerala 15

Studies on wetland vegetation 16

Phytogeograhy 17

Biological spectrum analysis 17

Endemism 18

GIS mapping 19

MATERIALS AND METHODS 21

Study Area

Thuthapuzha sub basin

21

Kunthipuzha Sub basin 21

Thuppanadupuzha Sub Basin 21

Kanjirapuzha Sub Basin 22

Nellipuzha Sub Basin 22

Geology 22

Soil 22

Climate 23

Rainfall 24

Temperature 24

Wind 24

Methodology 24

Exploration and collection 24

Characterization and Identification 25

Herbarium preparation 25

Systematic treatment 26

Mapping using GIS 26

Distribution mapping 26

Land use mapping 27

Preparation of thematic maps of Thuthapuzha sub basin 27

DEM 27

TIN 27

Slope Map 27

Aspect Map 27

Drainage Map 27

Altitudinal range map 28

Floristic analysis using PAST 28

RESULTS 30

Vascular plant diversity of Thuthapuzha and Tributaries 30

Analysis of vegetation in the riparian system 56

Wetland and riparian elements 57

Evergreen and Semi-evergreen elements 57

Deciduous elements 58

Sacred grove elements 58

Degraded floral elements 60

Monotypic elements 60

Wild relatives of cultivated plants 60

Non - wood forest products and medicinal plants 62

Economically important plants 62

Endemic plants in the vegetation 63

RET taxa and IUCN Categorization 63

Invasive elements 63

Phytogeographical affinities of the flora 64

Evaluation of functional vegetation in riparian flora 65

Raunkiaer Life spectrum analysis in riparian vegetation 65

Analysis of species composition in Thuthapuzha and its tributaries 65

Thuppanadupuzha sub-basin 67

Floristic analysis of riparian system of Thuppanadupuzha sub basin 67

Kanjirapuzha sub-basin 69

Floristic analysis of riparian system of Kanjirapuzha sub basin 69

Nellipuzha sub-basin 71

Floristic analysis of riparian system of Nellipuzha sub basin 71

Kunthipuzha sub-basin 72

Floristic analysis of riparian system of Kunthipuzha sub basin 72

Interspecific and Intraspecific diversity 75

Inter-specific diversity in riparian elements 75

Cyperus (Cyperaceae) 75

Ficus (Moraceae) 75

Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) 75

Lindernia (Linderniaceae) 76

Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae) 76

Fimbristylis (Cyperaceae) 76

Ixora (Rubiaceae) 76

Intraspecific diversity in riparian elements 77

Intraspecific diversity in Cyanotis axillaris 77

Intraspecific diversity in Hybanthus enneaspermus 77

Intraspecific diversity in Chassalia curviflora 78

Intraspecific diversity in Lindernia crustacea 78

Intraspecific diversity in Lindernia rotundifolia 78

Floristic additions 79

Floristic additions to Palakkad District 79

New distributional record in Palakkad District 79

Floristic additions to flowering plants of Kerala 79

Vegetation mapping 81

Terrain mapping of Thuthapuzha Sub Basin 81

Drainage map 81

Elevation range Map 81

Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) 82

Slope Map 82

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category taxa 82

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category taxa along Kunthipuzha sub basin 83

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Thuppanadupuzha

sub basin

83

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Nellipuzha subbasin 84

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Kanjirapuzha sub

basin

84

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Thuthapuzha Sub

Basin

84

Land Use pattern of riparian system of Thuthapuzha Sub Basin 84

Threats and Consequences 86

Grazing 86

Construction of Dams and Check Dams 86

Encroachment for agriculture 87

Sand mining 87

Invasive species 87

Timber harvesting and cutting of riparian elements 88

Tourism 88

Other Activities 89

Post flood modifications 90

Post flood modifications in the riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub basin 90

Physical impact of flood/landslide on the riparian system 90

River bank erosion in the riparian system 90

Sand/Mud deposition in the riparian system 91

Pebble accumulation and Waste Deposition on Banks 93

Impact of flood/landslide on riparian vegetation 93

Colonization of invasive taxa 93

Suggested mitigation measures 94

V. DISCUSSION 96

Thematic foundation of the research problem 96

Analysis of vegetation 96

Critical evaluation of vegetation distribution along altitudinal gradients 102

Biological invasion in riparian zones 103

Impact of flood in August 2018 and post flood modification 105

Functional vegetation and flood tolerance 105

Biodiversity in regulated river Vs unregulated rivers 106

Summary and Conclusions 106

Recommendations for riparian management and conservation 108

Outcome of the research work 110

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATION 111

ANNEXURES 113

BIBLIOGRAPHY 175

ABSTRACT

The present research programme has been focused on the documentation of vascular

plant diversity, habitat modifications and threats, along with conservation significance of

riparian system supported by geospatial characterization along Thuthapuzha sub-basin, a

tributary of Bharathapuzha, originating from the upper slopes of the eastern side of silent valley

hills, Southern Western Ghats, Kerala. The role played by the riparian vegetation to sustain the

Thuthapuzha sub-basin has not been subjected to any scientific investigation and it is in this

backdrop, the present investigation has been undertaken.

Floristic exploration from March 2017 to September 2020 resulted in the

documentation of 648 taxa distributed among 133 families including 34 Pteridophytes and two

Gymnosperms. Fabaceae forms the dominant family followed by Poaceae, Rubiaceae,

Cyperaceae and Asteraceae. Vegetation profile of the riparian flora showed the dominance of

herbaceous plants followed by trees, shrubs and climbers. Endemism is being exhibited by

sixty species and 147 taxa falls under various threat categories of IUCN. The study could

document sixteen typical riparian taxa and 154 wetland elements. Moreover, the study area

harbours 16 wild genetic resources of cultivated crops. The biological invasion by thirty eight

taxa was evident and in which 13 species falls under high risk category. The life form spectrum

analysis assigned the vegetation to be Phenero-therophytic. Documentation resulted in tracing

186 species as new additions to the district flora of Palghat (Vajravelu, 1990), 55 of them

accounted as new distributional record in Palakkad district and one species Lindernia

tamilnadensis Prasad was found to be new to the flora of Kerala state with its presence at

Mothikkal. The flora showed that most of the species falls under Indo-Pacific floristic kingdom

followed by South American and African elements. The vegetation showed interspecific and

intraspecific variations in many taxa. Geospatial analysis with GIS mapped the vegetation types

and identified nine distinct land use classes along the riparian system, of which 50% of riparian

land were used for the cultivation of mixed crops. Various threat factors such as grazing, Dams

and Check dams, sand mining, encroachment, invasive species etc. highlights the degrading

nature of the riparian system. Post flood monitoring showed that flood and landslides of August

2018 severely affected the riparian system. The study highlights the need for concerted efforts

to protect and conserve riparian habitats and its biodiversity, especially along Thuthapuzha

sub-basin.

ABBREVIATIONS

APG: Angiosperm Phylogeny Group

CALI: Calicut University Herbarium

CCA: Cultural Command Area

CMPR: Centre for Medicinal Plant Research

DEM: Digital Elevation Model

GIS: Geographical Information System

GPS: Global Positioning System

IMD: Indian Meteorological department

IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature

K: Kew Herbarium

KSSB: Kerala State Biodiversity Board

LPWG: Legume Phylogeny Working Group

MCM: Micro Cubic Metre

MH: Madras Herbarium

SOI: Survey of India

SRTM: Shuttle Radar Topography Mission

TIN: Triangulated Irregular Network

USAID: United States Agency for International Development

LIST OF TABLES

Sl. No Tiltle Page No.

1 Riparian vegetation studies across the world 12

2 Area of each Grama panchayat within Thuthapuzha sub-basin 23

3 Vascular plant diversity of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries 30

4 Evergreen elements in the riparian flora of Thutha and its tributaries 58

5 Semi- evergreen elements in the riparian flora of Thutha and its

tributaries

59

6 Sacred grove elements in the riparian flora of Thutha and its

tributaries

61

7 Phytogeographical affinities of Riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and

its tributaries

64

8 Jaccard similarity value index between Thuthapuzha and its

tributaries

66

9 Endemic taxa recorded from Thuppanadupuzha sub- basin 68

10 Endemic taxa recorded from Kanjirapuzha sub-basin 70

11 Endemic taxa recorded from Nellipuzha sub-basin 72

12 Endemic taxa recorded from Kunthipuzha sub-basin 74

13 Land use classes within the riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-

basin

85

14 Panchayat wise details of river bank erosion in Thuthapuzha sub-

basin

91

15 Panchayat wise details of sand/mud deposition in the banks of

Thuthapuzha sub-basin

92

16 Categorization of invasive species in the riparian flora of

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

95

17 Comparison of dominant families of Thuthapuzha sub basin with

other riparian floras of Kerala

97

18 Comparison of biological spectra of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

with Raunkiaer’s normal biological spectra

102

19 Relationship between ecological principles, land use goals and

guidelines

109

LIST OF ANNEXURES

Sl. No Tiltle Page No.

1 Wetland taxa in the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its

tributaries

113

2 Moist deciduous elements in the riparian flora of Thutha and its

tributaries

117

3 Dry deciduous elements in the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha

and its tributaries

120

4 Degraded forest elements in the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha

and its tributaries

122

5 Medicinal plants in the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its

tributaries

124

6 Endemic taxa in the riparian vegetation of Thuthapuzha sub-

basin

130

7 IUCN Categorization of riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its

tributaries

132

8 Alien flora of Thuthapuzha sub-basin 136

9 Floristic catalogue of Thuppanadupha sub- basin with

composition information

139

10 Floristic catalogue of Kanjirapuzha sub- basin with

composition information

145

11 Floristic catalogue of Nellipuzha sub-basin with composition

information

150

12 Floristic catalogue of Kunthipuzha sub-basin with composition

information

154

13 Floristic addition to the Flora of Palghat (Vajravelu, 1990) 161

14 New distributional record to Palakkad district 166

15 Flood affected species in the riparian system of Thuthapuzha

sub-basin

168

16 Distribution of Threatened, Endemic and Invasive species along

the elevation gradient in the riparian system of Thuthapuzha

and its tributaries

173

LIST OF FIGURES

Sl. No Tiltle

1 Study area- Thuthapuzha sub-basin

2 Vegetation profile of riparian system along Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

3 Dominant families based on the number of species in the riparian system of

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

4 Dominant alien families of the riparian vegetation of Thuthapuzha and its

tributaries

5 Functional vegetation types of the Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

6 Biological spectra of the riparian forests of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

7 Similarity in species composition between Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

8 Location map of Thuppanadupuzha sub-basin

9 Location map of Kanjirapuzha sub-basin

10 Location map of Nellipuzha sub-basin

11 Location map of Kunthipuzha sub-basin

12 Drainage map of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

13 Elevation range map of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

14 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

15 Slope Map Thuthapuzha sub-basin

16 Distribution map of Endemic taxa along Kunthipuzha (Virgin valley)

17 Distribution of Endemic taxa along Kunthipuzha (Thathengalam)

18 Distribution of Endemic taxa along Kunthipuzha (Malanchira)

19 Distribution of Threatened category (IUCN) taxa along Kunthipuzha

20 Distribution map of Endemic taxa along Thuppanadupuzha (Meenvallam)

21 Distribution map of Endemic taxa along Thuppanadupuzha (Moonnekkar)

22 Distribution of Threatened category (IUCN) taxa along Thuppanadupuzha

23 Distribution map of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Nellipuzha

sub-basin

24 Distribution map of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Kanjirapuzha

sub-basin

25 Distribution map of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Thuthapuzha

sub-basin

26 Land use pattern of Thuthapuzha sub-basin(Irimpliyam)

27 Land use pattern of Thuthapuzha sub-basin(Pulamanthole))

28 Land use pattern of Thuthapuzha sub-basin(Sreekrishnapuram)

29 Land use classes along the riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

30 Physical impact map of Thuthapuzha sub-basin (Vilayur)

31 Physical impact map of Thuthapuzha sub-basin (Pulamanthole))

32 Physical impact map of Thuthapuzha sub-basin (Mannarkkad)

33 Physical impact map of Thuthapuzha sub-basin (Thathengalam)

34 Distribution pattern of river bank erosion along Thuthapuzha sub-basin

35 Distribution pattern of sand deposition along Thuthapuzha sub-basin

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: Riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Plate 2: Riparian system of Kunthipuzha sub-basin

Plate 3: Riparian system of Thuppanadupuzha sub-basin

Plate 4: Riparian system of Kanjirapuzha sub-basin

Plate 5: Riparian system of Nellipuzha sub-basin

Plate 6 - 61: Enumeration of taxa

Plate 62-65: Intra-specific diversity in the riparian flora

Plate 66: Threats to riparian systems along Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Plate 67-69: Flood affected areas within Thuthapuzha sub-basin

1

INTRODUCTION

Water is the most vital asset not just of a state or a nation, however of the whole of

mankind. The richness of a country depends essentially upon the reasonable exploitation of

this asset. In this way, it tends to be expressed that the fundamental wealth of a country is

water, which flows in rivers and streams. The riverine beds on either bank of these water

bodies support luxuriant vegetation and such riparian zones have played significant role in

the advancement of human civilization from the time immemorial. Numerous early and great

civilizations flourished along rivers like the Egyptian in the Nile River and Indus valley

civilization in the fertile flood plain of the Indus River and its vicinity. Indeed, even today the

floodplains of rivers and related wetlands augment a large number of human populations

everywhere throughout the world (Wiseman, et al., 2003).

Riparian ecosystem

The word “riparian” has been evolved from the Latin word “riparius” meaning “of or

belonging to the bank of a river”. The intellectual roots of riparian ecology and management

were formed several years ago and are rooted in the development of catchment and floodplain

perspectives. Over recent decades, several scientific studies have addressed the importance of

riparian ecosystem and it remains as leading edge for ecosystem study and landscape

restoration and management. The riparian zones are potentially so important to ecological

function in the overall catchment, and conservation of these areas is the new challenge that

we are facing at the present time (Naiman, et al., 2005). Sources of abundance and

destruction, life and death, rivers have always had a powerful hold over humankind and they

run through every human landscape, whether mythical or actual (Mauch and Zeller, 2008).

Rivers and riparian zones are complex geomorphologic systems that play an essential

role in environmental function (Gregory, et al., 1991). The riparian areas are among the

biosphere’s most complex ecological systems and also among the most important for

maintaining the vitality of the landscape and its rivers (Naiman and Decamps, 1997).Riparian

ecosystem is an interface between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that expand downward

into the groundwater, up above the canopy, away from the floodplain, up the near-slopes that

drain to the water, and along the river basin at an uneven width (Wagner and Hagen, 2000).

The quality of natural riparian ecosystem vary with the size of the river, from narrow

and relatively simple strips of land along the headwater stream to heterogeneous flood plains

in many kilometres wide along the lower region of major rivers (Paul, 2012). Riparian

ecosystems can vary in width from just a few metres next to small rivers with sheer banks, to

2

more than100 metres near large rivers. They are important ecosystems because of their

complex spatio - temporal processes that maintain diverse plant and animal communities.

They sustain a range of ecosystem services and the complex interactions among hydrology,

geomorphology, light and temperature influence the structure, dynamics and composition of

riparian system (Naiman and Decamps, 1997).

Riparian Vegetation

Vegetation seen along the river edges are generally referred as the riparian vegetation

and occupies one of the most dynamic areas of the landscape. It is also known as gallery

forests and streamside forests (Brinson, 1990). Under normal circumstances, riparian

ecosystems maintain natural vegetation adapted for an inundated soil condition (Gosselink, et

al., 1981). These can create a mosaic of microhabitats with the coexistence of numerous plant

communities (Swanson, et al., 1982; Gregory, et al., 1991). Distribution and composition of

riparian plant communities reflect histories of both fluvial disturbance from floods and the

non fluvial disturbance regimes of adjacent upland areas, such as fire, wind, plant disease,

and insect outbreaks. As a result, riparian plant communities reveal a high degree of

structural and compositional diversity (Gregory, et al., 1991). A gradual shift in the floral and

faunal composition could be observed from upstream to downstream with the varying

climatic and topographic features (Bachan, 2003).

Significance of riparian vegetation

Riparian areas are distinctive and unique compared to other ecosystems mainly due to

three main characteristics such as water, soil and vegetation. The combination of the water-

soil-vegetation characteristics of these areas reflects the influence of the higher available

moisture quantities compared to their adjacent terrestrial upland ecosystem (Zaimes, et al.,

2010). Moreover, the vegetation in riparian zone comprises of terrestrial under storey and

canopy species along with wetland and aquatic taxa (Parsons, 1991).

The riparian vegetation plays a critical role in providing a healthy stream system.

Riparian vegetation strongly influences both stream and riparian zone processes (Gregory, et

al., 1991). Riparian vegetation functions as shelter for wildlife and corridors for species

migration. It also functions as breeding ground for birds and small mammals. Riparian trees

provide shading to keep the water cool and increase bank stability through which the roots

anchor themselves into the soil to support above-ground biomass that is less prone to bank

erosion. Those areas from where vegetation has been removed from stream banks, the banks

are prone to slumping and undercutting because there is no longer dense root growth that can

3

provide bank stability. Logs, branches and leaves falling into the water provide food source

and places to hide for fish and other aquatic organisms. Riparian areas help to regulate the

flow of water, reducing peak storm flows by slowing or storing run-off. The vegetation cover

facilitates water infiltration and prevents excess nutrients, water-borne sediments and toxic

material from reaching the water. The function of the riparian vegetation in stream base

stabilization (Beeson and Doyle, 1995), water quality improvement (Tremolierers, et al.,

1997), controlling the future stream flow (Auble, et al., 1994), role in shaping stream

channels and biotic communities in a natural landscape are main areas of interest in the recent

context of riparian and watershed based restoration and management.

Riparian vegetation and rivers in Kerala

In India the rivers are inextricably bound to the culture and history of the land, part of

the customs and festivals, a lifeline to the villages, towns and cities along their course.

Among the most unique aspect of India are its rivers which hold high religious and cultural

significance among its people. In Kerala the riverine habitats consists of 44 rivers traversing

the land. Of the 44 rivers, 41 are west-flowing originate from the Western Ghats and flow

towards the west and drains to the Arabian sea, and three, east-flowing originate from

Western Ghats within Kerala, flow eastwards and join the Bay of Bengal.

Bharathappuzha and Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Bharathapuzha poetically known as ‘Nila Nadhi’ is located between 100 and 110 13'

North latitudes and 750 53' to770 13' East longitudes. It is the largest and second longest river

of Kerala with a catchment area of 6286 km2. It originates from the Anamalai hills in the

Western Ghats and flows through Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu, Palakkad, Malappuram

and Thrissur districts of Kerala. The river basin is considered as the cradle of civilization in

Kerala and it is popular for its geo-physical value as well as its cultural and historical

significance. Bharathapuzha has been subjected to severe environmental threats due to

human activities (Sreela, 2009). Four tributaries drain in to Bharathapuzha such as

Thuthapuzha, Gayathripuzha, Kalpathipuzha and Chitturpuzha. Kalpathipuzha is the largest

sub-basin of Baharathapuzha followed by Chitturpuzha, Gayathripuzha and Thuthapuzha.

Even though the smallest sub-basin, Thuthapuzha is rich in water and after it drains,

Bharathapuzha become thicker and wider in flow. The annual water discharge of

Thuthapuzha is 1750 MCM and the discharge was maximum in the month of July (457

MCM) and minimum in February (5.5 MCM). During the south-west monsoon period (June-

September) 70% of the total river discharge occurred, 25% during the north-east monsoon

4

period (October–January) and the remaining 5% occurred during the summer months

(Manjula, 2015).

Habitat modifications and threats to riparian systems in river basins

Degradation of riparian zones is a result of complex interrelated responses from

geomorphic, hydrologic and biotic processes to climate change and natural and anthropogenic

disturbances (Chambers and Miller, 2004). Understanding and managing riparian systems

requires recognition of the role of disturbance (Poff, et al., 2011). Human activities and

extraction of natural resources on the landscape affect the physical processes that support

many of the values provided by riparian ecosystems and alter the rate, quantity, and quality of

these services (Theobold, et al., 2010). Common indicators of stress in the riparian systems

include reduced biodiversity, altered productivity, increased prevalence of disease, reduced

efficiency of nutrient cycling, increased dominance of invasive species and smaller, short-

lived plant species (Naiman, et al., 2005).The deterioration of riparian ecosystem is mainly

due to varied level of anthropogenic interventions and over exploitation of resources. The

destruction of this vibrant ecosystem is being triggered by implementation of projects with

unscientific planning, lack of social responsibility and delay in the implementation of laws.

Human activities such as agriculture, clearing of riparian flora and hunting of riparian

fauna, grazing and discharge of industrial waste have a great impact on riparian ecosystems.

Direct discharge of untreated waste from industries, domestic and urban sources into rivers

contribute to various forms of pollution. Eutrophication, suspended solids, sedimentation and

pesticide residues leached from soils and agricultural plantations add to the pollution levels in

streams and rivers. Human impact such as dams, deforestation and water use practices pose

serious threats to water availability to downstream populations (USAID, 2008). Degradation

of riparian zones not only affects the riparian area but also the surface and ground water

resources, the aquatic fauna and flora along with the terrestrial ecosystem. Thus, the riparian

zone is increasingly seen as ecologically important in landscapes, and identification of the

boundaries of such areas is important and has clear management significance (Nally, et al.,

2008). Riparian vegetation today is ranked as the most vulnerable and threatened ecosystems

of the world and its conservation is of great magnitude (Tockner and Stanford, 2002). The

continuity and connectivity of riparian vegetation is affected by agriculture, deforestation and

urbanization (Heartsill-Scalley and Aide, 2003). According to Allan and Flecker (1993), such

human activities lead to the disappearance of native riparian flora and the establishment of

new invasive species and there by modify natural form of stream banks.

5

Flood August 2018 and river basins in Kerala

Kerala experiences a wet tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of

the monsoon. Around 90% of the rainfall occurs during the six monsoon months. Kerala

experienced a heavy rainfall in the month of August 2018 and received 2346.6 mm against

normal of 1649.5 mm and this was about 42% above the normal as per IMD data. This

resulted in severe flooding in almost all districts of the state. Due to the heavy rain and

uncontrolled opening of the dams and reservoirs of Kerala, huge stretches of river banks and

floodplains were submerged, along with massive landslides. Preliminary observations of

ecological impact of the flood have shown that the riparian zones of the major rivers in

Kerala are one of the areas which is highly affected by the flood and landslides of August

2018.The present study also analyses the impact of flood and landslide to the riparian system

along Thuthapuzha sub-basin. Except for hydrological and hydro-chemical characterization

(Manjula, 2015), the riparian areas of Thuthapuzha sub-basin has not been subjected to any

scientific investigation. Hence the present study is concentrated on the riparian system of

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries with following objectives;

Objectives of the research programme

Characterization of vascular plant diversity along the riparian system in Thuthapuzha

sub-basin along with its tributaries

Analysis of endemism, threatened category taxa and phytogeographical affinities of

riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Analysis of different land use patterns and its impacts on the riparian species along

the Thuthapuzha sub-basin.

Mapping of the land use patterns, water body, endemic and threatened category taxa

using GIS

Post flood monitoring of riparian areas of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Relevance of the study

Numerous riparian research and management studies has been conducted all over the

world, especially from temperate regions but it is rarely conducted from Indian rivers

excluding few ecological works. Riparian vegetation of the less rain fed warmer places of

nation alone is perceived as the diverse riparian system up to late time (Champion & Seth

1968). But the last two decades have seen an enormous research effort focused on

understanding the dynamics and managerial uses of riparian zones of Indian region. Floristic

or structural studies of the riparian system of Bharathapuzha basin and its tributaries has not

6

been analyzed so far, only reference to some species, belonging to the stream banks was

documented in regional floras. Hence there is a gap in the knowledge of floristic composition,

community structure and ecological significance of the riparian system of Bharathapuzha and

its tributaries. Hence the present investigation has been planned with Thuthapuzha sub basin,

one of the major tributary of Bharathapuzha and the present work may be a pioneering work

on this aspect from our region.

7

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Rivers are considered as the support system for human civilization all over the world.

The presence of irrigated agriculture, towns, cities and industrial sites along the river bank

shows the inextricable dependence of human races on riverine ecosystem (Sunil, et al., 2010).

Among the most unique aspect of India are its rivers which hold high religious and cultural

significance among its people. In Kerala the riverine habitats of 44 rivers traverse the land

and support rich biodiversity filled with flora and fauna.

Floristics

The floristic studies across different ecosystems and phytogeographical ranges

provide basic information for analysis of vegetation in a wide range of ecological regimes all

over the world. Following is a critical review on the previous research works on riparian

ecosystems with special emphasis on the documentation of riparian vegetation studies carried

out in India and Kerala.

Floristic studies in India

Scientific floristic exploration of Indian region expanded further in 18th century only

after the arrival of Europeans. The floristic wealth of Indian region was first recognized by

Hendrik Van Rheed and published Hortus Indicus Malabaricus (1678-1703). In this epic

work he documented 742 indigenous plants of Malabar region with descriptions and

illustrations. It was the first colossal work on the botany of Indian region and this

monumental work shaped the source of information about the Indian plants for several other

floristic studies. After this, Linneaus (1753) published Species Plantarum which systematized

the entire botanical world.

William Roxburgh, the greatest botanist since Linneaus, carried out floristic studies

and published two renowned works, Hortus Benghalensis (1814) and Flora Indica (1820-

1824). It was Wight and Arnott, who started the systematic studies in India and published the

well known work Prodromus Florae Peninsular Indiae Orientalis (1834) which give

information about many plants of Peninsular India. After this, Beddome explored several hill

ranges of south India and published three renowned works, Trees of the Madras Presidency

(1863), the Flora Sylvatica of South India (1869-1874) and Icones Plantarum Indiae

Orientalis (1868-1874).

Hooker, the great British botanist of the 19th century divided the Indian region in to

seven botanical provinces and started the preparation of his seven-volume work, Flora of

British India (1872-1897). He enumerated 10,200 species belonging to 2073 genera under

8

170 families from the present day political boundaries of India and this lead to the publication

of many regional floras from different parts of the country. Other important works on the

floristic wealth of Indian regions are Flora of the Presidency of Bombay (Cooke, 1901-1908)

and Flora of the Presidency of Madras (Gamble, 1915-1936).

As for the forest flora, The Forest Trees of Travancore (Bourdillon, 1908) and The

Flowering Plants of Travancore (Rama Rao, 1914) are the main sources of information. The

flora of the Niligiri and Pulney hill tops (Fyson, 1915-1920), Flora of Anamalai Hills

Coimbatore District, Flora of South Indian Hill Stations (Fyson, 1932) and vegetation of

Nilgiris (Bor, 1938) are important contributions on the plant wealth of high altitude hills of

this region. Blasco (1970) enumerated 356 species of South Indian hills and published flora

and ecology of Savannas of the South Indian hills. Other important floristic studies of South

India includes rare and threatened plants in South India (Henry, et al., 1979), Flora of

Coimbatore (Chandrabose, 1981), floristic diversity of Karnataka (Sharma, et al., 1984), The

Flora of Tamil Nadu-Carnatic (Matthew, 1981-1984) and Red Data Book on Indian Plants

(Nayar and Sastry,1987;1988;1990).

Floristic studies in Kerala with emphasis on riparian elements

The floristic wealth of Kerala has been explored by many workers and a series of

floristic studies has been conducted starting from Flora of Calicut (Manilal and Sivarajan,

1982) and the study enumerated 983 plant species from this region. Study recorded seven

most prominent riparian species found growing on the banks of rivers of this region and 19

aquatic elements populated in the ponds, streams and water-logged areas. Mohanan (1984)

conducted an extensive floristic study of Kollam district, in which he enumerated 1400

species under 160 families. Ten typical riparian species were found along the banks of the

rivers and streams of the region and 12 aquatic elements were observed in the water-logged

areas. An inclusive account of floristic diversity of Silent valley, a unique tract of undisturbed

rainforest was conducted (Manilal, 1988) that enumerated 966 flowering plants in 559 genera

and 234 families. Sixty seven riparian species were documented from the banks of

Kunthipuzha in this account. Studies on the Flora of Cannanore (Ramachandran and Nair,

1988) documented 1132 species of flowering plants in 658 genera and 157 families. The river

banks of Kannur district abounds in 8 typical riparian species and 13 aquatic elements. Flora

of Palghat (Vajravelu, 1990) documented the rich floristic diversity of Palakkad, recorded

about 1355 species belonging to 732 genera spread over 146 families of flowering plants

9

which include 9 typical riparian species found along the river banks and 12 aquatic elements

inhabited in ponds and streams of this region.

A comprehensive account of grass flora of Kerala was conducted by Sreekumar and

Nair (1991) which enumerated 296 species under 103 genera in which 4 species are

commonly occupied the riparian areas of Kerala and 7 aquatic elements were found on the

water-logged areas. Mohanan and Henry (1994) reported 1270 flowering plants belonging to

710 genera under 163 families in Flora of Thiruvananthapuram district, which also accounted

13 riparian species from the river banks and 12 aquatic elements populated the ponds and

water bodies of Thiruvananthapuram district. Subramaniyan (1995) reported 875 species

under 524 genera with 132 families in Flora of Thenmala division with 8 typical riparian

species found along the river banks and 10 aquatic elements inhabited in water-logged areas.

Balasubramanyan and Induchoodan (1996) recorded 761 sacred grove elements from

sacred groves of Kerala, which include three riparian elements and three aquatic species.

Flowering plants of Thrissur Forests (Sasidharan and Sivarajan, 1996) reported 1645 species

of flowering plants belonging to 703 genera under 129 families with 8 riparian elements

recorded from the stream banks of Thrissur forest areas. Sasidharan (1997) reported 951 taxa

of flowering plants from Shenduruny Wildlife Sanctuary. Among the collected taxa, 3 species

are typical riparian elements.

Sivarajan and Mathew (1997) made extensive study on the floristic diversity of

Nilambur and described 1132 species of flowering plants in 665 genera and 130 families, of

which six species were typical riparian elements and five were aquatic elements. Sasidharan

(1998) described 1965 taxa of plant species under 159 families from Periyar Tiger Reserve.

The stream banks of tiger reserve abound in four typical riparian elements. Sasidharan (1999)

enumerated 965 species of flowering plants from Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, of which three

are typical riparian elements that populated the stream banks of the study area. Flora of

Pathanamthitta (Anil Kumar, et al., 2005) accounted 1249 species belonging to 658 genera

under 148 families with twenty four riparian elements and ten aquatic species. Sunil and

Sivadasan (2009) reported 1111 angiosperms belonging to 617 genera in Flora of Alappuzha

district. Among the collected taxa 12 species were populated the river and stream banks and

10 aquatics inhabited in the water-logged areas.

Flora of Wayanad (Narayanan, 2010) described 2034 species belonging to 903 genera

under 171 families with 22 riparian elements and 12 aquatic species. Sasidharan (2011) has

made a comprehensive checklist of 5094 flowering plants of Kerala which include 15 typical

riparian elements and 50 aquatics. Jose (2015) reported 1040 taxa of flowering plants

10

belonging to 130 families from Achankovil forests, Southern Western Ghats. Among the

collected taxa, 18 species inhabited the riverine systems of the region and 12 species were

populated in the pond and water-logged areas. Floristic diversity of Aralam Wildlife

Sanctuary was reported by Dantas (2017) in which he enumerated 1018 taxa under 586

genera belonging to 123 families, and reported 297 species as endemics, which include six

typical riparian species found along the stream banks.

Riparian vegetation research - World Scenario

Riparian vegetation studies were conducted at various parts of the world enumerating

floristic wealth as well as riparian forests as nutrient filters in agricultural watersheds. Flood

regimes, geomorphic channel processes, upland influences, climate and altitudinal gradients

plays an important role in the ecological diversity of riparian corridors (Naiman, et al., 1993).

Comparison of species richness and frequencies of vascular plants in the river bank

vegetation between the main channel of Vindel river system and seven of its tributaries found

that total species richness per site was higher in the main channel than in the tributaries

(Nilsson, et al. 1994).

The invasibility of species rich communities in riparian zone explained that

invasibility of riparian plant communities was mainly related to intermediate disturbance

regimes and physical structure of the riparian corridors (Tabacchi, et al., 1996).

In continuation, documentation of the effect of groundwater decline on riparian

vegetation of semiarid region, the San Pedro, Arizona demonstrated that the shallow

groundwater has an important role in structuring the plant community of riparian ecosystem

(Stromberg, et al., 1996).

Studies on the effect of forest width on floristic structure of riparian areas in the

agriculturally fragmented landscapes showed that the effect of forest width on floristic

structure appears to be more strongly linked to the effect of river floods (Metzger, et al.,

1997). Following this, investigation on the riparian vegetation along the banks of Tokachi

river showed that soil moisture and organic matter of the riparian area increased with the size

of the particles in the substratum and decreased with the elevation and distance from the river

(Nakamura, et al., 1997).

Riparian vegetation within the riparian areas are strongly influenced by hydrological

disturbance regimes and the diversity of vegetation may be influenced by biogeochemical

processes. Moreover, riparian zones play an important role as sources and sinks of matter and

energy (Tabacchi, et al., 1998).

11

Analysis of several species of natural and exotic vascular plants from the riparian

zones of Sabie river revealed that there is no statistically significant difference in species

richness of native plant species between the macro-channel banks and the floors. However,

species richness of exotic plants is three times greater on the macro-channel floors than the

banks (Hood and Naiman, 2000).

Documentation of impact of riparian vegetation on hydrological processes assessed

that riparian vegetation influencing the runoff and water quality through complex hydraulic

interactions and plant diversity of riparian ecosystem has the capacity to influence the

qualitative and quantitative aspects of water cycling (Tabacchi, et al., 2000).

Analysis of the vegetation and environmental data from 347 plots in 119 riparian

settings of Columbia river basin revealed that total number of 445 plant species and 98

vegetation types were inhabited in this river basin and the riparian system along this river

mainly composed of native shrub vegetation (Crawford, 2003).

Studies on the importance of riparian habitats to flora conservation in farming

landscapes of South Quebec River, Canada showed that riparian habitats contribute a unique

group of plant species to the conservation of agricultural landscapes (Boutin, et al., 2003).

Moreover, evaluation of the role of groundwater for plant species diversity in riparian zones

reported that most species were more abundant at sites with shallow ground water compared

to sites with deep groundwater and the study also indicated that ground water condition plays

an important role in riparian plant diversity (Jansson, et al., 2003).

Investigation on abundance and production of riparian trees in the lowland floodplain

of the Queets River provides the basis of productivity of riparian plants, especially trees,

influencing streamside community characteristics as well as the forms and fluxes of organic

matter to adjacent streams, there by strongly impacting patterns of channel morphology,

water flow, sedimentation and habitat in rivers (Balian and Naiman, 2005).

Analysis of the aquatic and riparian flora of Acheron and Louros rivers and Zirou lake

in Western Greece revealed the changes that have been taken place in the last few decades,

such as widespread agricultural cultivations and constructions in the main river stretches.

They also found that the floristic composition highlights the effect of human interventions

and disturbance occurred over the last decades in the catchment areas (Manolaki, et al.,

2011).

Studies also revealed that riparian vegetation can operate as indicator of channel

adjustments and environmental conditions which explains that the index species can

indicate the present ecological condition and past channel evolution. This knowledge base

12

could also be made useful in developing botanical recovery models which enable the

recognition of the differences between temporal and spatial diversity (Gumiero, et al.,

2015). Effect of riparian vegetation development in a restored lowland stream showed that

the root system of the vegetation help to create a strong control on soil stabilization, even

during the adverse climatic conditions when plants are dead or degraded (Vargas-Luna, et al.,

2016).

Floristic differences between the riparian corridors of regulated and free flowing

rivers assessed that riparian vegetation structure is uniform in free flowing rivers but varies

distinctly along regulated rivers because of different water-level fluctuations in storage

reservoirs (Nilsson and Jansson, 1995). Along with this, riparian forest vascular plant

diversity studies have been carried out across the world especially in European, south and

North American, Mediterranean, Australian and African countries and riparian ecosystems in

neotropical and tropical regions remain poorly known with less represented studies. A

summary of available literature is given in Table 1.

Table.1. Riparian vegetation studies across the world

Sl. No. Country Reference

1 Australia Pettit and Froend, 2001; Nally, et al., 2008; Hale, et al.,2018;

Chua, et al., 2019

2 Austria Lapin, et al., 2019

3 Brazil Damasceno, et al., 2005; Pinto, et al., 2006; Souza, et al., 2013

4 China New and Xie, 2008; Chen, et al., 2010; Pang, et al., 2010;

Ding, et al., 2018; Wang, et al., 2019; Yu, et al., 2019

5 England Harper, et al., 1997; Dufour, et al., 2019

6 Ethiopia Meragiaw, et al., 2018

7 France Piegay and Landon, 1998; Tabacchi, et al., 1998; Kondolf, et

al., 2007

8 Japan Sakio, 1997; Inoue and Nakagoshi, 2001; Suzuki, et al., 2002;

Azami, et al., 2004; Nakamura and Takahashi, 2011

9 Kenya Magana, 2001; Stave, et al., 2005; Schmitt, et al., 2019.

10 Nepal Srestha and Tamrakar, 2007

11 Peru Mc Clain and Cossio, 2003; Zapata, et al., 2019

12 Poland Wassen, et al., 2002; Szewczyk, et al., 2003

13 South Africa Higgins, et al., 1997; Fill, et al., 2018; Malherbe, et al., 2019.

14 Spain Alcaraz, et al., 1997; Salinas, et al., 2000; Corbacho, et al.,

2003

15 Sweden Renofalt, et al., 2005

16 United States Minore and Weatherly, 1994; Stromberg, 2001; Tiegs, et al.,

2005; Gordon and Meentemeyer, 2006; Webb, et al., 2007;

Scott and Friedman, 2018; Argerich, et al., 2018

13

Riparian vegetation studies of regulated rivers

An extensive study on fragmentation of riparian floras in rivers with multiple dams

assessed that rivers are increasingly fragmented by dams, resulting in disruption of natural

dispersal pathways and subsequent changes of riverine communities (Jansson, et al., 2000).

Similar analysis along regulated rivers on the Missouri River in the north-central U.S.A

documented sharp declines in riparian biodiversity in relict ecosystems downstream from

dams (Johnson, 2002).

Comparison on patterns in riparian plant communities along unregulated Yampa

River and the regulated Green River in North Western Colorado, showed that river regulation

appears to have an additive effect in reducing the plant species diversity for all age classes

and also increase invasibility of the floodplain by exotic plant species (Uowolo, et al .,

2005).

Impacts of hydroelectric dams on alluvial riparian plant communities in eastern

Brazilian Amazon reported that Amazon River basin and their biota are threatened by the

planned construction of large hydroelectric dams. They have strong impacts on floodplain

plant communities such as the loss of vegetation types, disappearance of specific habitats,

and loss or migration of important faunal elements that have key functions for pollination and

plant dispersal (Ferreira, et al., 2013).

Comparison of the vegetation and seed deposits of free-flowing parts of a river with

those regulated by straightening showed that effective distribution of plants has a place in

non-regulated river-corridors and the reduction and straightening of the river-bed decrease the

number of species that can be dispersed along river. The percentage of seeds of exotic species

significantly increases in the regulated parts of rivers and river regulation causes conversion

of native plants communities into associations of non-native herbaceous perennial species

(Omelchuk and Prots, 2014).

Riparian vegetation research in India

Though India is a country endowed with many rivers and streams, the floristic studies

on such habitats are meagre in comparison with other ecosystems. The riparian vegetation of

river Thambirabarani, Mundanthurai wildlife sanctuary, South India has been identified as

threatened due to its species richness and anthropogenic disturbances. This study has

14

recorded 47 tree species including several evergreens, 13 shrubs and 15 climbers (Singh and

Joshua, 1989).

Study during different seasons of the year in the Kaziranga National Park, located in

the floodplain of the Brahmaputra river could collect 141 species of angiosperms belonging

to 48 families and seven species of pteridophytes belonging to seven families (Baruah and

Baruah, 2000).

Investigation on the macrophytic population of Borbilla beel and Borali beel which

are two largest wetlands of Nalbari district of Assam revealed that the area inhabited 92

macrophytic species belonging to 77 genera and 34 families (Deka and Sarma, 2001).

The impact of riparian land use on stream insects of Kudremukh national park, found

that the diversity and community composition of stream insects varied across streams with

different land use types (Subramanian, et al., 2005). In continuation, analysis of vegetation

structure and dynamics of a floodplain wetland along a subtropical regulated river showed

that the hydrological regime, rather than physical connectivity with the river, may play the

dominant role in developing and maintaining plant community structure in flood plain

wetlands (Chauhan and Gopal, 2005).

Riparian flora of perennial river system of Netravati valley revealed the presence of

more than 50 angiosperm tree species and 12 shrub species were reported from this region

(Korse and Thomas, 2006). Along with this, assessment of riparian vegetation of Cauvery

river basin revealed that the river basin has a large phyto floristic wealth, rightfully enough to

constitute a separate phytogeographic unit and the study brought about the need for preparing

and implementing site – specific conservation plans for riparian ecosystems (Sunil, et al.,

2010).

Study on the status of riparian zone and flood plain areas of River Narmada, showed

that floodplain areas were dominated by agricultural practices on both banks and the

ecological conditions of river got disturbed due to excessive human interventions (Vyas, et

al., 2012). Following this, floristic study on the aquatic macrophytes of river Mula from

Pune city revealed the presence of 74 taxa in the river basin and documented that Eichhornia

crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, Alternanthera sessilis, Persicaria glabra, Cyperus compressus

and Amaranthus tricolor were found in large population at river basin (Kshirsagar and

Gunale, 2013).

Comparative study on the phenology and biodiversity of riparian vegetation of the

Ganga river bank at Bharwari recorded a total of 71 plant species and the diversity of taxa

was highest on undisturbed abandoned sites (Srivasthava and Singh, 2013).

15

Analysis of the aquatic and marshy angiosperm diversity of eastern Uttar Pradesh

identified 201 species belonging to 115 genera of 50 families. Out of total 201 species, 107

were dicots belonging to 65 genera of 33 families while 94 species were monocots belonging

to 50 genera in 17 families (Mishra and Narain, 2014).

Floristic study on riparian flora of Mahi river, Gujarat, has 328 species of flowering

plants belonging to 230 genera under 73 families, dominated by herbs and grass family.

Monocotyledons include 51 species belonging to 34 genera under eight families and

dicotyledons include 275 species belonging to 195 genera and 65 families. Among the plant

genera, Ipomoea species are dominant with 11 species followed by Cyperus and Euphorbia

with 6 species each (Sankhwal, et al., 2015).

Documentation of the floristic richness in the riparian zone of Mini river, Vadodara,

recorded 91 plant species belonging to 79 genera under 36 families and found that the

herbaceous layer dominated the vegetation due to ravine area and species diversity of trees

was low due to high anthropogenic activity (Shah, et al., 2015).

Riparian vegetation studies in Kerala

Though the state of Kerala is endowed with forty four rivers, the riparian vegetation

studies are less and have been attempted for few rivers until the year 2018. But the flood in

August 2018 created a rumble in attention to riverine beds of Kerala and many studies on

post flood events are under progress in many of the rivers of the state.

Riparian vegetation study for understanding the physiography, bioclimate and

mapping of the vegetation of the Chalakkudy river basin, Anamalai part of southern Western

Ghats has been conducted (Bachan, et al., 2002) with analysis of twenty years of rainfall data

and geophysical features using GIS facility. Here the riparian vegetation was seen distributed

in the low-medium elevation area of the Chalakkudy river. This study recorded 329

angiosperms belonging to 260 genera in 97 families, of which 24 species are endemic to

Western Ghats and ten falls under threatened category. The study also suggests important

riparian plant species for replanting including Barringtonia acutangula, Homonoia riparia,

Syzigium occidentale, Madhuca neriifolia etc.

Documentation of biodiversity potential of riparian zone of Valapattanam river

revealed the presence of 130 flowering plants, 20 mangrove species, 13 phytoplanktons, 7

zooplanktons, 23 mammals, 23 amphibians, 188 bird species, 39 fish species, 114 butterflies

and 18 odonates populated in and around the river (Sreedharan, 2005).

16

Phyto-sociological analysis of riparian tree species of Alakyam stream recorded a

total of 63 species of trees belonging to 37 families. The species with maximum number of

individuals are Hopea ponga (60), Hopea parviflora (19), Syzygium travancoricum (14),

Adenanthera pavonina (14) etc. (Manoj, et al., 2012).

The riparian flora of Pamba river composed of 545 angiosperm species in 119

families, 3 gymnosperms and 31 pteridophytes. It includes a new distributional record of

Hanguana malayana (Jack) Merr. in India and rediscovery of Diospyros sulcata Bourd. after

102 years of the type collection. Pamba river basin has 20% of vegetation as native (119) and

among them 114 are endemic to various geographical boundaries of India (Paul, 2012).

Study on the diversity of riparian plant species along the Meenachil river basin

indicates that the riparian vegetation is floristically diverse, with over 441 species recorded

along the riparian stretch of this river. The study also found that, upstream watersheds

showed more species diversity in comparison to midland and downstream watersheds (Vincy,

et al., 2014).

Diversity of herbaceous plants along the riparian system of lower stretch of

Bharathapuzha recorded 176 angiosperms belonging to 63 families, 4 pteridophytes in 2

families and one gymnosperm in Cycadaceae. Among the available taxa, the herbaceous flora

composed of 73 species in 29 families (Cherullipadi and Paul, 2016)

KSBB (2019) carried out an extensive study on the post flood modifications of the

riparian systems of several rivers of Kerala state. It includes Pamba river, Manimala river,

Achenkovil, Periyar, Chalakkudy river, Bharathapuzha, Kabani river, Chaliyar and Korayar.

The focus of this study is the rapid assessment of the damages to ecosystem and biodiversity

after the floods/landslide and to lay the foundation for a recovery and ecosystem based

reconstruction process at local level. The results of the study are yet to get disseminated as

some of the studies are under progress.

Studies on wetland vegetation

Moreover, wetlands in general are considered as the world’s most productive

ecosystem and they are commonly known as ‘cradles of biological diversity’ providing water

and primary productivity upon which countless species of plants and animals depend for

survival. Floristic wealth of aquatic and wetland system of India was first recognised and

analysed (Subramanyam, 1962) before Ramsar Convention (1971) in which he enumerated

117 aquatic plants. Another important work on aquatic and wetland plants of India (Cook,

1996) included plants of some neighbouring countries also. Many taxonomists focussed on

17

aquatic and wetland plants (Joseph, 1991; Rejani,1991; Janardhanam and Henry,1992;

Sivarajan and Joseph, 1993; Ansari and Balakrishnan, 1994; Vijayan, et al., 2007; Ansari and

Jeeja, 2009 and Ansari, et al., 2016) and elaborated the wetland diversity in different

ecozones of the country.

From the foregoing review, it is evident that except for studies on Pamba, Meenachil,

Chalakkudy and lower stretch of Bharathapuzha, no other river basins were subjected to

vegetation analysis in Kerala, even though the state is with 44 rivers. It is in this context the

present study has been carried out on Thuthapuzha sub-basin, a major tributary of

Bharathapuzha, with documentation on four rivulets which feed Thutha.

Phytogeography

Phytogeographical studies on the Indian flora have been made by Clarke (1898),

Hooker (1904), Gaussen (1933), Meher-Homji (1967) and, Suresh and Sukumar (1999). Cox

(2001) reviewed the histories of the concepts of floral Kingdoms from de Candolle and

Engler and provided a new global system of five defined phytogeographical kingdoms viz.,

Holarctic, African, Indo-Pacific, South American and Australian along with one undefined

Antarctic kingdom. Phytogeographical studies on the riparian vegetation were seldom

conducted from Indian rivers. Phytogeographical affinities of vegetation of Chalakkudy river

showed that 40% of the species were indigenous elements and 25% falls under Indo-Malayan

region (Bachan, 2010). Extensive study on the phytogeographical affinities of riparian flora

of Pamba river reported that the plant communities shows close affinities with the flora of

African, South American, African, Australian and Holarctic floristic kingdoms (Paul, 2012).

Biological spectrum analysis

One of the earliest attempts to classify the life-forms of plants was made by Humboldt

(1806). After his classification, several systems have been proposed by many workers

(Warming, 1909; Raunkiaer, 1934; Dansereau, 1957; Ellenberg and Mullar-Dombois, 1974;

Box, 1981). However the system of Raunkiaer is the most accepted which is based upon the

principle of position and degree of protection of the bud during the unfavourable seasons.

The biological spectra of different regions of India have been studied by several

workers (Meher- Homji, 1964, 1981; Sapru, 1975., Kaul and Sarin, 1976; Dhar and Koul,

1986; Pandey and Parmar, 1993; Sharma and Dhakre, 1993; Singh and Arora, 1994; Kumar,

1997; Rana, et al., 2002; Singh and Rawat, 2000; Kesar, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Dutt, 2005;

Rai, 2007; Sharma, et al., 2014; Gazal and Raina, 2014; Shahid and Shambhu, 2015).

Comparison of the biological spectra of various provinces of India has been done to show up

18

the value of life forms as indicators of degree of dryness and wetness (Meher-Homji, 1964).

Comparative study on the life forms of vegetation in arid, semi-arid and sub humid regions of

Rajasthan, the north western state in India revealed the higher demarcation in proportions of

therophytes along climatic gradient using vegetation spectrum (Reddy, et al., 2011).

Biological spectrum analyses of riparian vegetation have been studied by many

workers. Studies on several floristic parameters related to life forms and geographical

distributions of plant species of Acheron and Louros rivers of Greece (Manolaki, et al., 2011)

and found that in both river ecosystems, Hemicryptophytes is the predominant group

followed by Therophytes. Life form spectrum of riparian plant species of Ganga river

reported the dominance of Therophytes followed by Hemicryptophytes (Srivasthava and

Singh, 2013). Analysis of the life form spectra of riparian flora of Pamba basin of Kerala

revealed that linear ecotones show Phanerophytic climate as observed in the warm humid

tropical regions (Paul, 2012). Biological spectrum analysis and distribution of riparian

vegetation along the basins of Imphal riverrecorded 109 species belonging to 29 families and

84 genera and Chamaephytes represent the dominant life form followed by Therophytes and

Geophytes (Gupta, et al., 2014).

Study on the biodiversity and phyto-sociological studies of riparian areas of Taunsa

wildlife sanctuary described that the riparian vegetation of the study area was dominated by

Therophytes followed by Phanerophytes and Chamaephytes (Arfeen, et al., 2015).

Investigation of the life form spectra of riparian vegetation of Lund Khuwar, Pakistan

reported the dominance of Therophytes indicating the severity and prolonged existence of

winter season in the study area (Khan, et al., 2018). In this backdrop, the life form spectrum

studies in the riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin has also been attempted in the

present study and it will help to analyse the phytoclimate prevailing in the region.

Endemism

As the conservation of whole biosphere is an unattainable mission, priority areas need to

be identified in order to conserve maximum number of taxa in minimal convenient areas.

Towards this goal, Myers, et al., (2000) proposed ‘hotspots’, based on endemic plants and the

degree of threat markers around the globe. Endemic is a subject of growing interest and

importance in biogeography, ecology and nature conservation managements. Generally

endemic taxa of a region throw some lights on the biogeography of the area, centres of

speciation, area of extinction, vicarious and adaptive evolution of the flora and fauna of the

area (Richardson, 1978; Ahmedullah, 2000).

19

The taxonomic inventorying on endemic plants in India started by Chatterjee (1939),

where he has compiled a list of 133 dicotyledonous genera endemic to India, Burma and Sri

Lanka. Documentation of the endemic plants of Assam and Western Ghats revealed 100

endemics from Assam and 103 species from Western Ghats and estimated that 98 species

among the available taxa are common to both and all these affinities indicate that there has

been an ancient linkage in the floristic diversity of Western Ghats (Arora, 1964). Following

this, Blasco (1970) enumerated 1268 endemic species from south India. Later, investigation

on the endemic plants of Peninsular India estimated that there are 1932 species of endemics

and most of which are restricted to Western Ghats (Ahmedullah and Nayar, 1987). Other

significant contributions on endemism in India and Western Ghats have been conducted by

Nayar (1996), Nayar and Sastry (1987, 1988, 1990), Ramesh and Pascal (1997), Gopalan and

Henry (2000), Mishra and Singh (2001), Joshi and Janarthanam (2004), Reddy, et al., (2007)

and, Irwin and Narasimhan (2011). However these studies are either broad scale or restricted

to administrative boundaries and never attempted to riparian ecosystem.

Analysis of the riparian vegetation of Chalakkudy river enumerated 696 flowering

plants in 450 genera and 129 families. Of which 254 species are endemic to various

geographical boundaries of India (Bachan, 2010). Study on the Phyto-sociological analysis

of riparian tree species of Alakyam stream revealed that 27% of the tree species are endemic

to Western Ghats (Manoj, et al., 2012). Investigation on the riparian flora of Pamba river

recorded that this river basin has 20% of vegetation as native (119) and among them 114 are

endemic to various geographical boundaries of India (Paul, 2012).

GIS mapping

Application of GIS for assessing riparian landscape structural change has been widely

exploited all over the world. Study on the classification and spatial mapping of riparian

habitat of Tom Beall Creek watershed revealed that incorporation of spatial maps of riparian

classification and watershed characteristics has great potential as a tool for aiding

management decisions for justifying off-site impacts of agricultural nonpoint source pollution

(Delong and Brusven, 1991). Analysis of the land use change effect upon river discharge

using hydrological watershed model integrated with remote sensing and GIS described that

the planners could take up the best planning option to avoid future flood damages (Jurgens,

2000). Analysis and mapping of the alterations in the riparian landscape structure of the

Lockyer Valley catchment indicates the use of satellite imagery and GIS in mapping and

analysis of landscape structural change, as well as the identification of key issues related to

20

sensor spatial resolution, stream buffering widths, and the quantification of land

transformation processes (Apan, et al. 2002). Mapping of the riparian landscape change on

the Sacramento River, California, USA suggest that the riparian landscape mosaic can change

structure dramatically over the course of decades. Thus, conservation planning aimed at

recovering threatened and endangered species should take these habitat changes into explicit

consideration (Greco and Plant, 2003).

Study on delineating and mapping riparian areas of Conwy catchment, North Wales,

UK, revealed that the selection of a particular method to delineate riparian areas and the

accuracy of the datasets deeply influences the expected land cover distribution within the

riparian areas and this will in turn determine future management activities to target riparian

ecosystem services. The results of the study have led to the development of new concepts for

riparian delineation based on ecosystem service (Sosa, et al., 2017).

In India many research has been conducted in vegetation mapping and assessment

using GIS and remote sensing, but most of them are restricted to forest ecosystems. Focussed

research on vegetation mapping of the riparian system of Indian rivers especially from

Western Ghats is less. GIS database on the riparian system of Periyar tiger reserve prepared

the thematic maps of the study area using GIS application and classification of vegetation

types were done using satellite imageries (Nair, 2002). Mapping of riparian vegetation of the

middle and lower zones of Chalakkudy river basin using GIS marked the land use patterns,

vegetation characteristics and disturbances in the river margins (Bachan, 2003). Distribution

of endemic, invasive and threatened category plants of the riparian system, thematic maps of

the study area and mapping of disturbed areas of the riparian system of Pamba river were also

done using GIS application (Paul, 2012). Even though some geomorphological studies using

GIS and remote sensing were made in Bharathapuzha, the mapping of riparian vegetation

and land use pattern of Thuthapuzha sub-basin is not attempted so far. Therefore, a critical

analysis of riparian vegetation, land use pattern and disturbance regime, which have not

attempted earlier, will help for the allocation of resources for conservation activities and

effective management of riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin, one of the major

tributary of Bharathapuzha.

21

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The state of Kerala is endowed with forty four riverine habitats and the present study

has been focussed on Thuthapuzha sub-basin, a major tributary of Bharathapuzha. The

present documentation also includes four rivulets of river Thutha, all originating from

Western Ghats.

Study Area

Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Analysis of vascular plant diversity of riparian system along Thuthapuzha, one of the

major tributary of Bharathapuzha, the second longest river of Kerala, located near Palghat

gap has been focused in the present research (Fig.1). Its watershed extend from 10o50’–

11o15’ North latitude and 76o 51’ – 76o40’ East longitude. The headwaters of Thuthapuzha

originated from silent valley hills in the southern Western Ghats and flow almost east to west

across Palakkad and Malappuram district of Kerala and joins Bharathapuzha near

Pallippuram (Plate 1).Thuthapuzha is surrounded by the Bhavani river basin in the east,

Chaliyar river basin in the west, Kalpathipuzha sub-basin in the southeast. Thuthapuzha is

about 63 km in length with an average annual discharge of 1750 MCM. The watershed has a

total area of 1015km2 and covers 24 panchayats, 5 blocks and 2 districts of the state of Kerala

(Table.2). Elevation of the catchment varies from 6 to 2300m.There are four tributaries

draining into Thuthapuzha namely Kunthipuzha, Thuppanadupuzha, Kanjirapuzha and

Nellipuzha

Kunthipuzha sub-basin

Kunthipuzha, one of the tributary of Thuthapuzha originate from the upper slopes of

the eastern side of silent valley hills and it covers a total length of 44 km. Total area of

watershed is 182 km2 (Plate 2). It courses through Silent valley national park over a distance

of 12 km and separates the park into a thin eastern segment and a wide western division.

Kunthipuzha merges to Thuthapuzha at Karimpuzha Panchayat of Palakkad district. For

documenting the vegetation of Kunthipuzha, eight sample plots were selected along the

riparian zone from virgin valley to Karimpuzha.

Thuppanaudupuzha Sub-basin

Thuppanadupuzha originates from Kalladikkode reserve forest at an elevation of 1099

m above mean sea level. Thuppanadupuzha basin located between 10o 53’to 10o 55’ North

Latitude and 76o 25’ to 76o 35’ East Longitude. The watershed has a length of 25 km with a

total area of 158km2 (Plate 3).Thuppanadupuzha drains into Thuthapuzha at Kootilakkadavu

22

near Sreekrishnapuram. A micro hydroelectric project at Meenvallam has been executed in

this river with a capacity of 3MW power by Palakkad district Panchayat. It is the first local

body in India to construct and effectively run a micro hydroelectric project. In order to review

the vegetation of Thuppanadupuzha, twelve sample plots were selected along the riparian

zone from Meenvallam to Kootilakkadavu.

Kanjirapuzha Sub-basin

Kanjirapuzha sub-basin is located between 10°57' and 11°00' North latitude and

76°26' and 76°32' East longitude. The river draining has a length of 32km with an area of

117km2(Plate 4). An earth cum masonry dam of 2128m is situated in this river with left and

right bank canal system and it has a catchment zone of 70 km2, which lies altogether inside

the state limit. It has been constructed for giving irrigation to a Cultural Command Area

(CCA) of 9,713 hectares of Palakkad district. The project was started in 1961 and partially

commissioned in 1980. For the vegetation study of Kanjirapuzha sub-basin eight sample

plots were selected along the riparian zone from Kanjirapuzha dam to Mothikkal.

Nellipuzha Sub-basin

Nellipuzha is the smallest tributary of Thuthapuzha. Nellipuzha basin is located

between 100 95’ and 11003’ North latitude and 76043’ and 76060’ East longitude (Plate 5). It

extends to a length of 25km with a total area of 75 km2 spread over Kanjirapuzha, Thenkara,

Mannarkkad and Karimpuzha panchayats of Palakkad district. At Mothikkal, Kanjirapuzha

and Nellipuzha merge and flow as Changaleeripuzha until it empties in to Thuthapuzha at

Changaleeri. For analysing the vegetation of Nellipuzha sub-basin, ten sample plots were

selected along the riparian zone from Poonchola to Changaleeri.

Geology

The study area comprises of a variety of Precambrian crystalline rocks like

charnockite, charnockitic gneiss, hornblende biotite gneiss, garnet biotite gneiss, khondalites

and migmatites (Ravindrakumar and Chacko, 1994). Laterite is seen as a topping over the

major part of the Thuthapuzha sub-basin and is generally observed all along the midland

region of the riparian area.

Soil

Four kinds of soils are observed in the riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

specifically, lateritic, riverine alluvium, forest loam and brown hydromorphic soil. The

lateritic soil establishes the most overwhelming soil and is seen along the midland segment of

the study area and is framed by enduring of the basic rocks. Riverine alluvium soil is

23

commonly seen along the riparian system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries. They

prevalently contain sand fraction. They are very fertile, and the plant nutrients in them are

regularly renewed during floods. They have a high water holding capacity. Brown

hydromorphic soil is mostly observed in the valley bottom of undulating portions. They have

also a high water holding capacity. Forest loamy soil is mainly confined to the forest area of

the Thuthapuzha sub-basin (Manjula, 2015).

Table. 2. Area of each Grama panchayat within Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Sl. No Name of the Panchayat Name of the Block Area(km2)

1 Irimbliyam Kuttippuram 24.06

2 Paruthur Kuttippuram 20.14

3 Kulukkallur Pattambi 22.74

4 Nellaya Pattambi 27.41

5 Vilayur Pattambi 17.78

6 Thiruvegapura Pattambi 20.46

7 Aliparamba Perinthalmanna 35.67

8 Elamkulam Perinthalmanna 21.31

9 Pulamanthole Perinthalmanna 32.10

10 Moorkkanad Perinthalmanna 30.55

11 Cherupplassery Sreekrishnapuram 27.67

12 Kadambazhipuram Sreekrishnapuram 39.71

13 Karimpuzha Sreekrishnapuram 47.39

14 Sreekrishnapuram Sreekrishnapuram 29.60

15 Vellinezhi Sreekrishnapuram 26.86

16 Karakkurissi Mannarkkad 27.00

17 Karimba Mannarkkad 69.22

18 Kottappadam Mannarkkad 79.81

19 Kumaramputhur Mannarkkad 37.25

20 Mannarkkad Mannarkkad 63.42

21 Kanjiirapuzha Mannarkkad 58.44

22 Thachanattukara Mannarkkad 35.04

23 Thachanpara Mannarkkad 53.97

24 Thenkara Mannarkkad 36.00

Climate

The study area falls under Palakkad and Malappuram districts of Kerala state.

Palakkad has a tropical wet and dry climate and in Malappuram it is mild hot and humid in

nature. The humidity is higher in Palakkad during the monsoon period i.e. from June to

September and it is around 90% during this period. The relative humidity of the study area

24

falling under Malappuram district ranges from 85 to 95% during monsoon months from June

to September.

Rainfall

The study area falling under Palakkad district receives maximum rainfall during the

south west monsoon (71%) followed by the north east monsoon (18%). The annual rainfall

varies from1883 to 3267mm. The study area receives on an average rainfall of 2362mm. In

the study area falling under Malappuram district, the South West monsoon is usually very

heavy and nearly 73.5% of the rainfall is received and North East monsoon contributes nearly

16.4%. The average annual rainfall of the study area is 2793.3 mm.

Temperature

The maximum temperature of Palakkad district ranges from 350 to 400C whereas the

minimum temperature ranges from 22.2 to 25.30C. The average annual maximum

temperature is 370C and the average annual minimum temperature is 240 C, even though

rarely the maximum temperature crosses 400C. At Malappuram, the maximum temperatures

ranges from 28.9 to 36.2°C and the minimum temperatures range from 17.0 to 23.4°C. The

average annual maximum temperature is 32.50C and the average annual minimum

temperature is 20.20C.

Wind

The strong wind blows through Palghat gap is predominantly from west and east

during morning as well as in the evening hours in the study area. The wind is predominant

from east as well as west during morning and evening hours in Malappuram district and the

wind speed is more during December to February and ranges from 2.8 to7.4 km/h.

Methodology

Exploration and collection

Systematic explorations were conducted along the riparian zone of Thuthapuzha and

its tributaries from March 2017 – September 2020. For the collection of original information

on the floristic diversity of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries, 95 field trips were undertaken in

different seasons. The photo documentation has been carried out with plant habit, habitat and

various parts using Nikon D810 SLR camera.

In each field trip, five samples of each species with flower, fruits, inflorescence and

vegetative parts were collected. For plants that are not in flowering at the time of field trip,

only the vegetative parts were collected. In case of small herbaceous plants, specimens with

roots or other parts were obtained. For plants with large fruits, fruits were separately collected

25

and for woody plants, a twig with leaves and flowers were collected. Data were recorded in

the field book from the location of collection.

Nature of vegetation types of each specimen were documented to analyse the life form

spectrum in the riparian system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries by following the concept of

Raunkiaer (1934 checklist of). Functional adaptations of each species were observed and

classified by following Naiman, et al., (1995). Phenology of each species was recorded and

compared with Flowering Plants of Kerala by Sasidharan (2011). Phytogeographical

affinities were analysed by following Cox (2011). Endemic status of the floral elements was

ascertained based on checklists (Ahmedullah and Nayar, 1987; Reddy, et al. 2007;

Sasidharan, 2011; Irwin and Narasimhan, 2011).

Characterization and Identification

The taxonomic characterization has been carried out using Leica SAPO Stereo zoom

microscope. The observations of features like pubescence, glands, placentation etc. were done

using Leica DM1000 LED compound light microscope. Photographs of riparian stretches

and rivers, herbaceous associations, habitat and habit of plants were captured with Nikon D

810 SLR camera. Macro images of plant parts were procured using digital camera provided

with macro lens from field to document the minute details.

Identification of the specimens were made initially with the help of standard floras

(Gamble and Fischer, 1918 – 1921; Hooker, 1872-1897) and regional floras (Vajravelu,

1990; Manilal and Sivarajan, 1982; Sasidharan, 2011). Available monographs and revisions

were also consulted. Identifications were confirmed after further studies with reference to

authentic type materials available either in digital format or as herbarium at K (Kew

herbarium), MH (Madras Herbarium), CALI (Calicut University herbarium) and CMPR

(Centre for Medicinal Plant Research, Kottakkal). The population of threatened category

species was assessed and the status was ascertained as per IUCN criteria (IUCN, 2019-1).

Herbarium preparation

Collection and preparation of herbarium specimens were done as per the standard

procedures (Santapau, 1955; Bridson and Forman, 1991). The processed specimens were

mounted on herbarium sheets of standard size. After mounting the specimens, a label is put

on the lower right hand corner of the sheets, to provide information gathered from field book.

Voucher specimens were deposited in the Herbarium, Post Graduate and Research

Department of Botany, Govt. Victoria College, Palakkad, Kerala, India (abbreviated as

GVCH.)

26

Systematic treatment

Families are arranged according to APG IV (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV, 2016)

along with LPWG (Legume Phylogeny Working Group, 2017) classification. Under the

families, the genera and species were arranged alphabetically. Nomenclature of the plants

was made up to date with reference to International Plant Name Index (http://www.ipni.org),

TROPICOS (www.tropicos.org) and the Plant List (www.plantlist.org). The species

protologues were sourced from the Biodiversity Heritage Library (2018), Archive.org (2018),

Botanicus.org (2018) and literature published on new taxa. A brief diagnostic description was

followed by phenology, invasive status, IUCN category and distribution data.

Mapping using GIS

Generally, riparian vegetation has been mapped using field-based strategies, which

can be tedious, costly, and hard to apply to broad riparian systems. Geographical information

system (GIS) and GIS based investigations have given new dimensions and expanded

efficiency to research and yielding new insight to riparian studies. Simple cartography,

addition of geospatial elements to field data, geospatial modelling and creation of integrated

datasets are significant feature of GIS that are commonly applied to riparian research and

management. Mapping riparian structural characteristics in a fine scale resolution can provide

useful information for the management, conservation and restoration of riparian ecosystems.

Distribution mapping

The river basin area was delineated using the Survey of India (SOI) topographic map

series (58 A/4, A/8, A/12, A/16, E/4, B/1, B/5,B/9,B/13, B/2, B/6,B/10, B/14,F/2, B/11, B/15,

F/3; 49 N/13, N/14) of 1:50,000 scale. Geometric correction and ground truthing were carried

out by field surveys using Global Positioning System (GPS). The geographical locations of

the study area were recorded using Garmin GPS and imported in to ArcGIS 10.2 platform.

The geographic locations (latitude and longitude) of the threat category taxa, endemic and

invasive species were entered into Microsoft Excel worksheet which was then converted into

.dbf format. Later it was imported as shape (.shp) file in Arc GIS 10.2. This shape file was

overlaid on the Base map of Thuthapuzhasub-basin and prepared the distribution maps of

threatened, invasive and endemic taxa identified from the study area.

Land use mapping

The delineation of river boundary and the land use pattern of either banks of the river were

done by using the google earth image which was then imported in to Arc GIS 10.2. Later,

27

the banks of the river were buffered with 30m interval for separating the riparian zone. After

this, different colours were given to each land use type for proper visualization.

Preparation of thematic maps of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Thematic maps such as Drainage map, DEM, Contour map, TIN, Aspect map, Slope

map and Elevation range map were prepared as a part of geospatial characterization of study

area.

DEM

Digital Elevation models (DEM) can be used to obtain a wealth of information about

the morphology of earth surface. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the country was

obtained from the USGS Earth Explorer. After overlaying the boundary on SRTM DEM,

DEM of the study area was extracted using Arc GIS 10.2 software package.

TIN

A triangulated irregular network (TIN) is a digital data structure used in a geographic

information system (GIS) for the representation of a surface. It is essential for representing

the physical, chemical and biological processes of the earth (Blaszczynski, 1997). The TIN

was created in Arc map using height source from contour coverage. Then it was transported

to Arc Scene for the modification and manipulation using 3D Analyst tool in ArcGIS 10.2.

Slope Map

Slope map is the primary derivative of the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generated

by the ArcGIS software package. Using surface toolset of spatial analytical tools of ArcGIS

10.2, slope map was created with 3 intervals of classes. If the slope value is lower, the terrain

will be flatter and higher the slope value, the steeper the terrain.

Aspect Map

Aspect map is the primary derivative of the Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

generated by the ArcGIS software package. Aspect is a significant component in slope

analysis of basin morphometry. Using spatial analysis surface of ArcGIS 10.2, aspect map is

created with the eight intervals of classes.

Drainage Map

The drainage pattern of the study area is extracted from the Survey of India

toposheets (58 A/4, A/8, A/12, A/16, E/4, B/1, B/5,B/9,B/13, B/2, B/6,B/10, B/14,F/2, B/11,

B/15, F/3; 49 N/13, N/14) of 1:50,000 scale. The first to fifth order drainage is identified in

the study area. The drainage order stream lengths were measured in ArcGIS-10.2. Using

spatial analysis hydrology toolsets of ArcGIS 10.2, a stream network was created.

28

Altitudinal range map

Using SRTM data, an altitudinal range map is prepared. The raster is classified in to

four classes such as lowland, midland, highland and high range based on elevation.

Floristic analysis using PAST

PAST (Paleontological Statistics) software package (Hammer, 2001) was used for

data analysis. Cluster analysis module of the PAST software, version 3.04 was used to

examine similarity in species composition across Thuthapuzha and its tributaries. First step is

the data entry of the presence-absence data in to the columns of the spread sheet of PAST.

PAST compute the data using the formula of Jaccard similarity test and produces a

dendrogram showing how the data point can be clustered. Most commonly used index is

Jaccard index and this index only uses presence-absence data. The result was analyzed using

the formula S=C/(A+B)-C where C represent the number of pecies common to the sites being

compared and A+B represent the sum of the number of floristic elements in each riparian

system.

29

Schematic representation of map preparation using GIS

RESULTS

Study areaextraction

Georeferencing

Data Collection

Primary data

Toposheet, Satalite data

Secondary data

Landuse classes, GPS data

Database creation

Spatial database Attribute database

SRTM DEM Toposheet (1:50000)

Base map

DEM

Drainage

Elevation range map

TIN

Slope

Aspect

Buffering of riparian area

Land use map

Flood impact map

Distribution Map

Field data & GPS

Correlate spatial and attribute data

Data interpretation

30

RESULTS

Vascular Plant diversity of Thuthapuzha sub-basin and its tributaries - an

appraisal

Floristic survey in the riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin and its tributaries of

Palakkad and Malappuram districts revealed the presence of 648 plant taxa distributed among

133 families (Table 3.). Angiosperms were represented by 612 taxa, including 606 species,

and 6 infraspecific categories distributed under 116 families, Gymnosperms with 2 taxa under

two families and Pteridophytes with 34 species in 15 families. There is predominance of

herbaceous taxa (293), followed by trees (121), shrubs (101) and climbers (97). The most

representative family is Fabaceae comprising of 52 species followed by Poaceae (47 species),

Rubiaceae (34 species), Cyperaceae (29 species) and Asteraceae (26 species). Species

distribution across the families was asymmetrical along the riparian system of Thuthapuzha

and its tributaries and 43 families were represented by only a single species.

Table 3. Vascular plant diversity of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Sl

No

Binomial Family Location Plate No

PTERIDOPHYTA

1 Selaginella delicatula Alston Selaginellaceae Pulamanthol (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 6: Fig. a

2 Selaginella tenera (Hook. &

Grev.)Spring.

Selaginellaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 6:

Fig. b

3 Angiopteris helferiana C. Presl. Marattiaceae

Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 6:

Fig. c

4 Trichomanes intramarginale

Hook. & Grev.

Hymenophyllaceae

Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 6:

Fig. d

5 Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.)

Underw.

Gleicheniaceae

Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 6:

Fig. e

6 Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. Lygodiaceae

Panayampadam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 6:

Fig. f

7 Salvinia auriculata Aubl. Salviniaceae Chooriyode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 6:

Fig.g

8 Azolla pinnata R. Br. Salviniaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 6:

Fig. h

9 Adiantum caudatum L. Pteridaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 7:

Fig. a

10 Adiantum latifolium Lam. Pteridaceae Njangattiri

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 7:

Fig. b

11 Adiantum philippense L. Pteridaceae Njangattiri

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 7:

Fig. c

12 Adiantum zollingeri Mett. Pteridaceae Koramankadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 7:

Fig. d

13 Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.)

Brongn.

Pteridaceae Sreekrishnapuram

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 7:

Fig. e

14 Cheilanthes opposita Kaulf. Pteridaceae Panayampadam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 7:

Fig. f

31

15 Parahemionitis

cordata (Roxb. ex Hook. & Grev.) Fraser-Jenk.

Pteridaceae Mannarkkad

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 7:

Fig. g

16 Pityrogramma

calomelanos (L.) Link

Pteridaceae Panayampadam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 7:

Fig. h

17 Pteris biaurita L. Pteridaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 8: Fig. a

18 Pteris confusa T.G.Walker Pteridaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 8:

Fig. b

19 Pteris pellucida Klf. Spr. Pteridaceae Mothikkal (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 8: Fig. c

20 Pteris quadriaurita Retz. Pteridaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 8:

Fig. d

21 Asplenium decrescens Kunze Aspleniaceae

Koothuparambu (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 8: Fig. e

22 Christella

dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey & Je

rmy

Thelypteridaceae

Karayampatta

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 8:

Fig. f

23 Diplazium

esculentum (Retz.) Sw.

Woodsiaceae

Pandikkalkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 8:

Fig. g

24 Blechnum orientale L. Blechnaceae

Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 8:

Fig. h

25 Stenochlaena

palustris (Burm.) Bedd.

Blechnaceae

Pulamanthol

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 9:

Fig. a

26 Bolbitis

appendiculata (Willd.) K.Iwats.

Dryopteridaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 9:

Fig. b

27 Bolbitis prolifera (Bory in

Bel.) C.Chr. & Tardieu ex Tardi

eu & C.Chr.

Dryopteridaceae Changaleeri

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 9:

Fig. c

28 Bolbitis semicordata (Moore) Ching

Dryopteridaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 9: Fig. d

29 Nephrolepis auriculata (L.)

Trimen

Lomariopsidaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

(Plate 9:

Fig. e

30 Nephrolepis multiflora (Roxb.) F. M.

Jarrett ex C. V. Morton

Lomariopsidaceae Kuruthichal (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 9: Fig. f

31 Tectaria coadunata (J.Sm.) C. Chr.

Tectariaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 9: Fig. g

32 Tectaria paradoxa (Fée) Sledge Tectariaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 9:

Fig. h

33 Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. Polypodiaceae Thutha (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 10: Fig. a

34 Microsorum

membranaceum (D.Don) Ching

Polypodiaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 10:

Fig. b

GYMNOSPERMS

35 Cycas circinalis L. Cycadaceae

Koothuparambu (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 10: Fig. c

36 Gnetum ula Brongn. Voy.

Monde, Phan. 12 (1829)

Gnetaceae

Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 10:

Fig. d

ANGIOSPERMS

37 Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth Piperaceae Panayanpadam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 11:

Fig. a

38 Piper betle L. Piperaceae Pandikkal kadavu (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 11: Fig. b

32

39 Piper longum L. Piperaceae Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

-

40 Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 11: Fig. c

41 Piper umbellatum L. Piperaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 11:

Fig. d

42 Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou

Aristolochiaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 11: Fig. e

43 Myristica fragrans Houtt. Myristicaceae Pandikkal kadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 11:

Fig. f

44 Annona reticulata L. Annonaceae Kuruthichal (Kunthipuzha)

-

45 Sageraea laurina Dalzell Annonaceae Pullode

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 11:

Fig. g

46 Uvaria narum (Dunal) Blume Annonaceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 11: Fig. h

47 Cinnamomum malabatrum (Lam

.) J. Presl.

Lauraceae Mappattukara

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 12:

Fig. a

48 Cinnamomum verum J. Presl Lauraceae Mavundirikkadavu (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 12: Fig. b

49 Litsea

coriacea (B.Heyne ex Nees) Hook. f.

Lauraceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 12:

Fig. c

50 Acorus calamus L. Araceae Kambram

(Thuthapuzha)

-

51 Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson

Araceae West Vellinezhi (Thuthapuzha)

-

52 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae Unnammedu

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 12:

Fig. d

53 Cryptocoryne

retrospiralis Kunth

Araceae Kambram

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 12:

Fig. e

54 Lagenandra

meeboldii (Engl.) C. E. C. Fisch.

Araceae Pullode

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 12:

Fig. f

55 Lemna perpusilla Torr. Araceae Natyamangalam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

56 Pothos scandens L. Araceae Kilirani

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 12:

Fig. g

57 Rhaphidophora

pertusa (Roxb.) Schott

Araceae Sathramkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

58 Typhonium

lagelliforme (Roxb. ex Lodd. & G.Lodd. & W. Lodd.) Blume

Araceae Natyamangalam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

59 Limnocharis

flava (L.) Buchenau

Alismataceae Thumbakanni

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 12:

Fig. h

60 Hydrilla verticillata (Roxb.) Royle

Hydrocharitaceae Mothikkal ((Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 13: Fig. a

61 Dioscorea alata L. Dioscoreaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 13:

Fig. b

62 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae Mavundirikkadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 13:

Fig. c

63 Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook. f. Dioscoreaceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

64 Dioscorea Dioscoreaceae Kuruthichal -

33

kalkapershadii Prain & Burkill (Kunthipuzha)

65 Dioscorea oppositifolia L. Dioscoreaceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

66 Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Dioscoreaceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

67 Dioscorea pubera Blume Dioscoreaceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

68 Pandanus furcatus Roxb. Pandanaceae Mannarkkad

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 13:

Fig. d

69 Gloriosa superba L. Colchicaceae Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 13:

Fig. e

70 Smilax wightii A. DC. Smilacaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

71 Smilax zeylanica L. Smilacaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 13:

Fig. f

72 Bulbophyllum rosemarianum C.

S. Kumar & P. C. S.

Kumar & Saleem

Orchidaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 13:

Fig. g

73 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae Kanjirani (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 13: Fig. h

74 Aloe vera L. Aspholidaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

-

75 Crinum asiaticum L. Amaryllidaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

-

76 Pancratium triflorum Roxb. Amaryllidaceae Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

-

77 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Asparagaceae Kanjirapuzha Dam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 14:

Fig. a

78 Areca catechu L. Arecaceae Ambankunnu

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 14:

Fig. b

79 Arenga wightii Griff Arecaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 14:

Fig. c

80 Borassus flabellifer L. Arecaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

-

81 Caryota urens L. Arecaceae Thavalani

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 14:

Fig. d

82 Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae Thittummel

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 14:

Fig. e

83 Corypha umbraculifera L. Arecaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

-

84 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae Kanikkadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 14:

Fig. f

85 Commelina clavata C. B.

Clarke

Commelinaceae Puramannur

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 14:

Fig. g

86 Commelina diffusa Burm. f. Commelinaceae Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 14:

Fig. h

87 Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D.

Don ex Sweet

Commelinaceae Thodamkulam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 15:

Fig. a

88 Cyanotis cristata (L.) D.Don Commelinaceae West Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 15:

Fig. b

89 Dictyospermum

montanum Wight

Commelinaceae Kanjirapara

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

90 Floscopa scandens Lour. Commelinaceae Pullode

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 15:

Fig. c

34

91 Murdannia dimorpha G.

Brückn.

Commelinaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 15:

Fig. d

92 Murdannia gigantea (Vahl) G. Brückn.

Commelinaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 15: Fig. e

93 Murdannia

japonica (Thunb.) Faden

Commelinaceae Aanakallumukku

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

94 Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan

Commelinaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 15: Fig. f

95 Murdannia spirata G. Brückn. Commelinaceae Masaparambu

(Kunthipuzha)

-

96 Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms

Pontederiaceae Attassery (Thuthapuzha)

-

97 Monochoria

vaginalis (Burm.f.) C. Presl ex Kunth

Pontederiaceae Unnammedu

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 15:

Fig. g

98 Musa × paradisiaca L. Musaceae Thittummel

(Nellipuzha)

-

99 Canna indica L. Cannaceae Mukkannam (Nellipuzha)

-

100 Maranta arundinacea L. Marantaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

-

101 Indianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Suksathan & B

orchs.

Marantaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 15: Fig. h

102 Costus pictus D. Don ex Lindl. Costaceae Mannarkkad

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 16:

Fig. a

103 Costus speciosus (J.

Koenig) Sm.

Costaceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

104 Curcuma amada Roxb. Zingiberaceae Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

-

105 Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Zingiberaceae Palamkadavu

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 16:

Fig. b

106 Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Palamkadavu

(Nellipuzha)

-

107 Globba sessiliflora Sims Zingiberaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 16:

Fig. c

108 Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Bromeliaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

-

109 Eriocaulon xeranthemum Mart. Eriocaulaceae Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 16:

Fig. d

110 Cyperus compressus L. Cyperaceae Elamkulam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 16:

Fig. e

111 Cyperus cyperoides Kuntze Cyperaceae Njangattiri

(Thuthapuzha)

-

112 Cyperus

cyperinus (Retz.) Valck.

Cyperaceae Koramankadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 16:

Fig. f

113 Cyperus difformis L. Cyperaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 16:

Fig. g

114 Cyperus diffusus Vahl Cyperaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 16: Fig. h

115 Cyperus digitatus Roxb. Cyperaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 17:

Fig. a

116 Cyperus distans L. f. Cyperaceae Natyamangalam (Thuthapuzha)

-

35

117 Cyperus exaltatus Retz. Cyperaceae Pullatta

(Kanjirapuzha)

-

118 Cyperus haspan L. Cyperaceae Elamkulam (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 17: Fig. b

119 Cyperus javanicus Houtt. Cyperaceae Ambalamkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

120 Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae Mukkannam (Nellipuzha)

Plate 17: Fig. c

121 Cyperus nutans Vahl Cyperaceae Sreekrishnapuram

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

122 Cyperus platystylis R. Br. Cyperaceae Kandenkavu (Thuthapuzha)

-

123 Cyperus procerus Rottb. Cyperaceae Natyamangalam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

124 Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae Pulamanthole (Thuthapuzha)

125 Cyperus tenuispica Steud. Cyperaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 17:

Fig. d

126 Fimbristylis aestivalis (Retz.) Vahl

Cyperaceae Varmankode (Kanjirapuzha)

-

127 Fimbristylis argentea Vahl Cyperaceae Varmankode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 17:

Fig. e

128 Fimbristylis

bisumbellata Bubani

Cyperaceae Thodamkulam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 17:

Fig. f

129 Fimbristylis

dichotoma (L.) Vahl

Cyperaceae Njangattiri

(Thuthapuzha)

-

130 Fimbristylis dipsacea (Rottb.) C.

B. Clarke

Cyperaceae Varmankode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 17:

Fig. g

131 Fimbristylis littoralis Gaudich. Cyperaceae Thittummel

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 17:

Fig. h

132 Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Descr. Cyperaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 18:

Fig. a

133 Kyllinga bulbosa P. Beauv. Cyperaceae Changaleeri

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 18:

Fig. b

134 Kyllinga × nemoralis (J. R.

Forst. & G. Forst.)

Cyperaceae Mukkannam

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 18:

Fig. c

135 Kyllinga odorata Vahl Cyperaceae Kambram

(Thuthapuzha)

-

136 Kyllinga

odorata subsp. cylindrica (Nees

ex Wight) T. Koyama

Cyperaceae Thodamkulam

(Kanjirapuzha)

-

137 Pycreus polystachyos P. Beauv. Cyperaceae Thodamkulam (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 18: Fig. d

138 Pycreus pumilus (L.) Nees Cyperaceae Varmankode

(Kanjirapuzha)

-

139 Apluda mutica L. Poaceae Natyamangalam (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 18: Fig. e

140 Aristida hystrix L. f. Poaceae Mappattukara

(Thuthapuzha)

-

141 Axonopus compressus P. Beauv. Poaceae Natyamangalam (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 18: Fig. f

142 Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss Poaceae Nellipuzha bridge

(Nellipuzha)

-

143 Brachiaria ramosa Stapf Poaceae Kanjirapara Plate 18:

36

(Thuppanadupuzha) Fig. g

144 Chloris barbata Sw. Poaceae Kanjirapuzha Dam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 18:

Fig. h

145 Chrysopogon aciculatus Trin. Poaceae Natyamangalam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 19:

Fig.a

146 Coix lacryma-jobi L. Poaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 19:

Fig. b

147 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Kaliyarvattom

Kadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 19:

Fig. c

148 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd.

Poaceae Chooriyode (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 19: Fig. d

149 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler Poaceae Elamkulam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

150 Digitaria longiflora Pers. Poaceae Mannarkkad (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 19: Fig. e

151 Digitaria radicosa (J.

Presl) Miq.

Poaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

152 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link Poaceae Mappattukkara (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 19: Fig. f

153 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae Mukkannam

(Nellipuzha)

-

154 Eragrostis

amabilis (L.) Wight & Arn.

Poaceae Elamkulam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

155 Eragrostis patula Steud. Poaceae Kandenkavu

(Thuthapuzha)

-

156 Eragrostis riparia Nees Poaceae Natyamangalam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

157 Eragrostis

tef (Zuccagni) Trotter

Poaceae Pulamanthole

(Thuthapuzha)

-

158 Eragrostis

unioloides Nees ex Steud.

Poaceae Mannarkkad

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 19:

Fig. g

159 Eriochloa procera C. E. Hubb. Poaceae Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

-

160 Garnotia tenella Janowski Poaceae Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

-

161 Hygroryza aristata Nees Poaceae Pullatta

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 19:

Fig. h

162 Imperata cylindrica (L.) P.

Beauv.

Poaceae Mannarkkad

(Kunthipuzha)

-

163 Isachne globosa Kuntze Poaceae Elamkulam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 20:

Fig. a

164 Ischaemum polystachyum J.

Presl

Poaceae Mannarkkad

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 20:

Fig. b

165 Leptochloa fusca Kunth Poaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

-

166 Ochlandra

travancorica Gamble

Poaceae Neelamkallu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 20:

Fig. c

167 Oplismenus burmanni (Retz.) P.

Beauv.

Poaceae Ambankunnu

(Nellipuzha)

-

168 Oplismenus compositus P.

Beauv.

Poaceae Natyamangalam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 20:

Fig. d

169 Panicum auritum Presl ex Nees Poaceae Natyamangalam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

37

170 Panicum paludosum Roxb. Poaceae Natyamangalam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

171 Panicum repens L. Poaceae Masaparambu (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 20: Fig. e

172 Paspalum conjugatum P. J.

Bergius

Poaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

173 Paspalum distichum L. Poaceae Mothikkal (Kanjirapuzha)

-

174 Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Poaceae Ponnumpoomalakada

vu (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 20:

Fig. f

175 Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult.

Poaceae Elamkulam (Thuthapuzha)

-

176 Perotis indica (L.) Kuntze Poaceae Natyamangalam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

177 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud.

Poaceae Thutha (Thuthapuzha)

-

178 Pogonatherum

paniceum Raspail

Poaceae Palamkadavu

(Nellipuzha)

-

179 Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. Poaceae Thiruvegappura (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 20: Fig. g

180 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae Kaliyarvattam

kadavu (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 20:

Fig. h

181 Sacciolepis interrupta Stapf Poaceae Ambankunnu

(Nellipuzha)

-

182 Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. Poaceae Thutha (Thuthapuzha)

-

183 Setaria

intermedia Roem. & Schult.

Poaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

-

184 Sporobolus piliferus (Trin.) Kunth.

Poaceae Thodamkulam (Kanjirapuzha)

-

185 Sporobolus

tenuissimus (Mart. ex Schrank)

Kuntze

Poaceae Kalikadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

-

186 Anamirta

cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn.

Menispermaceae Mavundirikkadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 21:

Fig. a

187 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 21:

Fig. b

188 Cyclea

peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thoms

on

Menispermaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

-

189 Diploclisia glaucescens (Blume) Diels

Menispermaceae Thavalani (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 21: Fig. c

190 Stephania

japonica var. discolor (Blume) Forman

Menispermaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

-

191 Tiliacora

racemosa Colebr. Trans.

Menispermaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 21:

Fig. d

192 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hoo

k. f. & Thomson

Menispermaceae Irimpliyam (Thuthapuzha)

-

193 Naravelia zeylanica DC. Ranunculaceae

Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

194 Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Dilleniaceae Meenvallam -

38

(Thuppanadupuzha)

195 Ampelocissus indica Planch. Vitaceae Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 21:

Fig. e

196 Cayratia pedata Gagnep. Vitaceae Kilirani

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 21:

Fig. f

197 Cayratia trifolia Domin Vitaceae Koothuparambu

(Thuthapuzha)

-

198 Cissus heyneana Planch. Vitaceae Koramankadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

199 Cissus javana DC. Vitaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 21:

Fig. g

200 Cissus latifolia Lam. Vitaceae Kalikadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

-

201 Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

-

202 Leea asiatica (L.) Ridsdale Vitaceae Kandenkavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 21:

Fig. h

203 Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. Vitaceae Changaleeri

(Nellipuzha)

-

204 Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. Fabaceae Mannarkkad

(Kunthipuzha)

-

205 Bauhinia racemosa Vahl Fabaceae Thathengalam (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 22: Fig. a

206 Bauhinia scandens L. Fabaceae Sreekrishnapuram

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

207 Bauhinia tomentosa L. Fabaceae Ambankunnu (Nellipuzha)

Plate 22: Fig. b

208 Tamarindus indica L. Fabaceae Panayampadam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 22:

Fig. c

209 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Fabaceae Kuruthichal (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 22: Fig. d

210 Acacia mangium Willd. Fabaceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 22:

Fig. e

211 Acacia planifrons Wight & Arn. Fabaceae Thathengalam (Kunthipuzha)

-

212 Adenanthera pavonina L. Fabaceae Ponnumpoomala

kadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 22:

Fig. f

213 Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Fabaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 22:

Fig. g

214 Albizia saman (Jacq.) F. Muell. Fabaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 22:

Fig. h

215 Caesalpinia sappan L. Fabaceae Panayampadam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

216 Cassia fistula L. Fabaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 23:

Fig. a

217 Delonix regia (Bojer) Raf. Fabaceae Koothuparambu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 23:

Fig. b

218 Leucaena

leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit

Fabaceae Elamkulam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

219 Mimosa diplotricha C.Wright Fabaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 23:

Fig. c

220 Mimosa pudica Mill. Gard. Fabaceae Ambankunnu

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 23:

Fig. d

39

221 Pithecellobium

dulce (Roxb.) Benth.

Fabaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

-

222 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae Sathramkadavu (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 23: Fig. e

223 Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae Koramankadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 23:

Fig. f

224 Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) W. Theob.

Fabaceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 23: Fig. g

225 Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae Kodumudi

(Thuthapuzha)

-

226 Aeschynomene americana L. Fabaceae Chooriyodu (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 23: Fig. h

227 Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. Fabaceae Kanjirapuzha Dam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 24:

Fig. a

228 Butea monosperma Kuntze Fabaceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

-

229 Calopogonium

mucunoides Desv.

Fabaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 24:

Fig. b

230 Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars

Fabaceae Kanjirani (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 24: Fig.c

231 Canavalia

africana Dunn ex Hutch.

Fabaceae Kambram

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 24:

Fig. d

232 Canavalia

mollis Wall. ex Wight & Arn.

Fabaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

-

233 Centrosema

molle Mart. ex Benth.

Fabaceae Kanjirapara

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 24:

Fig. e

234 Clitoria ternatea L. Fabaceae Kandenkavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 24:

Fig. f

235 Crotalaria angulata Mill. Fabaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

-

236 Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae Thodamkulam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 24:

Fig. g

237 Crotalaria verrucosa L. Fabaceae Puramannur

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 24:

Fig. h

238 Dalbergia

horrida (Dennst.) Mabb.

Fabaceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

239 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Fabaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

-

240 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Fabaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

-

241 Derris brevipes Baker Fabaceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 25:

Fig. a

242 Desmodium heterophyllum DC. Fabaceae Ambalamkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

243 Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. Fabaceae Koramankadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 25:

Fig. b

244 Erythrina variegata L. Fabaceae Cheenikkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

245 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth Fabaceae Palamkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 25:

Fig. c

246 Indigofera longiracemosa Baill. Fabaceae Kilirani

(Kanjirapuzha)

-

247 Indigofera tinctoria L. Fabaceae Chelakkad

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 25:

Fig. d

40

248 Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Fabaceae Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 25:

Fig. e

249 Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv.

Fabaceae Pulamanthol (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 25: Fig. f

250 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Fabaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 25:

Fig. g

251 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Fabaceae Koramankadavu (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

252 Pueraria phaseoloides Benth. Fabaceae Nellipuzha bridge

(Nellipuzha)

-

253 Spatholobus parviflorus Kuntze Fabaceae Kuruthichal (Kunthipuzha)

-

254 Tephrosia pumila Pers. Fabaceae West Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

-

255 Zornia gibbosa Span. Fabaceae Kambram (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 25: Fig. h

256 Xanthophyllum

arnottianum Wight

Polygalaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 26:

Fig. a

257 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Rhamnaceae Elamkulam (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 26: Fig. b

258 Ziziphus

nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight & Arn.

Rhamnaceae Masaparambu

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 26:

Fig. c

259 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Rhamnaceae Kilirani

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 26:

Fig. d

260 Ziziphus rugosa Lam. Rhamnaceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 26: Fig. e

261 Holoptelea

grandis (Hutch.) Mildbr.

Ulmaceae Varmankode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 26:

Fig. f

262 Trema orientalis (L.) Blume. Ulmaceae Kaliyarvattomkadavu (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 26: Fig. g

263 Artocarpus

altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg

Moraceae Nellipuzha bridge

(Nellipuzha)

-

264 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae Elamkulam (Thuthapuzha)

-

265 Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. Moraceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 26:

Fig. h

266 Ficus albipila (Miq.) King Moraceae Karayampatta (Kunthipuzha)

-

267 Ficus beddomei King Moraceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 27:

Fig. a

268 Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae Muriyankanni (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 27: Fig. b

269 Ficus dalhousiae Miq. Moraceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

270 Ficus exasperata Vahl Moraceae Varmankode (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 27: Fig. c

271 Ficus heterophylla L. f. Moraceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 27:

Fig.d

272 Ficus hispida L. f. Moraceae Aanakallumukku (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 27: Fig. e

273 Ficus microcarpa L. f. Moraceae Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

-

274 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae Poonchola Plate 27:

41

(Nellipuzha) Fig. f

275 Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae Sreekrishnapuram

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 27:

Fig.g

276 Ficus talbotii King Moraceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

277 Ficus tinctoria G. Forst. Moraceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 27:

Fig. h

278 Ficus tsjahela Burm. f. Moraceae Ambalamkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 28:

Fig. a

279 Ficus virens Aiton Moraceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

280 Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae Parakkadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 28:

Fig. b

281 Boehmeria glomerulifera Miq. Urticaceae Pullode

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 28:

Fig. c

282 Elatostema

acuminatum (Poir.) Brongn.

Urticaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 28:

Fig. d

283 Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew Urticaceae Mukkannam

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 28:

Fig. e

284 Pellionia heyneana Wedd. Urticaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 28:

Fig. f

285 Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. Urticaceae Masaparambu (Kunthipuzha)

-

286 Pouzolzia auriculata Wight Urticaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

287 Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. Urticaceae Panayampadam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 28: Fig. g

288 Benincasa hispida (Thunb.)

Cogn.

Cucurbitaceae Aanakallumukku

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

289 Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Na

kai

Cucurbitaceae Neelankallu (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

290 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Cucurbitaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 28:

Fig. h

291 Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C.

Jeffrey

Cucurbitaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 29:

Fig. a

292 Luffa cylindrica M. Roem. Cucurbitaceae Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 29:

Fig. b

293 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.

Roem.

Cucurbitaceae ampadam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 29:

Fig. c

294 Trichosanthes cucumerina L Cucurbitaceae Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

-

295 Trichosanthes nervifolia L. Cucurbitaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 29:

Fig. d

296 Begonia crenata Dryand. Begoniaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 29:

Fig. e

297 Begonia malabarica Lam. Begoniaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

298 Lophopetalum wightianum Arn.

Celastraceae

Karayampatta

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 29:

Fig. f

299 Connarus monocarpos L. Connaraceae

Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 29:

Fig. g

300 Biophytum

reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch

Oxalidaceae

Puramannur

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 29:

Fig. h

42

301 Carallia brachiata Merr.

Philipp.

Rhizophoraceae

Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

302 Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N. Robson

Clusiaceae

Panayampadam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 30: Fig. a

303 Calophyllum inophyllum L. Calophyllaceae

Njagattiri

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 30:

Fig. b

304 Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. Putranjivaceae

Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

305 Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz Malpighiaceae

Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 30:

Fig. c

306 Hydnocarpus pentandrus (Buch.-Ham.) Oken

Achariaceae

Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 30: Fig. d

307 Hybanthus enneaspermus F.

Muell.

Violaceae

Kanjirapuzha Dam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 30:

Fig. e

308 Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae

Njagattiri (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 30: Fig. f

309 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae Poonchola

(Nellipuzha)

-

310 Acalypha paniculata Miq. Euphorbiaceae Mappattukara (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 30: Fig. g

311 Croton hirtus L'Hér. Euphorbiaceae Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 30:

Fig. h

312 Croton tiglium L Euphorbiaceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 31:

Fig. a

313 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae Changaleeri

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 31:

Fig. b

314 Euphorbia thymifolia L. Euphorbiaceae Pullatta

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 31:

Fig. c

315 Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A.

Juss.) Müll. Arg.

Euphorbiaceae Poonchola

(Nellipuzha)

-

316 Homonoia riparia Lour. Euphorbiaceae Mukkannam

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 31:

Fig. d

317 Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 31:

Fig. e

318 Jatropha gossypiifolia L Euphorbiaceae Chelakkad

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 31:

Fig. f

319 Jatropha integerrima Jacq. Euphorbiaceae Panayampadam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 31:

Fig. g

320 Macaranga peltata Müll. Arg. Euphorbiaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 31:

Fig. h

321 Mallotus

nudiflorus (L.) Kulju & Welzen

Euphorbiaceae Koramankadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 32:

Fig. a

322 Mallotus

philippensis (Lam.) Müll. Arg.

Euphorbiaceae Kodumudi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 32:

Fig. b

323 Mallotus tetracoccus Kurz Euphorbiaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 32:

Fig. c

324 Manihot esculenta Crantz Euphorbiaceae Puramannur

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 32:

Fig. d

325 Microstachys

chamaelea (L.) Müll. Arg.

Euphorbiaceae Njangattiri

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 32:

Fig. e

326 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Nellipuzha bridge

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 32:

Fig. f

327 Tragia involucrata L. Euphorbiaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 32:

Fig. g

43

328 Antidesma alexiteria L. Phyllanthaceae Koothuparambu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 32:

Fig. h

329 Antidesma montanum Blume Phyllanthaceae Kanjirani (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 33: Fig. a

330 Aporosa

cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr.

Phyllanthaceae Karayampatta

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 33:

Fig. b

331 Aporosa fusiformis Thwaites Phyllanthaceae Karayampatta (Kunthipuzha)

-

332 Bischofia javanica Blume Phyllanthaceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

333 Cleistanthus collinus Benth. & Hook. f.

Phyllanthaceae Attassery (Thuthapuzha)

-

334 Baccaurea

courtallensis (Wight) Müll. Arg.

Phyllanthaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 33:

Fig. c

335 Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston Phyllanthaceae Poonchola

(Nellipuzha)

-

336 Breynia rhamnoides Müll. Arg Phyllanthaceae Mappattukkara (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 33: Fig. d

337 Bridelia retusa A.

Juss. Euphorb.

Phyllanthaceae Varmankode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 33:

Fig. e

338 Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. Phyllanthaceae Kuruthichal (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 33: Fig. f

339 Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.)

A. Juss.

Phyllanthaceae Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 33:

Fig. g

340 Phyllanthus airy-shawii Jean F. Brunel & Jacq. Roux

Phyllanthaceae Koramankadavu (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

341 Phyllanthus

amarus Schumach. & Thonn.

Phyllanthaceae Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 33:

Fig.h

342 Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthaceae Ambankunnu (Nellipuzha)

-

343 Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Phyllanthaceae Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 34:

Fig. a

344 Phyllanthus urinaria L. Phyllanthaceae Irimpliyam (Thuthapuzha)

-

345 Phyllanthus virgatus G. Forst. Phyllanthaceae Thodamkulam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 34:

Fig. b

346 Sauropus androgynus Merr. Phyllanthaceae Mappattukkara (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 34: Fig. c

347 Combretum albidum G. Don Combretaceae Karayampatta

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 34:

Fig. d

348 Combretum indicum (L.) Jongkind

Combretaceae Thiruvegappura (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 34: Fig. e

349 Combretum

latifolium Blume, Bijdr.

Combretaceae Parakkadavu

(Thuthapuzha

-

350 Getonia floribunda Roxb. Combretaceae Kanjirani (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 34: Fig. f

351 Terminalia catappa L. Combretaceae Chelakkad

(Thuthapuzha)

-

352 Terminalia paniculata Roth Combretaceae Kalikadavu (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 34: Fig. g

353 Ammannia baccifera L. Lythraceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 34:

Fig. h

354 Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers. Lythraceae Koothuparambu Plate 35:

44

(Thuthapuzha) Fig.a

355 Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Unnammedu

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 35:

Fig. b

356 Rotala indica Koehne Lythraceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

-

357 Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.

Hara

Onagraceae Changaleeri

(Nellipuzha)

-

358 Ludwigia

hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell

Onagraceae Varmankode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 35:

Fig.c

359 Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

-

360 Ludwigia peruviana (L.) H.

Hara

Onagraceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 35:

Fig. d

361 Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Thodamkulam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 35:

Fig. e

362 Syzygium caryophyllatum Alston Myrtaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 35:

Fig.f

363 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Attassery)

(Thuthapuzha)

-

364 Melastoma malabathricum L. Melastomataceae Aanakkallumukku

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

365 Memecylon depressum Benth. Melastomataceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 35: Fig.g

366 Memecylon deccanense

C.B.Clarke

Melastomataceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

-

367 Osbeckia aspera Blume Melastomataceae Pullodu (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

368 Osbeckia muralis Naudin Melastomataceae Kambram

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 35:

Fig.h

369 Garuga pinnata Roxb. Burseraceae

Natyamangalam (Thuthapuzha)

-

370 Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 36:

Fig.a

371 Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f. Anacardiaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 36: Fig.b

372 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Puramannur

(Thuthapuzha)

-

373 Nothopegia travancorica Bedd. Anacardiaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

374 Allophylus serratus Kurz, Sapindaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 36:

Fig.c

375 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae Nellipuzha bridge (Nellipuzha)

Plate 36: Fig.d

376 Sapindus trifoliatus L. Sapindaceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

377 Schleichera oleosa Merr. Sapindaceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 36: Fig.e

378 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Rutaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 36:

Fig. f

379 Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Rutaceae Aanakkallumukku (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 36: Fig.g

380 Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. Rutaceae Sathramkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

381 Citrus medica L. Rutaceae Sathramkadavu Plate 36:

45

(Thuppanadupuzha) Fig.h

382 Citrus reticulata Blanco Rutaceae Koramankadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

383 Glycosmis

pentaphylla (Retz.) DC.

Rutaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 37:

Fig.a

384 Naringi

crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson

Rutaceae Koramankadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 37:

Fig. b

385 Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Rutaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

-

386 Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.)

Alston

Simaroubaceae Sathramkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 37:

Fig.c

387 Simarouba amara Aubl. Simaroubaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

-

388 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Kanjirapuzha Dam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 37:

Fig.d

389 Cipadessa baccifera Miq. Meliaceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

-

390 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. Meliaceae Kanjirapuzha Dam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 37:

Fig.e

391 Swietenia macrophylla King. Meliaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

-

392 Abutilon persicum (Burm.f.) Merr.

Malvaceae Mukkannam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 37: Fig.f

393 Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Malvaceae Mappattukara

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 37:

Fig.g

394 Corchorus olitorius L. Malvaceae Changaleeri (Nellipuzha)

Plate 37: Fig. h

395 Fioria vitifolia (L.) Mattei Malvaceae Pulamanthole

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 38:

Fig. a

396 Grewia abutilifolia Vent.ex Juss.

Malvaceae Kuruthichal (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 38: Fig.b

397 Grewia serrulata DC. Malvaceae Ambankunnu

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 38:

Fig. c

398 Helicteres isora L. Malvaceae Thuppanadu (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 38: Fig. d

399 Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. Malvaceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 38:

Fig.e

400 Hibiscus surattensis L. Malvaceae Palamkadavu (Nellipuzha)

Plate 38: Fig.f

401 Melochia corchorifolia L. Malvaceae Kanjirapara

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 38:

Fig.g

402 Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae Kanjirapuzha Dam (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 38: Fig.h

403 Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss. Malvaceae Sathramkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 39:

Fig.a

404 Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae Mannarkkad (Kunthipuzha)

-

405 Sida

rhombifolia subsp. alnifolia (L.)

Ugbor.

Malvaceae Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

406 Sterculia guttata Roxb. Malvaceae Sathramkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 39:

Fig.b

407 Talipariti tiliaceum (L.) Fryxell Malvaceae Aanakkallumukku

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

46

408 Theobroma cacao L. Malvaceae Ambankunnu

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 39:

Fig.c

409 Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalzell

Malvaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

410 Triumfetta pilosa Roth Malvaceae Thittummel

(Nellipuzha)

-

411 Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Malvaceae Thutha (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 39: Fig.d

412 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 39:

Fig. e

413 Waltheria indica L. Malvaceae Muriyankanni (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 39: Fig. f

414 Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. Dipterocarpaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

-

415 Vateria indica L. Dipterocarpaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 39: Fig. g

416 Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Moringaceae

Pulamanthole

(Thuthapuzha)

-

417 Carica papaya L. Caricaceae

Kandenkavu (Thuthapuzha)

-

418 Crateva religiosa G.Forst. Capparaceae

Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 39:

Fig.h

419 Cleome monophylla L. Cleomaceae Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

-

420 Cleome rutidosperma var. burm

annii (Wight & Arn.) Siddiqui & S.N. Dixit.

Cleomaceae Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 40:

Fig. a

421 Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 40:

Fig.b

422 Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern Brassicaceae

Puramannur (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 40: Fig. c

423 Cansjera rheedei J .F. Gmel. Opiliaceae

Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 40:

Fig.d

424 Santalum album L. Santalaceae

Cheenikkadavu (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

425 Dendrophthoe falcata (L. f.)

Ettingsh.

Loranthaceae

Ponnumpoomala

kadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 40:

Fig.e

426 Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae

Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 40:

Fig.f

427 Antigonon

leptopus Hook. & Arn.

Polygonaceae

Koothuparambu

(Thuthapuzha)

-

428 Persicaria barbata (L.) Hara Polygonaceae Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 40:

Fig. g

429 Persicaria chinensis (L.) H.

Gross

Polygonaceae Ambalamkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 40:

Fig. h

430 Persicaria

glabra (Willd.) Grabovsk.

Polygonaceae Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 41:

Fig. a

431 Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall. Ancistrocladaceae

Pullode (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

432 Polycarpon

prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. & Sc

hweinf.

Caryophyllaceae

Koothuparambu

(Thuthapuzha)

-

433 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Elamkulam -

47

(Thuthapuzha)

434 Aerva

lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult.

Amaranthaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 41:

Fig. b

435 Allmania nodiflora (L.) R.

Br. ex Wight

Amaranthaceae Mappattukkara

(Thuthapuzha)

-

436 Alternanthera

bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson

Amaranthaceae Puramannur

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 41:

Fig.c

437 Alternanthera

brasiliana (L.) Kuntze

Amaranthaceae Thodamkulam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 41:

Fig. d

438 Alternanthera ficoidea (L.) Sm. Amaranthaceae Pullatta (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 41: Fig. e

439 Alternanthera

philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.

Amaranthaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 41:

Fig.f

440 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC. Amaranthaceae Thathengalam (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 41: Fig.g

441 Alternanthera

pulchella Kunth, Nov.

Amaranthaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

-

442 Amaranthus caudatus L. Amaranthaceae Puramannur (Thuthapuzha)

-

443 Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 41:

Fig. h

444 Amaranthus tricolor L. Amaranthaceae Kodumudi

(Thuthapuzha)

-

445 Cyathula prostrata Blume Amaranthaceae Kanjirani

(Kunthipuzha)

-

446 Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. Amaranthaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 42:

Fig. a

447 Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae

Thodamkulam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 42:

Fig. b

448 Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae

Unnammedu

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 42:

Fig. c

449 Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae

Unnammedu

(Kanjirapuzha)

-

450 Glinus oppositifolius Aug. DC. Molluginaceae Njagattiri

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 42:

Fig.d

451 Mollugo pentaphylla L. Molluginaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 42:

Fig.e

452 Talinum portulacifolium Asch. Talinaceae

Nellipuzha bridge

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 42:

Fig. f

453 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

-

454 Portulaca pilosa L. Portulacaceae West Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 42:

Fig.g

455 Cereus pterogonus Lem Cactaceae

Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

-

456 Alangium salviifolium (L.

f.) Wangerin

Cornaceae

Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 42:

Fig.h

457 Impatiens gardneriana Wight Balsaminaceae Aanakallumukku

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 43:

Fig.a

458 Impatiens minor (DC.) Bennet Balsaminaceae Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 43:

Fig.b

459 Impatiens scapiflora B. Heyne Balsaminaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 43:

Fig.c

48

460 Barringtonia

acutangula Gaertn.

Lecythidaceae

Koramankadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 43:

Fig.d

461 Careya arborea Roxb. Lecythidaceae

Thavalani (Kunthipuzha)

-

462 Chrysophyllum cainito L. Sapotaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

-

463 Madhuca neriifolia H. J. Lam Sapotaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 43: Fig.e

464 Embelia tsjeriam-

cottam (Roem. & Schult.) A. DC.

Primulaceae

Varmankode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 43:

Fig.f

465 Gomphandra

tetrandra (Wall.) Sleumer

Icacinaceae

Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

466 Argostemma courtallense Arn. Rubiaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 43: Fig.g

467 Canthium

coromandelicum (Burm.

f.) Alston

Rubiaceae Kanjirani

(Kunthipuzha)

-

468 Canthium rheedei DC. Rubiaceae Cheenikkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 43:

Fig.h

469 Canthium

travancoricum (Bedd.) Hook. f.

Rubiaceae Kuruthichal

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 44:

Fig.a

470 Chassalia curviflora Thwaites Rubiaceae Puramannur

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 44:

Fig.b

471 Coffea arabica L. Rubiaceae Thuppanadu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 44:

Fig.c

472 Dentella repens J. R. Forst. & G.

Forst. R. Br. ex Airy-Shaw

Rubiaceae Chooriyodu

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 44:

Fig.d

473 Dentella

repens var. serpyllifolia (Wall. ex Craib) Verdc.

Rubiaceae Kanjirani

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 44:

Fig.e

474 Ixora brachiata Roxb. Rubiaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 44:

Fig.f

475 Ixora coccinea L. Rubiaceae Attassery (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 44: Fig.g

476 Ixora cuneifolia Roxb. Rubiaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

477 Ixora elongata B. Heyne & G. Don

Rubiaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 44: Fig.h

478 Ixora javanica DC. Rubiaceae Kalikadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

-

479 Ixora lanceolaria Colebr. Rubiaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

480 Ixora

malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb.

Rubiaceae Puramannur

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 45:

Fig.a

481 Mitracarpus hirtus DC. Rubiaceae Attassery (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 45: Fig.b

482 Morinda citrifolia L. Rubiaceae West Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

-

483 Morinda pubescens Sm. Rubiaceae Mappattukkara

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 45:

Fig.c

484 Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae Changaleeri

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 45:

Fig.d

485 Neolamarckia Rubiaceae Pullode -

49

cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser (Thuppanadupuzha)

486 Ochreinauclea

missionis (Wall. ex G.Don) Ridsdale

Rubiaceae Sreekrishnapuram

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 45:

Fig.e

487 Oldenlandia auricularia F.

Muell.

Rubiaceae Koothuparambu

(Thuthapuzha)

-

488 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Rubiaceae Irimpliyam (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 45: Fig.f

489 Oldenlandia

diffusa (Willd.) Roxb.

Rubiaceae Thiruvegappura

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 45:

Fig.g

490 Oldenlandia trinervia Retz. Rubiaceae Thavalani (Kunthipuzha)

-

491 Ophiorrhiza mungos L. Rubiaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

-

492 Pavetta novoguineensis (Valeton) Bremek.

Rubiaceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

-

493 Spermacoce alata Aubl. Rubiaceae West Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 45:

Fig.h

494 Spermacoce hispida L. Rubiaceae West Vellinezhi (Thuthapuzha)

-

495 Spermacoce ocymoides Burm. f. Rubiaceae Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

496 Canscora

diffusa (Vahl) R.Br. ex Roem. &

Schult.

Gentianaceae

Kodumudi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 46:

Fig.a

497 Strychnos minor Benth. Loganiaceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 46: Fig.b

498 Strychnos nux-vomica L. Loganiaceae Koothuparambu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 46:

Fig.c

499 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae Chooriyode (Kanjirapuzha)

-

500 Calotropis gigantea (L.) W. T.

Aiton

Apocynaceae Elamkulam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 46:

Fig.d

501 Catharanthus pusillus G. Don Apocynaceae West Vellinezhi (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 46: Fig.e

502 Dregea

volubilis Benth. ex Hook. f.

Apocynaceae Pulamanthole

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 46:

Fig.f

503 Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. Hort. Kew.,

ed. 2 [W.T. Aiton] 2: 75 (1811)

Apocynaceae Natyamangalam (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 46: Fig.g

504 Holarrhena pubescens Wall. Apocynaceae Thuppanadu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

505 Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.

T. Aiton

Apocynaceae Kanjirapara

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 46:

Fig.h

506 Oxystelma

esculentum (L.f.) Sm.

Apocynaceae Moorkkanad

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 47:

Fig.a

507 Pergularia

daemia (Forssk.) Chiov.

Apocynaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

-

508 Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. ex Kurz

Apocynaceae Varmankode (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 47: Fig.b

509 Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. Apocynaceae Varmankode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 47:

Fig.c

510 Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.)R.

Apocynaceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 47: Fig.d

50

Br.ex Roem. & Schult.

511 Wrightia tinctoria R. Apocynaceae Chooriyode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 47:

Fig.e

512 Coldenia procumbens L. Boraginaceae

Varmankode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 47:

Fig.f

513 Heliotropium indicum L. Boraginaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 47:

Fig.g

514 Heliotropium keralense Sivar. &

Manilal

Boraginaceae Mannarkkad

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 47:

Fig.h

515 Heliotropium rottleri Lehm. Boraginaceae Kanjirapuzha Dam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 48:

Fig.a

516 Rotula aquatica Lour. Boraginaceae Thumbakanni

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 48:

Fig.b

517 Trichodesma

indicum (L.) Lehm.

Boraginaceae Kanjirapuzha Dam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 48:

Fig.c

518 Aniseia

martinicensis (Jacq.) Choisy

Convolvulaceae Kaliyarvattom

Kadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 48:

Fig.d

519 Argyreia hirsuta Wight & Arn. Convolvulaceae Poonchola (Nellipuzha)

Plate 48: Fig.e

520 Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae Changaleeri

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 48:

Fig.f

521 Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. Convolvulaceae West Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 48:

Fig.g

522 Hewittia

malabarica (L.) Suresh

Convolvulaceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 48:

Fig.h

523 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Convolvulaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 49:

Fig.a

524 Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Convolvulaceae Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

-

525 Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet Convolvulaceae Mukkannam

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 49:

Fig.b

526 Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Convolvulaceae Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 49:

Fig.c

527 Ipomoea hederifolia L. Convolvulaceae Irimpliyam

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 49:

Fig.d

528 Ipomoea

marginata (Desr.) Manitz

Convolvulaceae Mukkannam

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 49:

Fig.e

529 Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker

Gawl.

Convolvulaceae Mukkannam

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 49:

Fig.f

530 Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br. Convolvulaceae Kanjirapuzha Dam

(Kanjirapuzha)

-

531 Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Convolvulaceae Chooriyode

(Kanjirapuzha,)

Plate 49:

Fig.g

532 Ipomoea

staphylina Roem. & Schult.

Convolvulaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

-

533 Ipomoea triloba L. Convolvulaceae Ambalamkadavu

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 49:

Fig.h

534 Merremia hederacea (Burm.

f.) Hallier f.

Convolvulaceae Kanjirapara

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 50:

Fig.a

535 Merremia tridentata (L.) Hallier

f.

Convolvulaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha,)

Plate 50:

Fig.b

536 Merremia umbellata (L.) Hallier

f.

Convolvulaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

-

51

537 Merremia vitifolia Hallier f. Convolvulaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 50:

Fig.c

538 Operculina turpethum (L.) Silva Manso

Convolvulaceae Thutha (Thuthapuzha)

-

539 Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 50:

Fig.d

540 Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae Nellipuzha bridge (Nellipuzha)

Plate 50: Fig.e

541 Solanum americanum Mill. Solanaceae Ambankunnu

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 50:

Fig.f

542 Solanum torvum Sw. Solanaceae Kanjirapara (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 50: Fig.g

543 Solanum violaceum Ortega Solanaceae Unnammedu

(Kanjirapuzha,)

Plate 50:

Fig.h

544 Hydrolea zeylanica Vahl Hydroleaceae

Thutha (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 51: Fig.a

545 Chionanthus mala-

elengi (Dennst.) P. S. Green

Oleaceae Karayampatta

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 51:

Fig.b

546 Jasminum coarctatum Roxb. Oleaceae Puramannur (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 51: Fig.c

547 Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton Oleaceae Ambalamkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 51:

Fig.d

548 Myxopyrum

smilacifolium Blume

Oleaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 51:

Fig.e

549 Olea dioica Roxb. Oleaceae Thavalani

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 51:

Fig.f

550 Epithema carnosum Benth. Gesneriaceae

Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 51:

Fig.g

551 Rhynchoglossum

notonianum (Wall.) B. L. Burtt

Gesneriaceae

Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 51:

Fig.h

552 Limnophila aromatica Merr. Plantaginaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha,)

Plate 52:

Fig.a

553 Limnophila chinensis (Osbeck)

Merr.

Plantaginaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

-

554 Limnophila repens Benth. Plantaginaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 52:

Fig.b

555 Microcarpaea

minima (Retz.) Merr.

Plantaginaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha,)

-

556 Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae Unnammedu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 52:

Fig.c

557 Stemodia

verticillata (Mill.) Hassl.

Plantaginaceae Changaleeri

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 52:

Fig.d

558 Stemodia viscosa Roxb. Plantaginaceae Njangattiri

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 52:

Fig.e

559 Lindernia anagallis (Burm.

f.) Pennell

Linderniaceae Thumbakanni

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 52:

Fig.f

560 Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston Linderniaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha,)

Plate 52:

Fig.g

561 Lindernia

caespitosa (Blume) Panigrahi

Linderniaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha,)

Plate 52:

Fig.h

562 Lindernia

ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell

Linderniaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 53:

Fig.a

563 Lindernia crustacea (L.) F.

Muell.

Linderniaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 53:

Fig.b

52

564 Lindernia

oppositifolia (L.) Mukerjee

Linderniaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha)

-

565 Lindernia procumbens (Krock.) Philcox

Linderniaceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 53: Fig.c

566 Lindernia

rotundifolia (L.) Alston

Linderniaceae Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 53:

Fig.d

567 Lindernia tamilnadensis M.G.Prasad & Su

nojk.

Linderniaceae Mothikkal (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 53: Fig.e

568 Torenia bicolor Dalzell Hooker's J. Bot. Kew Gard. Misc. 3: 38

(1851)

Linderniaceae Ambalamkadavu (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 53: Fig.f

569 Sesamum indicum L., Sp. Pl. 2:

634 (1753)

Pedaliaceae

Kambram

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 53:

Fig.g

570 Asystasia

dalzelliana Santapau, Kew

Bull. 3(2): 276 (1948)

Acanthaceae Cheenikkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 53:

Fig.h

571 Asystasia gangetica T.Anderson, Enum.

Pl. Zeyl. [Thwaites] 235 (1860)

Acanthaceae Thodamkulam (Kanjirapuzha)

-

572 Barleria courtallica Nees, Prodr.

[A. P. de Candolle] 11: 226 (1847)

Acanthaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 54:

Fig.a

573 Barleria

prattensis Santapau, Kew Bull. 3(3): 487 (1949)

Acanthaceae Karayampatta

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 54:

Fig.b

574 Barleria prionitis L., Sp. Pl. 2:

636 (1753)

Acanthaceae Thathengalam

(Kunthipuzha)

-

575 Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) B.Heyne,

Nov. Pl. Sp. 320 (1821)

Acanthaceae Puramannur (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 54: Fig.c

576 Dicliptera

paniculata (Forssk.) I.Darbysh. Kew Bull. 62(1): 122 (2007)

Acanthaceae Mukkannam

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 54:

Fig.d

577 Dipteracanthus

prostratus Nees, Pl. Asiat. Rar.

(Wallich). iii. 81(1832)

Acanthaceae Unnammedu

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 54:

Fig.e

578 Eranthemum capense L., Sp.

Pl. 1: 9 (1753)

Acanthaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 54:

Fig.f

579 Gymnostachyum canescens T.Anderson, J. Linn.

Soc., Bot. 9: 505 (1867)

Acanthaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 54: Fig.g

580 Hygrophila

auriculata (Schumach.) Heine, Kew Bull. 16(2): 172 (1962)

Acanthaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 54:

Fig.h

581 Hygrophila

ringens (L.) R.Br. ex Spreng. Sy

st. Veg., ed. 16 [Sprengel] 2: 828 (1825)

Acanthaceae Thutha

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 55:

Fig.a

582 Justicia adhatoda L., Sp. Pl. 1:

15 (1753)

Acanthaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 55:

Fig.b

583 Justicia betonica L., Sp. Pl. 1: 15 (1753)

Acanthaceae Parakkadavu (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 55: Fig.c

584 Justicia japonica Thunb. Fl. Jap. Acanthaceae Kanjirapara Plate 55:

53

(Thunberg) 20 (1784) (Thuppanadupuzha) Fig.d

585 Justicia procumbens L., Sp.

Pl. 1: 15 (1753)

Acanthaceae Aanakallumukku

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 55:

Fig.e

586 Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-

Ham. ex D.Don, Prodr. Fl.

Nepal. 119 (1825)

Acanthaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 55:

Fig.f

587 Nelsonia canescens Spreng. Syst. Veg.,

ed. 16 [Sprengel] 1: 42 (1824)

Acanthaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

588 Phaulopsis imbricata Sweet, Hort. Brit.

[Sweet] 327 (1826)

Acanthaceae Kanjirapara (Thuppanadupuzha)

-

589 Pseuderanthemum

malabaricum Gamble, Fl. Madras 1064 (1924)

Acanthaceae Pullode

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 55:

Fig.g

590 Rungia pectinata Nees, Prodr.

[A. P. de Candolle] 11: 470

(1847)

Acanthaceae Palamkadavu

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 55:

Fig.h

591 Rungia repens Nees, Pl. Asiat.

Rar. (Wallich). iii. 110 (1867)

Acanthaceae Thittummel

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 56:

Fig.a

592 Staurogyne

zeylanica Kuntze, Revis. Gen. Pl. 2: 497 (1891)

Acanthaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 56:

Fig.b

593 Strobilanthes heyneana Nees, in

Wall. [Pl. As. Rar. iii. 85 (1832)

Acanthaceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 56:

Fig.c

594 Strobilanthes lupulinus Nees Acanthaceae Meenvallam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 56: Fig.d

595 Radermachera

xylocarpa K.Schum. Nat. Pflanzenfam. [Engler &

Prantl] iv. Abt. 3 b, 243 (1895)

Bignoniaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

-

596 Spathodea

campanulata P.Beauv. Fl. Oware 1: 47, tt. 27-28 (1805)

Bignoniaceae Masaparambu

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 56:

Fig.e

597 Lantana camara L., Sp. Pl. 2:

627 (1753)

Verbenaceae Thuppanadu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 56:

Fig.f

598 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene, Pittonia 4

(20): 46 (1899)

Verbenaceae Varmankode (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 56: Fig.g

599 Stachytarpheta indica Vahl, Enum. Pl. [Vahl] i.

206. (1804)

Verbenaceae Attassery (Thuthapuzha)

-

600 Anisochilus

carnosus (L.f.) Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. (Wallich). 2(5): 18 (1830)

Lamiaceae Kanjirapara

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

601 Anisomeles

indica (L.) Kuntze, Revis. Gen.

Pl. 2: 512 (1891)

Lamiaceae Thuppanadu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 56:

Fig.h

602 Basilicum

polystachyon (L.) Moench,

Methodus Plantas Horti Botanici Agri Marburgensis, Suppl.

(1802)

Lamiaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 57:

Fig.a

603 Clerodendrum Lamiaceae Thodamkulam Plate 57:

54

indicum Kuntze, Revis. Gen.

Pl. 2: 586 (1891)

(Kanjirapuzha) Fig.b

604 Clerodendrum infortunatum L., Sp. Pl. 2: 637

(1753)

Lamiaceae Irimbliyam (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 57: Fig.c

605 Clerodendrum paniculatum L., Mant. Pl. 90

(1767)

Lamiaceae Neelankallu (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 57: Fig.d

606 Hyptis capitata Jacq. Icones

Plantarum Rariores 1 (1787)

Lamiaceae Chooriyodu

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 57:

Fig.e

607 Hyptis

suaveolens (L.) Poit. Ann. Mus.

Natl. Hist. Nat. vii. (1806) 472.

t. 29. f. 2.

Lamiaceae Cheenikkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 57:

Fig.f

608 Leucas aspera Link, Enum.

Hort. Berol. Alt. 2: 113 (1822)

Lamiaceae West Vellinezhi

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 57:

Fig.g

609 Leucas

chinensis (Retz.) Sm., Cycl. [A. Rees], (London ed.) 20(2):

Leucas no. 8 (1812)

Lamiaceae Aanakallumukku

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 57:

Fig.h

610 Ocimum gratissimum L., Sp. Pl. 2: 1197 (1753)

Lamiaceae Chooriyodu (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 58: Fig.a

611 Ocimum tenuiflorum L., Sp.

Pl. 2: 597 (1753)

Lamiaceae Ambalamkadavu

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 58:

Fig.b

612 Orthosiphon thymiflorus (Roth) Sleesen, Rein

wardtia v. 42 (1959)

Lamiaceae Kanjirapara (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 58: Fig.c

613 Pogostemon

purpurascens Dalzell, Hooker's J. Bot. Kew Gard. Misc. 2: 337

(1850)

Lamiaceae Mukkannam

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 58:

Fig.d

614 Tectona grandis L.f., Suppl.

Pl. 151 (1782)

Lamiaceae Thuppanadu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 58:

Fig.e

615 Vitex altissima L.f., Suppl.

Pl. 294 (1782)

Lamiaceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 58:

Fig.f

616 Vitex negundo L., Sp. Pl. 2: 638

(1753)

Lamiaceae Muriyankanni

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 58:

Fig.g

617 Striga

asiatica (L.) Kuntze, Revis. Gen.

Pl. 2: 466 (1891)

Orobanchaceae

Thodamkulam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 58:

Fig.h

618 Lobelia alsinoides Lam., Encycl.

[J. Lamarck & al.] 3(2): 588

(1792)

Campanulaceae

Mothikkal

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 59:

Fig.a

619 Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. Fruct. Sem.

Pl. i. 113. t. 24.

Campanulaceae

Thutha (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 59: Fig.b

620 Nymphoides

hydrophylla (Lour.) Kuntze, Revis. Gen. Pl. 2: 429 (1891)

Menyanthaceae

Changaleeri

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 59:

Fig.c

621 Acanthospermum

hispidum DC. Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 5: 522 (1836)

Asteraceae Cheenikkadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

622 Acmella

ciliata (Kunth) Cass. Dict. Sci.

Asteraceae Panayampadam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 59:

Fig.d

55

Nat., ed. 2. [F. Cuvier] 24: 331

(1822)

623 Acmella uliginosa Cass. Dict. Sci. Nat., ed. 2. [F. Cuvier] 24:

331 (1822)

Asteraceae Vellinezhi (Thuthapuzha)

Plate 59: Fig.e

624 Ageratum conyzoides L., Sp. Pl. 2: 839 (1753)

Asteraceae Aanakallumukku (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 59: Fig.f

625 Ageratum

houstonianum Mill. Gard. Dict.,

ed. 8. n. 2 (1768)

Asteraceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

626 Blumea axillaris DC. Prodr. [A.

P. de Candolle] 5: 434 (1836)

Asteraceae Kanjirapuzha Dam

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 59:

Fig. g

627 Blumea belangeriana DC. Prodr.

[A. P. de Candolle] 5: 444 (1836)

Asteraceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 59:

Fig.h

628 Blumea

membranacea DC. Prodr. [A. P.

de Candolle] 5: 440 (1836)

Asteraceae Kanjirapara

(Thuppanadupuzha)

-

629 Blumea barbata DC. Contr. Bot.

India [Wight] 14. (1834)

Asteraceae Attassery

(Thuthapuzha)

-

630 Blumea oxyodonta DC. Contr.

Bot. India [Wight] 15. (1834)

Asteraceae Meenvallam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 60:

Fig.a

631 Chromolaena

odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob

., Phytologia 20 (3): 204 (1970)

Asteraceae Mannarkkad

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 60:

Fig.b

632 Crassocephalum crepidioides S.Moore, J.

Bot. 50: 211 (1912)

Asteraceae Mukkannam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 60: Fig.c

633 Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 103(1): 252

(1990): (1990)

Asteraceae Karimpuzha (Kunthipuzha)

Plate 60: Fig.d

634 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., Mant. Pl. Altera 286 (1771)

Asteraceae Mukkannam (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 60: Fig.e

635 Elephantopus scaber L., Sp.

Pl. 2: 814 (1753)

Asteraceae Elamkulam

(Thuthapuzha)

-

636 Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Bot.

Zeitung (Berlin) 24: 239 (1866)

Asteraceae Chooriyodu (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 60: Fig.f

637 Emilia sonchifolia DC. Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 6: 302

(1838)

Asteraceae Thathengalam (Kunthipuzha)

-

638 Grangea

maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Encycl. [J. Lamarck & al.] Suppl.

2. 825 (1812)

Asteraceae Varmankode

(Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 60:

Fig.g

639 Mikania micrantha Kunth, Nov.

Gen. Sp. [H.B.K.] 4(fol.): 105 (1818)

Asteraceae Panayampadam

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 60:

Fig.h

640 Sphagneticola

trilobata (L.) Pruski, Mem. New York Bot. Gard. 78: 114 (1996)

Asteraceae Mappattukara

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 61:

Fig.a

641 Sphaeranthus indicus L., Sp.

Pl. 2: 927 (1753)

Asteraceae Changaleeri

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 61:

Fig.b

56

642 Spilanthes radicans Schrad. Cat.

Hort. Gotting. (1831) 5; ex Prod. v. 624.

Asteraceae Karimpuzha

(Kunthipuzha)

Plate 61:

Fig.c

643 Spilanthes

vazhachalensis Sheela, J. Econ.

Taxon. Bot. 31(2): 474 (-477; fig. 1) (2007)

Asteraceae Ambalamkadavu

(Nellipuzha)

Plate 61:

Fig.d

644 Struchium

sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze, R

evis. Gen. Pl. 1: 366 (1891)

Asteraceae Parakkadavu

(Thuthapuzha)

Plate 61:

Fig.e

645 Synedrella

nodiflora Gaertn. Fruct. Sem.

Pl. ii. 456. t. 171.

Asteraceae Koramankadavu

(Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 61:

Fig.f

646 Tridax procumbens L., Sp. Pl. 2: 900 (1753)

Asteraceae Pandikkal Kadavu (Thuppanadupuzha)

Plate 61: Fig.g

647 Xanthium strumarium L., Sp.

Pl. 2: 987 (1753)

Asteraceae Puramannur

(Thuthapuzha)

-

648 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Fl. Bras. (Martius) 11(1): 287

(1879)

Apiaceae

Varmankode (Kanjirapuzha)

Plate 61: Fig. h

Analysis of vegetation in the riparian system

Floristic analysis of riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries reveal the

presence of 648 taxa coming under 133 families. Angiosperms were represented by 612

species belonging to 402 genera under 116 families and Pteridophytes with 34 species

belonging to 22 genera under 15 families. Among the 3 indigenous gymnosperms reported

from Kerala, 2 were collected from the riparian systems of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries.

They belong to the order Cycadales and Gnetales. Eudicots dominates with 463 species

belonging to 307 genera under 83 families followed by Monocots with 136 species belonging

to 23 families and Magnoliids with 13 species belonging to 9 genera under 5 families based

on APG IV system of classification. Cyperus (15 species), Ficus (13 species) and Ipomoea

(11 species) are the three largest genera in terms of numerical strength of species. A total of

56 out of 116 families are represented by one genus each and 43 with one species each. Of

the total species, 47.87% is composed of herbs (293 species), 19.77% trees (121 species),

16.50% shrubs (101 species) and 15.84 % Climbers (97 species) (Fig.2). Poales represent the

most speciose order (78 species) followed by Lamiales (73 species) and Fabales (53 species).

Fabaceae with 52 species in 37 genera is the largest family represented in the study area

followed by Poaceae (47 species), Rubiaceae (34 species), Cyperaceae (29 species),

Asteraceae (28 species) and Acanthaceae (26 species) (Fig.3).

57

Wetland and riparian elements

The floristic analysis of riparian system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries revealed that

152 wetland taxa were found to occur frequently along the riparian zones which form 25% of

the total number of plant species reported from the study area. They belong to 87genera under

38 families (Annexure 1). The dominant families with maximum number of wetland species

are Cyperaceae (29 species) and Poaceae (29 species) followed by Asteraceae (11 species),

Linderniaceae (10 species) and Commelinaceae (8 species) in the decreasing order of species

representation. Whereas, in the generic level, Cyperus forms the largest genus (16 species)

followed by Lindernia (9 species), Fimbristylis (6 species) and Alternanthera (5 species). 159

The riparian system of Thutha and its tributaries has large floristic wealth. The riparian trees

which are common along the banks of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries are Barringtonia

acutangula (L.) Gaertn., Crateva religiosa G. Forst., Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) H.J.Lam,

Mallotus nudiflorus (L.) Kulju & Welzen and Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G. Don)

Ridsdale. The under growth and the out skirts of these floristic system consist mainly of

shrubs like Ochlandra travancorica (Bedd.) Gamble, Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. etc. The

marshy margins of the riparian system which are flooded during the rainy season bear

herbaceous elements like Cryptocoryne retrospiralis (Roxb.) Kunth., Fimbristylis argentea

(Rottb.) Vahl., Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani, Eragrostis riparia (Willd.) Nees,

Persicaria barbata (L.) H. Hara etc. Shrubs like Pandanus furcatus Roxb., Rotula aquatica

Lour., Homonoia riparia Lour. and Ficus heterophylla L.f. are common on the gravelly basins

of the study area.

Evergreen and Semi-evergreen elements

The floristic analysis of the study area revealed the presence of evergreen and semi

evergreen forest components along the riparian system. There are 15 evergreen elements and

40 semi-evergreen elements recorded from the study area. The evergreen elements are mainly

concentrated on the highlands of Kunthipuzha and Thuppanadupuzha and semievergreen

elements have seen along the riparian systems of highlands of Kunthipuzha and

Thuppanadupuzha and some midland areas of Thuthapuzha. The most characterized

evergreen and semi-evergreen elements found in this area are summarized in Table 4 &5.

58

Table. 4. Evergreen elements in the riparian flora of Thutha and its tributaries

Sl. No Name of the species Family

1 Sageraea laurina Dalz. Annonaceae

2 Dioscorea kalkapershadii Prain & Burkill Dioscoreaceae

3 Arenga wightii Griff Arecaceae

4 Globba sessiliflora Sims Zingiberaceae

5 Dillenia indica L. Dilleniaceae

6 Ficus albipila (Miq.) King Moraceae

7 Ficus virens Aiton Moraceae

8 Elatostema acuminatum (Poir.) Brongn. Urticaceae

9 Aporosa fusiformis Thwaites Euphorbiaceae

10 Vateria indica L. Dipterocarpaceae

11 Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall. ex J.Graham Ancistrocladaceae

12 Impatiens gardneriana Wight Balsaminaceae

13 Impatiens scapiflora B. Heyne ex Roxb. Balsaminaceae

14 Barleria caurtallica Nees Acanthaceae

15 Strobilanthes lupulinus Nees Acanthaceae

Deciduous elements

Systematic assessment of the riparian flora revealed the presence of 172 deciduous

elements of which 114 elements are moist- deciduous forest elements and 58 of them are dry

deciduous (Annexure 2 & 3). Major deciduous trees commonly found along the banks of

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries are Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub., Xanthophyllum

arnottianum Wight., Ficus dalhousiae Miq., Ficus exasperata Vahl., Mallotus tetracoccus

(Roxb.) Kurz, Hydnocarpus pentandrus (Buch.-Ham.) Oken., Terminalia paniculata Roth.,

Garuga pinnata Roxb., Sapindus trifoliatus L., Schleichera oleosa ( Lour.) Merr., Sterculia

guttata Roxb. ex G. Don etc.

Sacred grove elements

Present analysis of the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha sub-basin reveal the presence of

43 sacred grove elements (Table 6) of which Pothos scandens L., Smilax zeylanica L.,

Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn., Tiliacora racemosa Colebr., Abrus precatorius L.,

Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f., Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf., Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. etc were

frequently found along the river banks.

59

Table. 5. Semi-evergreen elements in the riparian flora of Thutha and its tributaries

Sl. No Name of the species

Family

1 Piper umbellatum L. Piperaceae

2 Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou Aristolochiaceae

3 Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm. f.) Blume Lauraceae

4 Litsea coriacea (Heyne ex Meisner) Hook. Lauraceae

5 Dioscorea pubera Blume Dioscoreaceae

6 Ochlandra travancorica (Bedd.) Gamble Poaceae

7 Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson Menispermaceae

8 Ampelocissus indica (L.) Planch Vitaceae

9 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Fabaceae

10 Bauhinia scandens L. Fabaceae

11 Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabb. Fabaceae

12 Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight Polygalaceae

13 Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. Moraceae

14 Ficus beddomei King Moraceae

15 Ficus microcarpa L.f. Moraceae

16 Ficus talbotii King Moraceae

17 Boehmeria glomerulifera Miq. Urticaceae

18 Pellionia heyneana Wedd. Urticaceae

19 Begonia malabarica Lam. Begoniaceae

20 Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. Rhizophoraceae

21 Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr. Euphorbiaceae

22 Bischofia javanica Blume Euphorbiaceae

23 Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A.Juss Euphorbiaceae

24 Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz Euphorbiaceae

25 Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Müll.Arg Phyllanthaceae

26 Combretum albidum G.Don Combretaceae

27 Memecylon depressum Benth. Melastomataceae

28 Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. Anacardiaceae

29 Allophylus serratus (Hiern) Kurz Sapindaceae

30 Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. Dipterocarpaceae

31 Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) H.J.Lam Sapotaceae

32 Gomphandra tetrandra (Wall.) Sleumer Icacinaceae

33 Canthium travancoricum Bedd Rubiaceae

34 Ixora elongata B.Heyne ex G.Don Rubiaceae

35 Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser Rubiaceae

36 Ophiorrhiza mungos L. Rubiaceae

37 Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P.S.Green Oleaceae

38 Olea dioica Roxb. Oleaceae

39 Epithema carnosum Benth. Gesneriaceae

40 Rhynchoglossum notonianum (Wall.) B.L. Burtt Gesneriaceae

60

Degraded floral elements

During the field exploration it was observed that there was a decrease in the natural

riparian vegetation along Thuthapuzha sub-basin especially in the forest areas within the

riparian system of Thuppanadupuzha and Kunthipuzha. In many places most of the ground

vegetation was replaced by degraded forest elements. Floristic analysis showed 69 degraded

forest elements were identified from the riparian system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

(Annexure 4). Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth., Chloris barbata Sw., Crotalaria pallida

Aiton., Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew., Croton hirtus L'Hér., Euphorbia hirta L., Cleome

viscosa L. etc were frequently occurred throughout the riparian system.

Monotypic elements

The monotypic taxa are important from conservation point of view because they are

vulnerable due to environmental threats, ecological substitutions, pathological causes and

habitat destruction or over exploitation. Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees ex Wight & Arn.,

Getonia floribunda Roxb., Allmania nodiflora (L.) R. Br. ex Wight, Basilicum polystachyon

(L.) Moench. and Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. were the monotypic genera collected from

the riparian system of Thutha and its tributaries.

Wild relatives of cultivated plants

With its unique location, climatic features and diverse habitats, Palakkad district

harbours a very rich diversity of wild genetic resources of crop plants. Some of them are

collected from the riparian system of Thutha and its tributaries. Species belonging to

Cucurbitaceae, Amaranthaceae, Solanaceae and Dioscoreaceae are wild relatives of existing

cultivars. Trichosanthes cucumerina L. and Trichosanthes nervifolia L. are closely related to

the cultivated snake gourd. Luffa cylindrica (L.) M. Roem. is the wild relative of smooth

gourd. Some other plants related to cultivated fruits and vegetables recorded from the study

area are Dioscorea bulbifera L., Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook. f., Dioscorea kalkapershadii

Prain & Burkill., Dioscorea oppositifolia L., Dioscorea pentaphylla L., Dioscorea pubera

Blume., Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn., Curcuma aromatica Salisb., Saccharum arundinaceum

Retz., Saccharum spontaneum L., Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars., Artocarpus hirsutus

Lam., Amaranthus spinosus L., Amaranthus tricolor L., Solanum americanum Mill., and

Solanum torvum Sw.

61

Table. 6. Sacred grove elements in the riparian flora of Thutha and its tributaries

Sl. No. Name of the species Family

1 Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth. Piperaceae

2 Piper longum L. Piperaceae

3 Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae

4 Piper umbellatum L. Piperaceae

5 Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou Aristolochiaceae

6 Uvaria narum Wall. Annonaceae

7 Litsea coriacea (Heyne ex Meisner) Hook. Lauraceae

8 Pothos scandens L. Araceae

9 Smilax zeylanica L. Smilacaceae

10 Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. Menispermaceae

11 Tiliacora racemosa Colebr. Menispermaceae

12 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers Menispermaceae

13 Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gagnep. Vitaceae

14 Cissus javana DC. Vitaceae

15 Cissus latifolia Lam. Vitaceae

16 Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae

17 Adenanthera pavonina L. Fabaceae

18 Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabb. Fabaceae

19 Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf. Fabaceae

20 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. Fabaceae

21 Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight Polygalaceae

22 Ficus microcarpa L.f. Moraceae

23 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae

24 Calophyllum inophyllum L. Calophyllaceae

25 Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. Putranjivaceae

26 Antidesma acidum Retz. Euphorbiaceae

27 Antidesma montanum Blume Euphorbiaceae

28 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae

29 Combretum latifolium Blume Combretaceae

30 Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. Anacardiaceae

31 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Rutaceae

32 Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. Meliaceae

33 Cansjera rheedii Blanco Opiliaceae

34 Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin Alangiaceae

35 Canthium coromandelicum (Burm.f.)

Alston Rubiaceae

36 Canthium rheedei DC Rubiaceae

37 Canthium travancoricum Bedd Rubiaceae

38 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae

39 Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand. Apocynaceae

40 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. Apocynaceae

41 Myxopyrum smilacifolium (Wall.) Blume Oleaceae

42 Eranthemum capense L. Acanthaceae

43 Vitex altissima L. f. Lamiaceae

62

Non - wood forest products and medicinal plants

In the present study nine species have recorded from the study area that yield non wood

forest products which include wild edible plants, broom grass, betel leaf, bamboos etc. Major

NWFPs collected from Thuthapuzha sub-basin are Piper betle L., Dioscorea bulbifera L.,

Curcuma aromatica Salisb., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss.,

Ochlandra travancorica (Bedd.) Gamble., Phyllanthus emblica L., Vateria indica L. and

Solanum violaceum Ortega. The riparian system of Thutha harbours a rich diversity of

medicinal plants (250 species) which contribute 41% of the total riparian flora of

Thuthapuzha (Annexure 5). Medicinal plant species that frequently occur along the river

banks of Thuthapuzha are Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Tiliacora racemosa Colebr. Mimosa

pudica L. Ricinus 164 communis L. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sida acuta Burm. f.

Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC., Physalis angulata L., Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex

DC., Wrightia tinctoria R. Br., Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H. Rob.

etc. There is a considerable reduction in the population of medicinal plants because of their

over exploitation by drug industries. Gloriosa superba L., Costus speciosus (J. Koenig) Sm.,

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers., Trichosanthes cucumerina L., Phyllanthus amarus

Schumach. & Thonn., Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz. etc were critically reduced

due to over exploitation.

Economically important plants

The present study has brought into light a wide range of economically important

plants which occur either naturally or under cultivation in the riparian areas of Thuthapuzha

sub-basin. These plant parts or their products are used for various purposes. They are enlisted

here under different categories of uses. The taxa used as spices and condiments include Piper

longum L., Piper nigrum L., Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm. f.) Blume. and Curcuma

aromatica Salisb. Seven species were used for the production of gums and resins and include

species such as Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub., Caesalpinia sappan L., Pterocarpus

marsupium Roxb., Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Roxb. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa., Ailanthus

triphysa (Dennst.) Alston. and Vateria indica L. More than 10 fiber yielding species were

collected from various parts of the study area such as Borassus flabellifer L., Caryota urens

L., Cocos nucifera L., Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre., Trema orientalis (L.) Blume. , Streblus

asper Lour., Abutilon persicum (Burm.f.) Merr., Corchorus olitorius L., Helicteres isora L.,

Melochia corchorifolia L., Sida acuta Burm. f., Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq., and Urena

63

lobata L. Among the collected species Theobroma cacao L. and Coffea arabica L. were used

as beverages. In the present investigation more than 20 species have recorded as a source of

natural dyes and 6 species as a source of essential oil.

Endemic elements in the vegetation

Critical analysis of riparian flora of Thuthapuzha shows that 60 species are endemic

to various geographical boundaries of India (Annexure 6.). Among these 22 species were

endemic to Southern Western Ghats, 16 species to Western Ghats, 15 species to Peninsular

India, six to India and one species to South West India. The family 165 Rubiaceae constitute

maximum endemics with eight species followed by Acanthaceae with five and Moraceae,

Balsaminaceae and Linderniaceae with three species each.

IUCN Categorization of the riparian flora

Critical analysis of the flora was done on the basis of IUCN categorization (2019- 1).

Out of the total 612 taxa collected from the study area, 148 are coming under different

categories of IUCN (Annexure 7). Among these species two species belongs to critically

endangered, two endangered, one near threatened, nine vulnerable, five Data deficient and

128 Least concern categories. The remaining taxa fall under Not Evaluated category of

IUCN.

Invasive elements

The riparian vegetation of Thutha and its tributaries contains a total of 612 flowering

plants under 111 families. The total alien species recorded from the riparian areas of

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries are 110 species which contribute 18% of the total riparian

flora of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries (Annexure 8). More than half of the (50%) alien flora

of the study area is from South America. Other important source area is Africa (28%). The

dominant alien family of the riparian vegetation of the study area are Asteraceae (15 species)

followed by Fabaceae (14 species), Euphorbiaceae (10 species), Amaranthaceae (7 species)

and Convolvulaceae (6 species) (Fig.4). Each alien species was assigned to one of six

categories describing its status in the region as Cultivated (Cl), Casual (Ca), Casual alien

(C/N), Naturalised (Nt), Naturalised invasive (N/I) and Invasive (In). The present study has

shown that the relative percentage of naturalized alien species is higher in the riparian system

of Thutha and its tributaries with 69 species followed by Naturalized or invasive with 17

species.

64

Phytogeographical affinities of the flora

The broad scale phytogeographical affinities of the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha sub-

basin extend to African, Australian, Holarctic, Indo-Pacific and South American floristic

kingdoms (Table 7). Most of the species are included in the Indo-Pacific floristic kingdom

followed by Indo-Pacific and African and Indo-Pacific, South American and African

kingdom. The flora shows 38.24% elements of Indo-Pacific phytogeographical kingdom with

234 species. Poaceae (18 species), Phyllanthaceae (15 species), Rubiaceae (12 species) and

Lamiaceae (9 species) are the major families that share distribution with Indo-Pacific floristic

kingdom. There are 104 species (17 %) that share the distribution in 166 Indo-Pacific and

African kingdoms and the major families are Poaceae (18 species), Cyperaceae (7 species)

and Convolvulaceae (4 species). Among these species, Coffea arabica L., Ricinus communis

L., Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv. and Tamarindus indica L. are native to Africa, which

are introduced, cultivated and naturalized in India. Thuthapuzha sub-basin has 97 species

(15.85%) that share the distribution with IndoPacific, African and South American kingdoms

and Cyperaceae is the major family that share distribution in this floristic kingdom with 12

species.

Table. 7. Phytogeographical affinities of Riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its

tributaries

Sl.

No.

Distributional range Number of

species

Percentage

Composition

1 Indo-Pacific 234 38.24

2 Indo-Pacific and African 104 17

3 Indo-Pacific, South American and African 97 15.9

4 Indo-Pacific and South American 42 6.86

5 Indo-Pacific and Australian 24 3.92

6 Indo-Pacific, South American, African and

Australian

18 2.94

7 Indo-Pacific, African and Australian 10 1.63

8 Indo-Pacific, South American, African, Australian

and Holarctic

6 0.98

9 Indo-Pacific and Holarctic 6 0.98

10 Indo-Pacific and South American 6 0.98

65

Evaluation of functional vegetation in riparian flora

Based on the life history strategies such as annual, biennial or perennial and

adaptations to disturbances, riparian vegetation of Thuthapuzha is classified in to Resisters,

Avoiders, Endurers and Invaders. Resisters can withstand flooding, moderate fire and

diseases for weeks during the growing season. Avoiders do not have adaptations to specific

disturbances and they cannot survive under unfavourable conditions. Endurers regenerate

after breakage or burial. They produce tubers, rhizomes and corms for surviving in

unfavourable conditions. Invaders produce large number of propagules and colonize in

alluvial substrate. The functional vegetation type of each species of Thutha and its tributaries

were analyzed and the result revealed that 390 species belongs to Resisters followed by

Avoiders (141 species), Endurers (68 species) and Invaders (13 species) (Fig.5).

Raunkiaer Life spectrum analysis in riparian vegetation

The biological spectra of this river basin consist of 25 Chamaephytes, 23

Cryptophytes, two Hemicryptophytes, seven Hydrophytes, three Helophytes, two Epiphytes,

307 Phanerophytes and 243 Therophytes. The phanerophytes (50.2%) dominated the

biological spectrum of riparian vegetation followed by Therophytes (39.7%), Chamaephytes

(4.1 %), Cryptophytes (3.8%), Hemicryptophytes (0.33%) Hydrophytes (1.15%), Halophytes

(0.5%) and Epiphytes (0.33%). It was observed that the epiphytic life form showed

comparatively lower percentage (0.46), whereas phanerophytic life form has high percentage

(50.2) (Fig. 6) of distribution.

Analysis of species composition in Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Analysis of similarity in species composition of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries using

Jaccard similarity index revealed that the index varies from 0 - 0.43 and the vegetation in

Thuthapuzha-Kunthipuzha and Kanjirapuzha-Nellipuzha exhibit greater similarity in their

floristic composition (0.43) and Thuppanadupuzha-Kanjirapuzha combination showed lowest

similarity index (0.29) (Table 8). The hierarchical clustering of the data produces the

dendrogram which shows that there were two distinct groups (Fig.7). Thuthapuzha and

Kunthipuzha fall under the first category and having very similar species composition. The

second group comprised of Kanjirapuzha and Nellipuzha which also showed similar species

composition among these rivulets. However Thuppanadupuzha is distinct than the rest of the

tributaries having unique species composition and did not form any cluster with other

tributaries.

66

Table.8. Jaccard similarity value index between Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Thuthapuzha Thuppanadu-

Puzha

Kanjira-

Puzha

Nelli-

puzha

Kunthi-

puzha

Thuthapuzha 0.35 0.41 0.34 0.43

Thuppanadupuzha 0.29 0.31 0.30

Kanjirapuzha 0.43 0.34

Nellipuzha 0.31

Kunthipuzha

Fig.7. Similarity in species composition between Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

67

Thuppanadupuzha sub-basin

Thuppanadupuzha, one of the major tributary of Thuthapuzha originates from

Kalladikkode hills, along the northern lip of Palghat gap of Southern Western Ghats (Fig. 8).

Intensive seasonal floristic explorations and collections were carried out in riparian zones of

Thuppanadupuzha during the period of December 2015 and May 2018. Instead of reviewing

the whole stretch of Thuppanadupuzha, 12 sample plots were selected along the riparian

zones, from Meenvallam to Kootilakkadavu.

Floristic analysis of riparian system of Thuppanadupuzha sub-basin

Enumeration of the vascular plant diversity of Thuppanadupuzha brings out 260

flowering plants belonging to 202 genera under 70 families of which, 10 are Magnoliids, 43

are Monocots and 207 are Eudicots (Annexure 9). The data also recorded, 25 pteridophytes

belonging to 14 genera under 11 families and one gymnosperm within 25 km of the river sub-

basin. The present study recorded the dominance of Euphorbiaceae (19 species) followed by

Fabaceae (18 species), Asteraceae (17species), Rubiaceae (17 species), Acanthaceae (16

species), Malvaceae (12 species) and Poaceae (10 species) from Thuppanadupuzha sub-basin.

Fern flora of the riparian system of Thuppanadupuzha showed the dominance of Pteridaceae

(7 species) followed by Adiantaceae (3 species) and Dryopteridaceae (3 species). The

vegetation profile of flowering plants of Thuppanadupuzha includes 110 herbs, 50 shrubs, 36

climbers and 64 trees.

The results showed the dominance of seven typical riparian taxa such as Homonoia

riparia Lour., Mallotus nudiflorus (L.) Kulju & Welzen, Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) H. J.

Lam, Persicaria barbata (L.) H. Hara, Rotula aquatica Lour., Crateva religiosa G.Forst. and

Pandanus furcatus Roxb. all along the river stretch of Thuppanadupuzha from upper river

sub-basin to lower levels.

Critical analysis of riparian vegetation of Thuppanadupuzha reports a total of 31

endemic species in 14 families forming nearly 12% of the total riparian flora (Table 9).

Among these species 11 are endemic to Western Ghats, 10 species collected from the study

area are endemic to Southern Western Ghats, seven are endemic to Peninsular India and three

species endemic to India.

68

Table. 9. Endemic taxa in the riparian vegetation of Thuppanadupuzha sub-basin

Sl.

No Name of the species Family Endemic to

1 Sageraea laurina Dalzell Annonaceae Western Ghats

2 Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.)

J.Presl Lauraceae Southern W. Ghats

3 Litsea coriacea Hook.f. Lauraceae Peninsular India

4 Lagenandra meeboldii (Engl.)

C.E.C.Fisch Araceae Western Ghats

5 Smilax wightii A.DC Smilacaceae Southern W. Ghats

6 Arenga wightii Griff. Arecaceae Western Ghats

7 Dictyospermum montanum Wight Commelinaceae Peninsular India

8 Globba sessiliflora Sims Zingiberaceae India

9 Ochlandra travancorica (Bedd.)

Gamble Poaceae Southern W. Ghats

10 Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight Polygalaceae Western Ghats

11 Ficus dalhousiae Miq. Moraceae Southern W. Ghats

12 Begonia crenata Dryand. Begoniaceae Western Ghats

13 Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight)

Müll.Arg Euphorbiaceae Peninsular India

14 Nothopegia travancorica Bedd. ex

Hook.f. Anacardiaceae

Southern Western

Ghats

15 Vateria indica L. Dipterocarpaceae Western Ghats

16 Impatiens scapiflora B.Heyne ex Roxb. Balsaminaceae Western Ghats

17 Impatiens gardneriana Wight Balsaminaceae Southern W. Ghats

18 Argostemma courtallense Arn. Rubiaceae India

19 Ixora elongata B. Heyne ex G.Don Rubiaceae India

20 Ixora lanceolaria Colebr. Rubiaceae Southern W. Ghats

21 Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. Rubiaceae Southern W. Ghats

22 Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae Peninsular India

23 Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex

G.Don) Ridsdale Rubiaceae Southern W. Ghats

24 Olea dioica Roxb. Oleaceae India

25 Epithema carnosum Benth. Gesneriaceae Western Ghats

26 Torenia bicolor Dalzell Linderniaceae Western Ghats

27 Barleria caurtallica Nees Acanthaceae Western Ghats

28 Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees Acanthaceae India

29 Gymnostachyum latifolium T.Anderson Acanthaceae Western Ghats

30 Strobilanthes lupulinus Nees Acanthaceae Peninsular India

31 Spilanthes vazhachalensis Sheela Asteraceae Southern W. Ghats

69

The species composition of Thuppanadupuzha showed that 18% of the plant taxa

belongs to IUCN threatened category (2019 - 1). Out of the 260 taxa collected 44 species

falls under various categories of IUCN. Among these, one species; Vateria indica L.

represented the Critically Endangered category, Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. belongs to the

Near Threatened category, 5 species; Arenga wightii Griff., Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gagnep.,

Santalum album L., Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb., Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.

Don) Ridsd. belongs to Vulnerable, 39 represented the Least concern category and the

remaining taxa falls under Not Evaluated category.

Kanjirapuzha sub-basin

Kanjirapuzha is one of the major rivulets of Thuthapuzha, which is the main tributary

of Bharathapuzha (Fig. 9). The Kanjirapuzha sub-basin is located between 10°57' and 11°00'

North latitude and 76°26' and 76°32' East longitude. The river draining has a length of 32km

with an area of 117 km2. A masonry earth dam, Kanjirapuzha dam is located in this river and

it has a catchment area of 7,000 hectares, which lies entirely within the state boundary. It is

built for providing irrigation to a Cultural Command Area (CCA) of 9,713 hectares of

Palakkad district, Kerala. Exhaustive floristic explorations and collections were carried out

from February 2017 to July 2018 in the riverine belts of this dam fed river. For effective

vegetation analysis, nine different sample plots were selected on a 32km stretch of

Kanjirapuzha sub-basin.These sample plots were selected based on factors such as proximity

to the river, accessibility, vegetation density and disturbance gradients.

Floristic analysis of riparian system of Kanjirapuzha sub-basin

Analysis of the riparian flora of Kanjirapuzha sub-basin revealed the presence of 196

angiosperms belonging to 153 genera under 62 families (Annexure 10). Of the taxa recorded,

one belongs to Magnoliids, 38 to Monocots and 157 were Eudicots. The pteridophytic taxa

include 8 species belonging to 7 genera under 5 families.

The present study recorded the dominance of Fabaceae (14 taxa) followed by

Euphorbiaceae (13), Asteraceae (13), Poaceae (12), and Cyperaceae (11). A total of 29 out of

62 families are represented by one genus each and 25 with one species each. Of the total

species 57% composed of herbs (112 species), 16 % trees (31 species), 15% shrubs and 12%

climbers (24 species)

70

Systematic assessment of riparian flora of Kanjirapuzha showed the presence of 10

typical riparian elements. The riparian trees which are common along the banks of

Kanjirapuzha are Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn., Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.,

Crateva religiosa G. Forst., Mallotus nudiflorus (L.) Kulju & Welzen and Ochreinauclea

missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) Ridsdale. The under growth and the out skirts of these floristic

system consist mainly of shrubs like Ficus heterophylla L. f. and Phyllanthus reticulatus

Poir. The marshy margins of the riparian system bear herbaceous plants like Fimbristylis

argentea (Rottb.) Vahl., Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani. and Persicaria barbata

(L.) H. Hara.

The numbers of endemic taxa are comparatively less and those present are distributed

all along the riparian zone of Kanjirapuzha. Of the floristic elements recorded, only 4% of

the taxa are endemic. The following table summarizes the details of endemic taxa recorded

from the study site (Table 10). Of these 3 species are endemic to Southern Western Ghats, 3

are endemic to Peninsular India, 1 endemic to South West India and 1 species endemic to

India. Critical analysis of the flora was done with respect to the IUCN categorization of

threatened plants. The result shows that 29 species represented the Least concern category

and one species, Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) Ridsdale falls under vulnerable

category. The remaining taxa belong to Not Evaluated category.

Table.10. Endemic taxa recorded from Kanjirapuzha sub-basin

Sl.

No.

Plant name Family Endemism

1 Dioscorea alata L. Dioscoreaceae Southern western Ghats

2 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. Meliaceae Peninsular India

3 Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae Peninsular India

4 Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.

Don) Ridsdale

Rubiaceae Southern W. Ghats

5 Heliotropium rottleri Lehm. Boraginaceae Peninsular India

6 Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Verdc. Convolvulaceae South West India

7 Lindernia tamilnadensis Prasad M.G Linderniaceae Southern W. Ghats

8 Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.)

Nees

Acanthaceae India

71

Nellipuzha sub- basin

Nellipuzha is the smallest tributary of Thuthapuzha and it extends to a length of 25km

with a total area of 75km2 spread over Kanjirapuzha, Thenkara, Mannarkkad and

Karimpuzha panchayats of Palakkad district (Fig. 10). At Mothikkal, Kanjirapuzha and

Nellipuzha merge together and flow as Changaleeripuzha until it empties in to Thuthapuzha

at Changaleeri. Inorder to analyze the vegetation of Nellipuzha 10 sample plots were selected

along the riparian zone from Poonchola to Changaleeri

Floristic analysis of riparian system of Nellipuzha sub-basin

Enumeration of the vascular plant diversity of Nellipuzha brings out 138 flowering

plants belonging to 116 genera under 52 families, of which, one belongs to Magnoliid, 24 to

Monocots and 113 were Eudicots (Annexure 11). The data also recorded, 8 pteridophytes

belonging to 8 genera under 7 families and one gymnosperm within 25km stretch of the river

basin. Asteraceae with 15 species in 13 genera is the largest family followed by Poaceae with

eight species in seven genera and Malvaceae with eight species in eight genera. Acanthaceae

and Lamiaceae represent the third largest family with seven species followed by Fabaceae

and Amaranthaceae with six species from Nellipuzha basin. The vegetation profile of

flowering plants of Nellipuzha includes 78 herbs, 23 shrubs, 15 climbers and 22 trees.

The important riparian plant families distributed frequently along the riparian zones of

Nellipuzha sub-basin are Urticaceae, Pandanaceae, Clusiaceae, Myristicaceae, Cyperaceae,

Poaceae, Rhizophoraceae, Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Araceae, Moraceae and Rubiaceae.

Among the represented taxa, the important riparian elements are Homonoia riparia,

Pandanus furcatus, Ficus heterophylla, Persicaria barbata, Persicaria glabra and Mallotus

nudiflora. Nymphoides hydrophila, Eichhornia crassipes and Ludwigia adscendens were the

aquatic species documented from the riparian system of Nellipuzha.

Endemism indicates the importance and uniqueness of the flora of a region or area.

The studies on endemism provide an insight into the centres of diversity and highlight the

indigenous nature of its biological diversity and it also provides important clues to the pattern

of taxa distribution and the process of speciation. Floristic analysis of Nellipuzha showed that

only 4 taxa are endemic to various geographical boundaries of India. The following table 17

summarizes the details of endemic taxa recorded from the study site (Table 11).

72

Table. 11. Endemic taxa recorded from Nellipuzha sub-basin

Sl.

No Name of species Family Endemism

1 Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae Peninsular India

2 Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Verdc. Convolvulaceae South West India

3 Heliotropium keralense Sivar. &

Manilal Boraginaceae

Southern Western

Ghats

4 Spilanthes vazhachalensis Sheela Asteraceae Southern Western

Ghats

Kunthipuzha sub-basin

Kunthipuzha is the major tributary of Thuthapuzha, originating from the upper slopes

of the eastern side of Silent valley hills and it covers a total length of 44 km (Fig.11).

Kunthipuzha is one of the less torrential rivers of the Western Ghats because of the high

capacity conservation efforts initiated by the National Park authority, but it is being subjected

to large scale destruction in the Mannarkkad region. Kunthipuzha merges to Thuthapuzha at

Karimpuzha Panchayath of Palakkad district. Most part of the river Kunthi flows through the

protected areas of Silent valley National park and hence the documentation of riverine

vegetation of this tributary has been restricted to those areas which are nearer to Thuthapuzha

extending upto Virgin valley, which is in the outskirts of the national park. Inorder to review

the vegetation of Kunthipuzha, eight sample plots were selected along the riparian zone from

Virgin valley to Karimpuzha

Floristic analysis of riparian system of Kunthipuzha sub-basin

Analysis of the riparian flora of Kunthipuzha sub-basin revealed the presence of 270

angiosperms belonging to 206 genera under 74 families (Annexure 12). Of the taxa recorded,

three belongs to Magnoliids, 52 to Monocots and 215 were Eudicots. The study also recorded

fifteen Pteridophytes belonging to 12 genera under 9 families. The present study recorded the

dominance of Fabaceae (25 members) followed by Rubiaceae (22), Asteraceae (18),

Euphorbiaceae (17) and Poaceae (16) from Kunthipuzha sub-basin. The vegetation profile of

flowering plants of Kunthipuzha includes 118 herbs, 45 shrubs, 42 climbers and 65 trees.

73

The analysis revealed that 93 plant species from 42 families were found to occur

frequently along the riparian zones of Kunthipuzha. The important riparian plant families

found along the riparian zones of Kunthipuzha are Lecythidaceae, Capparaceae, Urticaceae,

Pandanaceae, Leeaceae, Clusiaceae, Cyperaceae, Poaceae, Acanthaceae, Annonaceae,

Achariaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Araceae, Moraceae, Zingiberaceae, Melastomataceae,

Rubiaceae, Ulmaceae, Polygonaceae, Onagraceae, Balsaminaceae and Lythraceae. Among

the representing species, the important riparian plants are Homonoia riparia Lour., Mallotus

nudiflorus (L.) Kulju & Welzen, Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) H. J. Lam., Persicaria barbata

(L.) H. Hara., Rotula aquatica Lour., Crateva religiosa G.Forst. and Pandanus furcatus

Roxb.

Among the representing species 11% (31 species) are endemic to various

geographical boundaries of India with a maximum share of southern Western Ghats followed

by Peninsular India (Table 12). Out of the 31 endemic species recorded from the study area,

13 of them are endemic to Southern Western Ghats, nine endemic to Peninsular India, five

endemic to Western Ghats, three endemic to India and one species endemic to South and

North East India. Rubiaceae (8 species)) ranks first in having maximum number of endemic

taxa.

In the present study, when the species were subjected to analysis of their rarity and

threats based on IUCN (2019-1) categorization of threatened taxa, out of the 270 species

collected from the riparian system of Kunthipuzha 67 are coming under different categories.

Among these species, Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gagnep., Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.,

Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.) Oken., Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr., Ixora

malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. and Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) Ridsdale

represented the vulnerable category, Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston. and Hopea ponga

(Dennst.) Mabb. represented the endangered category and Aporosa fusiformis Thwaites. is

included in the critically endangered category. Of the taxa recorded fifty seven species falls

under least concern category, two species under Data Deficient and remaining taxa belongs to

the Not Evaluated category of IUCN.

74

Table. 12. Endemic taxa recorded from Kunthipuzha sub-basin

Sl.

No. Plant name Family Endemism

1 Cryptocoryne retrospiralis (Roxb.) Kunth Araceae South and North

East India

2 Dioscorea alata L. Dioscoreaceae India

3 Dioscorea kalkapershadii Prain & Burkill Dioscoreaceae Southern W.Ghats

4 Smilax wightii A. DC Smilacaceae Southern W.Ghats

5 Dictyospermum montanum Wight Commelinaceae Peninsular India

6 Curcuma amada Roxb Zingiberaceae India

7 Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabb. Fabaceae

(Papilionoideae) Southern W.Ghats

8 Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. Moraceae Southern W.Ghats

9 Ficus beddomei King Fabaceae Western Ghats

10 Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) Roxb.

ex K.Schum. Bignoniaceae Peninsular India

11 Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.)

Oken Achariaceae Western Ghats

12 Terminalia paniculata Roth. Combretaceae Peninsular India

13 Memecylon depressum Benth. Melastomataceae Southern W.Ghats

14 Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. Anacardiaceae Southern W.Ghats

15 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. Meliaceae Peninsular India

16 Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. Dipterocarpaceae Southern W.Ghats

17 Impatiens gardneriana Wight Balsaminaceae Southern W.Ghats

18 Canthium rheedei DC Rubiaceae Peninsular India

19 Canthium travancoricum Bedd Rubiaceae Southern W.Ghats

20 Ixora brachiata Roxb. Rubiaceae Western Ghats

21 Ixora lanceolaria Colebr. Rubiaceae Southern W.Ghats

22 Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. Rubiaceae Southern W.Ghats

23 Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae Peninsular India

24 Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.Don)

Ridsdale Rubiaceae Southern W.Ghats

25 Spermacoce hispida L. Rubiaceae Peninsular India

26 Heliotropium keralense Sivar. & Manilal. Boraginaceae Southern W.Ghats

27 Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.)

P.S.Green Oleaceae Peninsular India

28 Olea dioica Roxb. Oleaceae India

29 Lindernia oppositifolia (L.) Mukerjee Linderniaceae Peninsular India

30 Torenia bicolor Dalzell Linderniaceae Western Ghats

31 Barleria prattensis Santapau Acanthaceae Western Ghats

75

Inter-specific and intra-specific diversity in riparian elements of

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Inter-specific diversity in riparian elements

Interspecific diversity is brought about by the incidence of different species of the

same genera in the vegetation. In the present investigation, it was found that, there occurs the

diversity of different plant species under a single genus. Interspecific diversity is a common

phenomenon in the study location, with the simultaneous occurrence of more than one

species of the same genera in the same locality and much diversity has been found in eight

different genera from seven different families. This diversity is summarized below;

Cyperus L.

Cyperus is a genus belonging to the family Cyperaceae, under monocotyledons. In

Kerala, about 54 species of Cyperus were reported from different locations (Sasidharan,

2011) and in the present study 15 species of Cyperus could be collected from different

locations of riparian system along Thutha and its tributaries. Out of the 15 species, Cyperus

digitatus Roxb., Cyperus haspan L., Cyperus javanicus Houtt., Cyperus platystylis R. Br.,

Cyperus rotundus L. and Cyperus tenuispica Steud. were considered as weeds affecting

agricultural areas.

Ficus L.

Ficus, commonly known as ‘fig’ is a genus belonging to the family Moraceae. In

India 92 species have been reported (Chaudhary et al., 2012) of which 35 were reported from

Kerala (Sasidharan, 2011). Riparian vegetation of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries recorded 13

different species of Ficus and most of them are found in moist areas along the river banks.

Out of the 13 species, Ficus beddomei King and Ficus dalhousiae Miq. are endemic to

Western Ghats. Among the recorded taxa, Ficus heterophylla L. f. is the typical riparian

element commonly found along the riparian system of Thutha and its tributaries.

Ipomoea L.

It is the largest genus coming under the family Convolvulaceae. In India the genus is

represented by 60 species (Shimpale et al., 2012) of which 34 species reported from different

locations of Kerala (Sasidharan, 2011). It mainly consists of climbers with beautiful flowers.

They show considerable variation in their leaf structure, especially in their lobe pattern. Color

pattern of corolla also vary among members. In the current study, 11 species of Ipomoea

could be documented. Among the species, Ipomoea carnea Jacq. is the only species

76

frequently occur along the riparian system of Thutha and its tributaries from upstream to

downstream.

Lindernia All.

A total of 22 species of Lindernia has been reported from India, of which 18 species

were reported from different locations of Kerala (Narayanan et al., 2012). Members of

Linderniaceae are small herbaceous plants. They are usually found along the riverbanks and

other moist and swampy areas. From the study, nine different species of Lindernia could be

documented. Most interesting observation was that, out of nine species, seven species could

be located from a single site, Mothikkal, the area where Kanjirapuzha and Nellipuzha merge

together. These species differ in their leaf character, growth pattern, size of capsule, color

pattern of corolla, calyx lobes, number of stamens, presence of staminodes, presence of

staminal appendages and hairiness in corolla and other parts.

Dioscorea L.

Dioscorea L. is a genus in the family Dioscoreaceae under the order Dioscoreales.

They are tuberous herbaceous perennial climbers with a hard rhizome and tuberous roots.

Dioscorea is a genus of great economic value, including important food plants. In Kerala

about 16 species were reported from different locations (Sasidharan, 2011) and in the 193

present study seven species of Dioscorea could be collected from the riparian system of

Thutha and its tributaries. Out of the seven species, six species could be located from the

highlands of Kunthipuzha. They show considerable variation in their growth habit, leaf

structure and other morphological characters. Among the collected species, Dioscorea alata

L. and Dioscorea kalkapershadii Prain & Burkill show endemism to Southern Western Ghats.

Fimbristylis Vahl.

Fimbristylis Vahl. is the fourth largest genus in the family Cyperaceae under

monocotyledons. In India Fimbristylis is represented by 122 species of which about 54

species were reported from Kerala (Viji and Preetha, 2018). Six species of Fimbristylis could

be collected from different locations of the study area and all of them are typical wetland

elements. These are typical sedges in appearance, with stiff, ridged stems and cone-shaped

terminal panicles of spikelets.

Ixora L.

Ixora L. is the third largest genus of family Rubiaceae. In India it is represented by 46

species of which 22 species were reported from Kerala (Balan and Shanmugam, 2016).

Floristic survey of riparian system of Thutha and its tributaries revealed that six species of

77

Ixora were found distributed in different locations of the study area. Among the collected

species, Ixora brachiata Roxb., Ixora elongata B. Heyne ex G. Don., Ixora lanceolaria Colebr.

and Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. show endemism to Western Ghats and Southern

Western Ghats. According to IUCN (2019-1) Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. is included

under vulnerable category.

Intraspecific diversity in riparian elements

When variations occur within the members in different populations of a species, it is

treated as intraspecific variations. The frequency of occurrence of intraspecific variation is

less than that of inter-specific variations. This variation may eventually be lead to the

emergence of new variety or even a new species. This happen mainly due to the ecological

variations and adaptations. In the study intraspecific variations are very less and recorded

only in five species.

Intraspecific diversity in Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D. Don ex Sweet

Three different accessions of Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D. Don ex Sweet collected from

Thiruvegappura (Coll. No. 563), Vellinezhi (Coll. No. 1506) and Masaparambu (Coll. No.

2272) showed considerable variation in morphological characters such as 194 flower colour

from typical specimens (Plate 62: Fig. a-c). Usually C. axillaris is a decumbent herb and it

produces roots at nodes. Inflorescence is enclosed within the leaf sheath. Flower has a blue to

bluish purple corolla, 6 stamens and pink filaments with purple pilose hairs. Typical

specimen matches with those collected from Vellinezhi, but plant specimens collected from

Thiruvegappura showed differences in flower colour. The flower has white corolla and blue

filaments which are densely bearded with purple hairs. Another accession of C. axillaris from

Masaparambu produces flowers with pink corolla and pink filaments with purple pilose hairs.

Intraspecific diversity in Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell.

Variable accessions of Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell. were collected from

Kanjirapuzha dam site (Coll. No.528) and Vellinezhi (Coll.No.834). Plant specimen

collected from Vellinezhi showed differences in flower colour from typical specimens

collected from Kanjirapuzha dam which has flowers with pink petals. But plant specimen

collected from Vellinezhi has flowers with red petals. Other morphological characters are

same as the type specimens (Plate 63: Fig. a - b).

Intraspecific diversity in Chassalia curviflora (Wall.) Thwaites

Taxa with variable traits of Chassalia curviflora (Wall.) Thwaites were collected from

Muriyankanni (Coll. No. 1979) and Pulamanthole (Coll.No.2352) and specimens from

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Pulamanthole showed considerable variation in flower colour from typical species, where

flower colour is white with yellow corolline mouth. Typical species of Chassalia curviflora

(Wall.) Thwaites collected from Muriyankanni produces flowers having purple corolla tube

with yellowish mouth (Plate 63: Fig. c-d).

Intraspecific diversity in Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell.

Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell. collected from Mothikkal (Coll. No. 1412) and

Unnammedu (Coll.No.546) showed considerable variation in morphological characters. Plant

specimens collected from Mothikkal showed gregarious growth when compared to the other

one and it has comparatively larger plant parts, such as long internodes, larger leaves, larger

and brighter flowers. The most interesting feature is the occurrence of reddish brown colour

in the stem and a creeping growth habit. But the other specimen, produces smaller plant parts

and the plant as a whole is very small. This variation could be due to their habitat preferences

and plants from Mothikkal is seen growing in marshy and swampy areas along the river

margin, but taxa from Unnammedu is grown in a comparatively drier area (Plate 64: Fig. a-

b).

Intraspecific diversity in Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Alston.

Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Alston. accessions were collected from Mothikkal (Coll.

No. 685), Unnammedu (Coll. No. 558) and Varmankode (Coll. No. 038) and specimens from

Mothikkal showed considerable variation in morphological characters from the typical

specimens from other two locations (Plate 64: Fig. c - d). Typically, L. rotundifolia is an erect

herb and it produces bright green coloured leaves in all parts and roots only at lower nodes.

Flower is bright white with blue notches and also has comparatively larger leaves. But

accession collected from Mothikkal, produces reddish brown leaves towards the base and has

creeping growth pattern producing roots from several nodes. In bud condition its floral parts

have a pale yellow colour. Its leaves have comparatively smaller size than the rest of the

specimens. This variation may be due to ecological parameters, affected by the two rivers as

the nutrient and chemical contents of marshy soil is different from other areas.

79

Floristic additions and extended distribution of taxa from the riverine

flora of Thuthapuzha and tributaries

Additions to Flora of Palghat District (Vajravelu, 1990)

Though the flora of Palghat district (Vajravelu, 1990) has been enumerated during

early 90‘s, the riparian systems of the district has not been subjected to comprehensive

floristic analysis. The present study was carried out systematically for accessing the floristic

wealth of the riparian system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries. During the floristic

explorations in the riparian zone, it was observed that many of the taxa were not accounted as

growing in the district as per the district flora. Hence here an analysis was being made to

document the additions to the flora of Palghat district. During the study, 612 species of

flowering plants belonging to 399 genera under 116 families were collected and described.

Floristic assessment of riparian angiosperm vegetation of Thutha and tributaries reveals that

out of the 612 plant taxa, 186 species were found to be new addition to the district flora of

Palakkad and are summarized in Annexure 13. Out of 186 taxa, three were Magnoliids, 55

were Monocots and 128 were Eudicots. Among the 186 species, 18 are endemic to various

geographical boundaries of India.

New distributional records in Palakkad District

The analysis of the vegetation showed that, out of the 612 taxa recorded from the

riparian areas of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries, 55 of them were not accounted as having

distribution in Palakkad district (Sasidharan, 2011). Out of the 55 taxa, 22 are Monocots and

33 Eudicots spread across 27 families (Annexure 14). It includes eight endemic species, of

which six are restricted to Southern Western Ghats and two endemic to Western Ghats. It was

also observed that out of the 55 species, 26 falls under wetland elements.

Floristic additions to flowering plants of Kerala

During the field exploration in May 2017 in the riparian areas of Kanjirapuzha basin,

a small population of Lindernia species was observed and a few specimens were collected

from the existing population. After microscopic observation and critical review of the

available references this species is identified as Lindernia tamilnadensis Prasad. and found to

be new to the flora of Kerala state with its presence at Mothikkal. This taxon has been

recorded at Vijayanarayanam, Tirunelveli district of TamilNadu, India. The species shows

80

similarity with a worldwide distributed species, Lindernia rotundifolia in its leaf and seed

characters but differs mainly in comparatively smaller floral parts, lanceolate calyx lobes, in

the absence of trichomes at the base of the anterior corolla lobes, the presence of staminodal

appendages, undeflexed fruiting pedicels and globose capsules.

Taxonomy

Lindernia tamilnadensis Prasad.

Erect or procumbent tufted herb, rooting from the basal nodes; Stem slender, weak, 4-angled,

glabrous, highly branched from the base, internodes about 2.5 cm long; Leaves sessile, ovate,

base sub-cordate, apex acute or sometimes rounded, margins entire towards the older parts,

2–4 dentate towards the apex, glabrous, basally 3–5 nerved, veins distinct, lamina glandular

punctate; Flowers pedicellate, axillary, solitary, alternately on leaf axils, one per node,

pedicel slender, 4-angled, glandular hairy, fruiting pedicel glabrous, erect; Calyx deeply 5-

lobed, glandular hairy outside, glabrous within, lobes lanceolate, apex acute; Corolla 2-

lipped, white with pale blue blotches on lower lip, corolla tube cylindrical, glabrous, upper lip

slightly emarginated at apex, glabrous, lower lip distinctly 3-lobed, lobes rounded, glabrous;

Androecium with 2 perfect stamens, coherent below the upper lip, filaments glabrous, anthers

2-lobed, lobes ovate, acute; Staminodes 2, linear, glandular hairy throughout, dense yellow

glandular hairs at the base of filaments and corolla tube below, bluish towards apex, hairs 2–

3-celled, a distinct spur presents just 197 below the staminodal apex; Ovary ovate–acute, sub-

globose, glabrous; Style glabrous; Stigma simple, bilobed; Capsule globose, glabrous, shiny,

slightly exceeding the length of persistent calyx; Seeds numerous, minute, bended, golden

yellowish and distinctly 5- ridged.

Flowering and fruiting: October- May.

Habitat: Distributed on the stream margins in marshy areas and often intermingled with

other Linderniaceae members such as L. rotundifolia, L. procumbens, L. antipoda and L.

crustacea.

Specimen examined: India, Kerala: Palakkad District, Kanjirapuzha, 58 m, Mothikkal, 16

May 2017, Jisha & Shanid: 1411 (GVCH); Thuthapuzha, 32m, West Vellinezhi, 14 July

2017, Jisha: 1518 (GVCH) (Plate 65: Fig. a & b).

81

Geospatial characterization and spatial analysis of vegetation in riparian

system in Thuthapuzha sub-basin

In the present study geospatial characterization and spatial analysis of Thuthapuzha

sub-basin has been done using Geographical Information System (GIS). The present chapter

focuses on (1) Terrain mapping of Thuthapuzha sub-basin such as Drainage map, Elevation

range map, Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) and slope map of the study area (2)

Distribution mapping of Endemic and IUCN threatened category plants along the riparian

system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries.

Terrain mapping of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Drainage map

A drainage basin is generally known as the area from which the water flows to form a stream,

lake or river. Drainage basins are divided from each other by watershed. The major drainage

pattern demonstrated by Thuthapuzha and its tributaries is dendritic. A dendritic drainage

pattern is a common form similar to a tree, with many branches (tributaries) joining to form

the main river. Dentritic pattern is the most common drainage pattern and tends to occur on

plane land with homogeneous, non-permeable bedrock. The dendritic pattern of Thutha and

its tributaries point towards the base flow involvement of groundwater. In the lower reaches

of Thuthapuzha the dendritic patterns were replaced by trellis and rectangular drainage

patterns. These kinds of patterns are developed in the areas of weak rock belts (Fig.12).

Elevation range Map

Physiographically Thuthapuzha sub-basin can be classified into four, viz. High range: The

highly rugged hilly tract at north east side of the study area classified into high range ( 700m-

2367m above msl) and the maximum elevation is reported from silent valley reserve forest

(Anginda peak- 2387m).

High land: Hills and valleys from the parts of tributaries of Thuthapuzha classified into

highland (75 m- 700 m above msl)

Midland: The longest river stretch was 63 km Thuthapuzha sub-basin of midland stretch.

Midland topography dominates the area with contour ranging between 75 m to 700 m above

mean sea level. The midland with lateritic hills is characterized by a number of small

watersheds.

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Lowland: The low land of the study area extends from Kudallur to Paruthur and the

elevation ranges from 4 m- 7 m above msl. The Thuthapuzha sub-basin has an area of

1015.08km2 , including 2.60km2 Lowland, 456.93km2 Midland, 409.57km2 Highland and

145.98km2 High range (Fig.13).

Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)

Triangulated irregular network allows the terrain to imitate natural terrain break lines, stream

networks or boundaries between heterogeneous regions. The TIN of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

represent the three dimensional view of drainage networks and highly rocky and undulated

terrain of the river basin. The elevation is highest in Anginda peak of Silent valley and lowest

in Paruthur at Malappuram (Fig.14).

Slope Map

The slope map of the Thuthapuzha sub-basin was prepared from the elevation contours of 30

m interval. In the study area slope varies from 0º to 74º. The entire study area is classified on

the basis of degree of slope into 5 classes (0º-7 o , 7º-14º, 14º-24º, 24º34º and 34º-74º). The

slope value of 0º-7º represent very gentle to moderate slope, 7º -14º represent moderate to

steep slope, 14º-24º represent steep slope and >30º represent very steep slope. In the study

area, majority of the area occupies slope category of 0-7o . The map shows that slope of the

area faces down in a southern direction (Fig.15).

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category taxa

Distribution map of endemic and IUCN threatened category plants along the riparian system

of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries indicated that there was a clustering of endemic and

threatened plants in the highland stretches of Kunthipuzha and Thuppanadupuzha and they

are evenly distributed throughout the riparian system of Thuthapuzha, Nellipuzha and

Kanjirapuzha from upstream to downstream.

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Kunthipuzha sub-

basin

The distribution of endemic and threatened category plant species along the various

sample plots of Kunthipuzha indicated that endemic and threatened plants mainly

concentrated along the highland stretches of the river basin. There are 31 endemic taxa

recorded from the riparian system of Kunthipuzha sub-basin. The map shows that distribution

of endemic plants are restricted to 3 sample plots viz, Virgin valley, Thathengalam and

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Malanchira. The endemic plant distribution intensity showed a decreasing rank from

Highland (17 species) < Midland (13species). It was observed that elevation range critically

influenced the distribution of endemic plants (Fig.16-18). The threatened category species

showed highest distribution in the sample plot of Malanchira (5 species) and Virgin valley (2

species).Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gagnep., Dalbergia latifolia Roxb., Hydnocarpus pentandrus

(Buch.-Ham.) Oken, Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. And Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall.

ex G.Don) Ridsdale were distributed in Malanchira, Aporosa fusiformis Thwaites and

Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr. in Virgin valley and Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. in

Thathengalam (Fig.19).

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category plants along

Thuppanadupuzha sub-basin

Enumeration of vascular plant diversity of Thuppanadupuzha brings out 270

flowering plants belong to 202 genera under 70 families. Systematic inquiry showed that 13%

of the taxa (32 species) are endemic to various geographical boundaries of India. Distribution

pattern shows that more than 75% of the endemic plants are distributed along the riparian

system of Meenvallam followed by Moonnekkar (19%). These two sample plots are

classified under highland area (75m-700m). The elevation patterns in the riparian system of

Thuppanadupuzha showed a positive correlation with endemism, peaking at mid- to high

elevations. However some of the endemic species (Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.Don)

Ridsdale, Mussaenda frondosa L. and Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) 200 Nees in Wall)

have a relatively wide distribution in the riparian system of Thuppanadupuzha (Fig. 20 & 21).

The threat category taxa showed distribution only in the sample plot of Meenavallam (5

species). The endemic and threatened category species showed the same topographical trend

of distribution along the riparian system of Thuppanadupuzha. Arenga wightii Griff., Ixora

malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb., Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) Ridsd., Santalum

album L. and Vateria indica L. were the threatened category species distributed along the

riparian system of Thuppanadupuzha (Fig.22).

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Nellipuzha sub-

basin

Analysis of the riparian flora of Nellipuzha basin revealed the presence of 139

angiosperms belonging to 116 genera under 52 families. The floristic elements of riparian

zone of Nellipuzha showed that 5 taxa are endemic to various geographical boundaries of

84

India. These species are widely distributed throughout the banks of Nellipuzha from upstream

to downstream. Among the representing species, Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.Don)

Ridsdale) is the only species included under threatened category which is distributed all along

the riparian system of Nellipuzha (Fig.23).

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Kanjirapuzha

sub-basin

Analysis of the riparian flora of Kanjirapuzha basin revealed the presence of 196

angiosperms belonging to 153 genera under 62 families. Of the floristic elements recorded,

4.08% (8 species) are endemic. Distribution map of Kanjirapuzha shows that endemic

species are evenly distributed along the riparian system of Kanjirapuzha (Fig.24).

Distribution of Endemic and Threatened category plants along Thuthapuzha sub-

basin

Systematic assessment of vascular plant diversity of Thuthapuzha revealed that 415

flowering plants were recorded from the riparian system of which 23 species are endemic and

6 species falls under IUCN threatened category. Distribution map of endemic and threatened

taxa of Thuthapuzha shows that these species widely distributed all along the riparian system

(Fig. 25).

Land Use pattern of riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Land use refers to man‘s activities and various utilization pattern which are carried on

land. Thuthapuzha and its tributaries traverses through different land use types. Nine distinct

land use activities were identified along the riparian system of the study area 201 (Table 13).

Generally there is a variation in land use activities from upstream to downstream. Highlands

of Kunthipuzha, Nellipuzha and Thuppanadupuzha are dominated by forest vegetation with

little human disturbance and it share only 1% of the total riparian area. The largest land use

class is mixed crops (51%) which are mostly concentrated in the midland and low land

regions. Coconut and rubber plantation share 4% and paddy cultivation on the immediate

banks of the river share 2% of the total riparian area. Other land use classes are banana

cultivation, built up areas and barren lands which share 1% of the area. Continuous patches of

natural vegetation were seen on both banks of Thuthapuzhasub-basin which share 35% of the

area (Fig. 26-28).

85

Table.13. Land use classes within the riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Sl

No

Category Area (km2)

1 Forest 0.117675

2 Mixed Crop 5.808245042

3 Paddy cultivation 0.177456922

4 Banana cultivation 0.03749409

5 Rubber plantation 0.444445679

6 Coconut plantation 0.485230143

7 Barren land 0.11856191

8 Built up 0.144958506

9 Riparian vegetation 4.01

Numerous riparian research and management projects have been widely conducted all

over the world using GIS on riparian attributes such as vegetation, soil characteristics, land

use type etc. Such an understanding of the distribution of the vegetation types, past and

present land use practices will provide useful data in developing conservation programme and

sustainable utilization of biological resources. In this context, the present study to understand

the distribution of vegetation types and land use practices along the riparian system of

Thuthapuzha sub-basin is more appropriate and relevant, as the riverine basins are heavily

affected by flood in recent years.

86

Threats and its consequences in riparian basin of Thuthapuzha and

tributaries

Grazing

Grazing is a common and destructive phenomenon which is a major threat to the

riparian corridor and was recorded throughout the riparian areas of Thuthapuzha and its

tributaries. Grazing by cattle and sheep has contributed substantially to geomorphic

alterations of riparian ecosystems of the study area. Grazing disrupted the natural riparian

vegetation through removal of herbaceous plants, physical damage to plants and changes in

fluvial processes that may eliminate germination sites for woody vegetation. This ultimately

results in lowering of water table level. Due to the reduction of riparian vegetation, bank

drooping may also occur at many sites.

Construction of Dams and Check Dams

There are two large projects within the study area viz. Kanjirapuzha Dam and

Meenvallam hydro-electric project. Kanjirapuzha Dam is located in the upstream of

Kanjirapuzha and it has a catchment area of 7,000 hectares, which lies entirely within the

state boundary. Meenvallam hydroelectric project is implemented in Thuppanadupuzha with

a capacity of 3 MW power by Palakkad district Panchayat. Other constructions are bridges

and check dams. The major problem related with the dam construction is that they disconnect

rivers from their riparian zones and wetlands. By slowing down the movement of water it

prevent the natural downstream movement of sediments to riparian zones, affecting riparian

biodiversity and productivity. Constructing a hydro power project can formalise the

accessibility and use of land and water in the catchment, such as water for consumption,

cultivation, flood mitigation, environment or other uses. Removal of natural vegetation for

the construction of bridges causes direct damage, disturbances, fragmentation or loss of

riparian plants. Construction activities result in the increased sediment loading of streams. In

spite of the positive impacts of check dams, the negative features must not be ignored.

Several check dams were constructed across Thuthapuzha and its tributaries. Check dams of

the study area block the natural flow of water and this lead to the submergence of small

herbaceous vegetation. Moreover, the check dams were found to exert damaging effects to

the riverine beds during the flood 2018 and 2019.

87

Encroachment for agriculture

Encroachment for agriculture was observed throughout the riparian system of

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries and its impact is severe mainly at midlands and lowlands of

the study area. Highlands of Kunthipuzha, Nellipuzha and Thuppanadupuzha are dominated

by forest vegetation with little human disturbances. From the edges of the forest to midland,

the riparian area opens up to a rich upland agricultural area of extensive and intensive

farming characterized by rubber plantations. This lead to the degradation of natural riparian

vegetation and the introduction of some invasive species. Moving downstream, natural

riparian vegetation was replaced by mixed crops. The riparian vegetation of this area is in

poor state characterized by isolated woody vegetation, limited ground cover and disturbed

banks. Clearing of the riparian vegetation has been noticed at many locations. Local people

were operating pump sets directly from the river for the irrigation of their homestead gardens

disrupting the continuity of the remaining vegetation at many locations in the middle and

lower regions.

Sand mining

Sand mining is allowed within some prescribed zones of Thuthapuzha with time

limits and within selective period of the year. However, sand mining is done indiscriminately

and legal allowance is demoralized at many sites. It has become a day and night activity

along the lowlands of the river. As a result, replacement rate of sand in the river basin is

lower than the rate of sand mining. In Thuthapuzha, in addition to the four authorized stations

fixed by the Government for sand quarrying, many unauthorized sand mining stations were

noticed throughout the lower stretches of Thuthapuzha. According to the local people, the

sand mafia has almost taken over the river and the authorities have so far failed to initiate any

action to stop the indiscriminate mining of sand. Sand mining had lead to the river bank

erosion, lowering of the river bed and the water holding capacity, hampering the riparian

ecosystem, intrusion of saline water, drinking water scarcity, increased sedimentation and

damage to bridges. In many locations of Thuthapuzha especially in the lowland areas,

deepening of river bed due to sand quarrying was noticed.

Invasive species

Invasive alien species are one of the major drivers of biodiversity loss. In some

ecosystem especially in riparian ecosystems introduction of invasive species is the major

88

cause of biodiversity decline. In the present study it was observed that invasion by nonnative

plants are an additional stress for natural riparian system, modifying resident plant

communities via competition. Riparian zones of lowland rivers are highly vulnerable to be

invaded by invasive alien plant species due to the convergence of a high propagule pressure,

hospitable abiotic conditions for plant growth and reduced biotic resistance due to natural or

anthropogenic disturbances. In the present study over 38 invasive plant species in 13 families

were recorded from the riparian system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries. Among these

species Mikania micrantha Kunth is frequently occurring along the riparian system of the

study area and it was more widespread and abundant. In the study it was observed that the

native plant diversity of riparian system has decreased and native community composition

has distorted due to the increase of invasive species especially in the riparian system of

Nellipuzha. Nellipuzha share the maximum percentage of exotics when compared to other

tributaries of Thuthapuzha and at the same time Nellipuzha had less species richness than

other rivers.

Timber harvesting and cutting of riparian elements

Removal of riparian vegetation was observed at many locations of Thuthapuzha and

its tributaries. Timber harvesting and the cutting of trees are other major threats to riparian

vegetation of the study area. Local people cut down the riparian vegetation for fire wood,

agriculture and other allied activities and clearing of the zones for economic needs. Harvest

of riparian trees can increase the amount of solar radiation reaching the water surface which

inturn increases the water temperature. Removal of riparian vegetation can also increase land

sliding, slow down the delivery of sediments in to stream and decrease the organic content of

riverside soil.

Tourism

Tourism and recreational activities are the other major threats to the study area. Two

tourist zones are situated within the study areas which are Meenvallam water falls in

Thuppanadupuzha and Kanjirapuzha Dam in Kanjirapuzha. The intrusion of tourists in to the

riparian areas of these rivers can cause damage to the riparian vegetation. The major impact

of tourism development in the riparian zones is pollution. Dumping of plastics, food and

other wastes by tourists leads to pollution of land, air and water in these areas. Another

adverse effect of tourism in this area is the increased flow of tourists in to the 205

89

ecologically sensitive areas resulting in the destruction of threatened category plants

especially in Meenvallam, which is situated within the Kalladikode reserve forest.

Other Activities

In addition to these, there are several other threats including washing of cloths,

washing of vehicles and animals, release of domestic and industrial wastes, intense fishing

etc. has been observed throughout the banks of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries. Another

serious threat faced by the riparian ecosystem of the study area is pollution by endosulfan. In

Palakkad district, 22 children of Kanjirapuzha Panchayath have been found to be living

victims of banned pesticide Endosulfan. The report (The Hindu, 2015) says that Plantation

Corporation of Kerala has sprayed this deadly pesticide in government owned cashew

plantations in Nottamala, Mannarkkad for over a decade. The plantations were situated in

mountainous areas of Mannarkkad and the pesticide drains and get washed down the slopes

during rains into Nellipuzha. More than 25000 people of Kanjirapuzha Panchayath were

dependent on Nellipuzha for various purposes. Three hundred Kilograms of Endosulfan is

still stored in the warehouse of Plantation Corporation in Thathengalam near Kunthipuzha.

The plantation corporation workers and the residents of Thathengalam had raised concern

about the leakage of this deadly pesticide during the rainy season in to Kunthipuzha. All these

activities seriously alter the riparian ecosystem of the study area.

90

Post flood modifications and biodiversity loss in riparian system of

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Post flood modifications in the riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin Due to the

severe flood and landslides of August 2018, almost all dams of Kerala were opened and that

immersed huge stretches of river banks and floodplains of Kerala. It affected more than 15

lakhs people, apart from the extensive damage to forests, wildlife and biodiversity. The

riparian zones of the main rivers of Kerala are one of the zones which are deeply influenced

by the August 2018 flood and landslides. The high intensity flow of water through the rivers

along with river bank drooping and continuous water 206 inundation caused major changes to

the riparian flora.In many sites the whole vegetation is lost either because of bank drooping

or due to immersion. The present study analyses the impact of flood and landslide to the

riparian flora along Thuthapuzha sub-basin.

Physical impact of flood/landslide on the riparian system

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries traverses through different Panchayats with varying

land use types. Before flood nine distinct land use classes were identified along the riparian

system of the study area (Fig.29). The major land use classes of Thuthapuzha subbasin are

mixed crops followed by coconut plantation, rubber plantation and paddy cultivation. The

mixed crops come to more than half of the study area. Continuous patches of natural

vegetation on the banks are restricted to five local bodies of Thuthapuzha. viz. Karimpuzha,

Mannarkkad, Kumaramputhur, Kulukkallur and Aliparampa. Paddy cultivation on the

immediate banks of the river was seen in Nellaya, Elamkulam, Thachanattukara and

Cherpulassery. In order to assess the impact on the riparian system, the study has mapped the

physical impacts of the flood and landslide to the riparian areas. Based on the data received

from the maps and filed observation, the impact of flood/landslide on the riparian system of

Thuthapuzha were analysed. The study recorded the following changes in the riverine beds of

Thuthapuzha sub-basin.

River bank erosion in the riparian system

River bank erosion is the major impact of flood and landslide in the riparian areas of

Thuthapuzha sub-basin (Plate 67: Fig. a-f). Out of the 24 Grama Panchayats through which

the river flows, 15 were affected by bank erosion. Areas severely affected under Thuthapuzha

sub-basin are Mannarkkad, Irimpliyam, Cherpullassery, Aliparambu and Thiruvegappura

91

(Table 14). River bank erosion was classified in to high, medium and low scale based on how

much area was eroded within each Grama Panchayat through which Thuthapuzha flows

(Fig.30-33). The high scale erosion is comparatively less in Thuthapuzha. High scale erosions

were occurred in Mannarkkad and Irumpliyam. Medium scale erosion was seen in

Thiruvegappura, Mannarkkad and Aliparampa. The major local bodies where low erosions

were predominant are Karimpuzha, Cherplassery, Vilayur and Paruthur (Fig.34).

Table 14. Panchayat wise details of river bank erosion in Thuthapuzha sub-basin

No Grama

Panchayat

High Medium Low Total

(km) RB

(m)

LB

(m)

Total

(m)

RB

(m)

LB

(m)

Total

(m)

RB

(m)

LB

(m)

Total

(m)

1 Mannarkkad 1526 1526 4737 4737 0 6.3

2 Thiruvegappura 0 4832 4832 0 4.8

3 Cherplassery 0 2357 2357 2184 2184 4.5

4 Aaliparambu 0 4102 4102 0 4.1

5 Irumpliyam 1036 1036 2331 2331 350 350 3.7

6 Paruthur 0 1808 1808 1681 1681 3.5

7 Karimpuzha 0 0 3369 3369 3.4

8 Vilayur 0 1089 1089 2035 2035 3.1

9 Sreekrishnapuram 0 2850 2850 0 2.9

10 Kulukkallur 0 2314 2314 0 2.3

11 Moorkkanad 0 756 756 1142 1142 1.9

12 Nellaya 0 0 1400 1400 1.4

13 Elamkulam 0 1170 1170 0 1.2

14 Kumaramputhur 366 366 638 638 0 1

15 Pulamanthole 0 640 640 0 0.6

RB-Right Bank; LB- Left Bank.

Sand/Mud deposition in the riparian system

Another major physical impact is sand/mud deposition along the banks. The local

body wise details of sand/mud deposition have occurred in Thuthapuzha sub-basin during

flood/land slide is shown in Table 15. About 32% of the river stretch under thirteen Grama

Panchayts were affected by sand/mud deposition at various scales (Fig.30-33). High scale

deposition of sand and mud were occurred in 3 Panchayats of Thuthapuzha; Kumaramputhur,

Aanakkara and Mannarkkad. Medium scale deposition occured in Thiruvegappura,

Kumaramputhur, Thachanattukara, Aliparampa and Vellinezhi Panchayats of Thuthapuzha.

Low scale deposition has occurred in four local bodies of Thuthapuzha, they are

92

Cherpullassery, Vellinezhi and Vilayur (Fig.35). A new sandy island is formed along the

banks of Kunthipuzha after the flood due to sand deposion. The river changed its course and

resulted in the formation of an area similar to a beach (Plate 68: Fig. a-f).

Table 15. Panchayat wise details of sand/mud deposition in the banks of Thuthapuzha

sub-basin

No Grama Panchayat

High Medium Low

Total

(km)

RB

(m)

LB

(m)

Tota

l(m

)

RB

(m)

LB

(m)

Tota

l(m

)

RB

(m)

LB

(m)

Tota

l(m

)

1 Kumaramputhur

1833

1833

4239

4239

1327

1327

7.4

2 Mannarkkad

415

415

1187

1189

2376

0

2.8

3 Karimpuzha

0

20

18

20

18

56

55

56

55

7.7

4 Thachanattukara

0

39

52

39

52

0

4.0

5 Sreekrishnapuram

0

13

30

13

30

0

1.3

6 Cherpullassery

0

0

22

87

22

87

2.3

7 Aliparambu

0

39

51

39

51

0

4

8 Vellinezhi

0

31

85

31

85

10

40

10

40

4.2

9 Vilayur

0

83

5

83

5

11

69

11

69

2.9

10 Pulamanthole

0

81

1

81

1

40

41

40

41

4.9

11 Elamkulam

0

951

951

574

574

1.5

12 Thiruvegappura

0

8187

8187

0

8.2

13 Aanakkara

1419

1419

0

0

1.4

93

Pebble accumulation and Waste deposition on banks

Along with erosion and sand deposition, the flash flood also deposited stones and

rocks on the banks of the river, especially in highlands of Kunthipuzha. Another major impact

of flood on the riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin is the deposition of inorganic

wastes mainly plastics which caused damages to species and ecosystem (Plate 69: Fig. a-f).

Impact of flood/landslide on riparian vegetation

During the post flood period, it was observed that the plant species occurred in the

riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin has been destructed due to severe flood and

landslides of 2018. The damages to the riparian vegetation occurred manly due to bank

erosion, sand/mud deposition and retention of water in the area for two or three days during

the flood. The floristic analysis after flood revealed that out of the 612 species collected from

the riparian area of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries, 145 species were affected by flood and it

was also found that more than half of the affected species comes under herbaceous elements

followed by shrubs, trees and climbers. Out of 145 taxa, 65 species got damaged partially or

temporarily removed from the location during flood and regenerated soon after the flood in

its original location or in some nearby places. Eighty species growing close to the banks of

Thuthapuzha has uprooted or washed out due to bank erosion (Annexure 15). It includes

Pandanus furcatus Roxb., Caryota urens L., Pongamia pinnata (L.), Trema orientalis (L.),

Ficus hispida L.f., Mallotus nudiflorus (L.) Kulju & Welzen Blume Pierre., Ochreinauclea

missionis (Wall. ex G.Don) Ridsdale etc. In many instances, it was found that, large trees

uprooted in landslide in the up streams of the riverine beddcame down in high velocity was

collided with the trees in downstreams and damaged or uprooted them. Of the 65 plant

species identified as having high conservation value, In the endemic category 12 endemic

taxa got affected and it was also found that 35 out of the 250 medicinal plants were got

damaged during the flood.

Colonization of invasive taxa

After flood 2018, the major observation made in the riverine beds and landslide hit

areas in the state is the colonization of invasive taxa. In the present study also 38 introduced

plant species in 13 families were identified as invasives (Table 16), and were found

colonizing the riverine bedsafter the flood. The dominant families are Fabaceae with nine

species followed by Asteraceae (7 species), Convolvulaceae (5 species) and Amaranthaceae

94

(5 species). As far as the invasive species is concerned, herbs dominated with 16 species

followed by climbers (12 species) shrubs (8 species) and trees (2 species).

The identified invasive species have been classified in to four categories (High risk,

Medium risk, Low risk and Insignificant) based on the probable impact risk assigned to each

taxa. The High Risk category consists of 13 (20 species listed from all over Kerala), Medium

Risk category with 10 (22 species listed from all over Kerala), Low Risk category with 6 (14

species listed from all over Kerala) and Insignificant category with 9 210 taxa (26 species

listed from all over Kerala). Among these, Centrosema molle Benth., Mimosa diplotricha

Sauvalle., Mimosa pudica L., Senna alata (L.) Roxb., Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G.

Nicholson., Ipomoea carnea Jacq., Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L., Chromolaena odorata (L.)

R. M. King& H. Rob., Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. etc. shows fast colonization in the

flood affected areas of Thuthapuzha sub-basin.

Initially there was a positive sign of washing out of such invasive species from the

banks due to severe flood but later it was observed that all these taxa are growing

gregariously in the mud/sand deposited areas and opened tracts of the sub-basin. Hence this

demands special attention in the future action plans for conservation of riparian biodiversity.

There is urgent need of a conservation plan for the sustainability of the river basin, keeping in

view of the recent climatic anomalies and hydrological conditions of the basin.

Suggested mitigation measures

The existing natural vegetation should be preserved and further degradation and

fragmentation should not be allowed.

Clearing of riparian vegetation for agricultural practices should be strictly banned.

Illegal sand mining should be strictly controlled

Maintain atleast 30m width of riparian buffer for the restoration and protection of riparian

zones

Dumping of wastes in the river channel should be strictly controlled and intervention to the

demarcated critical zones restricted.

Quickly growing and soil binding pants like Bamboo, Pandanus, Ochlandra and

Saccharum should be used for stabilization of river banks

95

Table 16. Categorization of invasive species in the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its

tributaries

Sl.

No

Name of the species Family Habit Category

1 Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Poaceae Herb High

2 Mimosa diplotricha Sauvalle Fabaceae Climber High

3 Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. Fabaceae Climber High

4 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae Shrub High

5 Combretum indicum (L.) De Filipps. Combretaceae Climber High

6 Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn. Polygonaceae Climber High

7 Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet Convolvulaceae Climber High

8 Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Convolvulaceae Shrub High

9 Merremia vitifolia (Burm. f.) Hallier f. Convolvulaceae Climber High

10 Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae Shrub High

11 Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&

H.Rob

Asteraceae Shrub High

12 Mikania micrantha Kunth Asteraceae Climber High

13 Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae Herb High

14 Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Poaceae Herb Medium

15 Acacia mangium Willd. Fabaceae Tree Medium

16 Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae Climber Medium

17 Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae Herb Medium

18 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Shrub Medium

19 Ludwigia peruviana (L.) H.Hara Onagraceae Herb Medium

20 Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae Climber Medium

21 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk Convolvulaceae Climber Medium

22 Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae Shrub Medium

23 Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae Shrub Medium

24 Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae Climber Low

25 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit Fabaceae Tree Low

26 Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae Herb Low

27 Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae Herb Low

28 Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Herb Low

29 Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. Asteraceae Herb Low

30 Croton hirtus L'Hér. Euphorbiaceae Herb Insignificant

31 Jatropha gossypiifolia L. Euphorbiaceae Shrub Insignificant

32 Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G.

Nicholson

Amaranthaceae Herb Insignificant

33 Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae Herb Insignificant

34 Ipomoea hederifolia L Convolvulaceae Climber Insignificant

35 Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae Herb Insignificant

36 Ageratum houstonianum Mill. Asteraceae Herb Insignificant

37 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae Herb Insignificant

38 Tridax procumbens (L.) L. Asteraceae Herb Insignificant

96

Discussion

Floristic analysis of an unexplored area brings out the importance of conservation

priorities and management strategies to be implemented to protect the biodiversity of that

region. The present study is the initial step to bring out the inventory of vascular plant

diversity and significance of the riparian vegetation along the riparian system of

Thuthapuzha, one of the major tributary of Bharathapuzha giving emphasis to conservation

measures to protect this ecosystem.

Thematic basis of the research problem

Rivers have been the back bone of human development since time immemorial and

great milestones of human history occurred in the banks of rivers. Human wellbeing and

prosperity rely upon how we oversee and protect the natural resources around us.Water is

generally viewed as the world's most essential natural resources. Protecting the world's

surface water resources requires an analysis of risk over a broad range of scales, from

universal to local. The concept of river health derives from riparian ecosystem health because

it is formed by the interaction between river biota and their hydro-geochemical environment.

The plant communities play a vital role in providing a healthy riparian system. Unfortunately

much of the riparian systems have been degraded or threatened by anthropogenic activities

such as vegetation clearing, grazing, waste disposal and human habitation. In this framework

it is important to analyse the floristic diversity of the riparian system to understand the

dynamics within a landscape for the efficient resource management. The ecological

significance and unique features of riparian systems of Palakkad district of Kerala has not

been addressed even today. In this context, the present study to understand the floristic

composition and ecological significance of the riparian system along Thuthapuzha sub-basin,

one of the major tributary of Bharathapuzha is a pioneer attempt from this part of the state. It

is expected that the floristic analysis of this region will provide conservation measures to be

implemented to protect this fragile ecosystem and it is also expected that the data generated

would provide a guide line for future action plans and mitigation measures.

Analysis of vegetation

The present investigation in the riparian system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries could

record 648 plant taxa distributed among 133 families which include 612 angiosperms, 34

pteridophytes and two gymnosperms. From the data, it is obvious that even though the river

97

basin covers a small area and major part of the river is flowing through midlands with little

altitudinal variation, it is floristically rich in number of taxa, despite no forests with high

population densities.

A comparison of ten most speciose families of the present study with that of the

riparian flora of Chalakkudy, Pamba and Meenachil river is given in Table 17. The analysis

showed that many of these families are well represented in the study area, but the relative

dominance of each family are slightly altered. Fabaceae which take the first position in the

study area, and in the Western Ghats and Kerala this is the second largest family. Poaceae

which forms largest represented family in Kerala, Western Ghats and Chalakkudy river basin

(Arora, 1964; Nayar, 1980, 1984, 1996; Karthikeyan, 1983, 1996; Parthasarathy, 1983;

Ahmedullah & Nayar 1986; Nair & Daniel, 1986; Sreekumar & Nair, 1991; Vajravelu &

Vivekananthan, 1996; Venu, 1998; Bachan, 2010; Sasidharan, 2011.) ranks second in

Thuthapuzha sub-basin and Meenachil rivr (Vincy et al., 2015) and in Pamba (Paul, 2012) it

occupies the third position. Asteraceae, one of the largest angiosperm families in the world

appears in the fourth position in Thuthapuzha compared to their fifth position in Kerala, ninth

position in Chalakkudy river, seventh in Pamba river and fifth in Meenachil river. During the

study, it was recorded that huge number of exotic 214 plants have spread to this area and the

family Asteraceae ranks top, with fifteen alien taxa. Except Orchidaceae, which was least

reported in the presented study, all the other families showed more or less equal distribution,

though the relative ranks are slightly altered with respect to other riparian floras of Kerala.

Table 17. Comparison of dominant families of Thuthapuzha sub basin with other

riparian floras of Kerala

Sl.

No.

Thuthapuzha

(Present study)

Chalakkudy

river

Pamba river Meenachil river

1 Fabaceae Poaceae Rubiaceae Fabaceae

2 Poaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Poaceae

3 Rubiaceae Orchidaceae Poaceae Rubiaceae

4 Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Euphorbiaceae Lamiaceae

5 Asteraceae Acanthaceae Commelinaceae Asteraceae

6 Acanthaceae Rubiaceae Cyperaceae Malvaceae

7 Papilionoideae ( Fabaceae) Moraceae Asteraceae Moraceae

8 Malvaceae Fabaceae Orchidaceae Acanthaceae

9 Convolvulaceae Asteraceae Moraceae Euphorbiaceae

10 Euphorbiaceae Araceae Malvaceae Phyllanthaceae

98

In riparian ecosystems, distribution of riparian vegetation along the river basin is

being determined by physiography, climatic factors and disturbance regime (Paul, 2012).

Riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin encompasses a mixture of riparian, wetland,

deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen components. Among these, evergreen and semi-

evergreen elements are restricted to comparatively less disturbed highlands of Kunthipuzha

and Thuppanadupuzha. The major contribution along Thuthapuzha sub basin is by wetland

elements which share 28% of the total riparian vegetation. Many riparian areas display

wetland characters and should be classified as wetlands.

Although dimensionally small in comparison to other tributaries of Bharathapuzha,

Thuthapuzha gain distinction on account of the heavy load of water and sediment that get

drained annually. Due to the availability of water and rich alluvial soil, riparian system of

Thuthapuzha supports dense growth of trees, shrubs and climbers. Among the collected taxa,

fifteen species were identified as typical riparian elements and it was noticed that they occupy

a specific distribution pattern restricted only along the river banks within 10-30m from the

river bed. Such elements were distributed throughout the riparian system from upstream to

downstream.

Floristic analysis of the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha revealed the presence of 43

sacred grove elements. Sacred groves are islands of vegetation and serve as a repository of

several rare and endemic elements (Shaju, 2010). It is interesting to note that there exist

several sacred groves and temples along the banks of Thuthapuzha and this may be one of the

reasons for representation of such elements in the vegetation.

The riparian system of Thutha harbors rich diversity of medicinal plants (250 species)

that contribute 41% of the total riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and higher diversity of

medicinal plants along the riparian system may be due to the topography of the area with

diverse land use. Despite gradual socio-cultural transformation, local people still possess

substantial knowledge of plants and many depend still on folk medicines for health care along

with traditional belief.

Man needs a reservoir of wild species in order to prevent genetic erosion of his

cultivated crops (Sunil, 2000). Riparian system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries harbors a

wide range of germplasm that constitute wild relatives of cultivated plants also. Nineteen

species of wild relatives of crop plants were identified from the study area. They form an

important source of useful traits such as agronomic, quality, biotic and abiotic stresses, and

are identified as significant elements for food security and environmental sustainability in the

21st century (Scholten, et al., 2005).

99

Endemic species in a region indicates the biogeography of the area, adaptive

evolution and centre of speciation. Nayar (1996) identified three centers of endemism in

Kerala; Agastyamala, Anamalai high ranges and Silent valley-Wayanad. The study area falls

under the Silent valley- Wayanad centre of endemism and the study reports a total of 60

endemics in 31 families. The highlands of Kunthipuzha and Thuppanadupuzha abode most of

the species belonging to the endemic and threatened category plants. The distribution pattern

of endemic taxa shows that 45 of them are concentrated in the highlands of Kunthipuzha (16

species) and Thuppanadupuzha (29 species) and the others showed a scattered distribution

throughout the riparian areas of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries. An analysis with respect to

the occurrence of endemic as well as threatened species shows that the highlands of

Kunthipuzha and Thuppanadupuzha are crucial areas for conservation of endemic and

threatened taxa distributed in this part of the sub-basin.

Phytogeographical affinities of riparian flora showed that in addition to Indo-Pacific

elements, the riparian flora also showed species which share similarities with African and

South American floristic kingdoms and this may be due to the past cretaceous shield of the

Gondwana kingdom. The present study also revealed that out of the 612 collected taxa, 18%

are exotics and more than half of these plants are from South American and African

kingdoms. Khuroo, et al., (2012) presented probable reasons for higher proportion of such

elements as may be due to the elevated propagule pressure from different countries, such as

Brazil and Mexico, to India via historical trade routes through the human agency of European

colonizers and traders, and can also be due to similarities in tropical climate and higher

ecological amplitude of the shared taxa. The high percentage of alien plants observed in

floodplains, as compared to neighbouring uplands, demonstrate the vulnerability of riparian

zones to invasion (De Ferrari and Naiman, 1994; Pysek and Pranch, 1994).

Mapping of terrain, vegetation and land use of the riparian system of Thuthapuzha

and its tributaries using GIS undertaken in the present investigation is a pioneer attempt in

this dimension. Distribution map of endemic and threatened plants of Thuthapuzha and its

tributaries showed more or less same topographic trend of distribution. Majority of the

endemics and threatened plants were clustered on the highland stretches of the river basin. It

was noted that there was an increase in the number of endemics with a shorter dry season and

higher altitude (Ramesh and Pascal, 1997; Das et al., 2006). The land use map revealed the

degradation of the study area and decline in the natural riparian vegetation due to

encroachment for agriculture.

100

Diversity has a key role in the dynamics and resilience of communities and both

interspecific and intraspecific diversity can have important effects on community structure

and function (Lee, et al., 2015). The analysis of interspecific diversity revealed the diversity

of genus Cyperus L. with 15 species and most of the species were recorded from

Thuthapuzha sub-basin. Cyperus L. is found in different habitats but mostly in lowlands,

marshy and wet areas (Singh, 1999). Margins of rivers, streams, pools and marshy fields

which remain water saturated for most part of the year provided ideal habitat for such species

and hence the diversity. Similarly, the genus Ficus L. was represented by 13 species along the

riparian system. Among these, Ficus heterophylla L. f. represent the typical riparian element

and the remaining taxa falls under evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous elements. Many

species of Ficus L. are very common in different biogeographic regions, although the great

majority of the species grow in lowlands (Chaudhary, et al., 2012).

While evaluating the intraspecific variation among the species, it was found that five

taxa showed considerable variations either in flower colour or vegetative traits. Flowering

plants display remarkable differences in flower colour across taxa and even within species

(Gigord et al., 2001; Rausher, 2008; Hopkins and Rausher, 2012; Koski and Ashman, 2016).

Abiotic factors such as temperature, drought stress, and exposure to ultraviolet radiation

influence flower colour variation, and individuals with pigmented flowers can have a fitness

advantage under heat and drought stress (Warren and Mackenzie, 2001; Coberly and

Rausher, 2003;Schemske and Bierzychudek, 2007; Arista et al., 2013). Moreover, plants

growing in contrasting habitats show considerable morphological variations and that may be

due either to phenotypic plasticity or evolved polymorphism (Idestam-Almquist and Kautsky,

1995; Strand and Weisner, 2001; Boeger & Poulson, 2003). This may be the possible reasons

for intraspecific variations expressed by taxa like Lindernia crustacea (L.) F.Muell., Lindernia

rotundifolia (L.) Alston., Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D. Don ex Sweet., Hybanthus enneaspermus

(L.) F. Muell. and Chassalia curviflora (Wall.) Thwaites.

The present study could record 116 taxa with significant conservation values based on

parameters set by IUCN threatened categories and endemism (Fig.39). Assessment of such

species revealed that Kunthipuzha is having the highest number of indigenous plants with

significant conservation values followed by Thuppanadupuzha, Thuthapuzha, Kanjirapuzha

and least in Nellipuzha with four taxa.

Percentage occurrence of alien species in the riparian system of Thuthapuzha basin

ranges to 25%, Thuppanadupuzha to 21%, Kanjirapuzha to 28% and Nellipuzha to 43%

respectively (Fig.39). Nellipuzha share the maximum percentage of exotics when compared

101

to other tributaries. The study have demonstrated the floristic differences between

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries and also showed that, Nellipuzha basin generally had less

species richness than others. One major reason behind the reduction in the floristic wealth

along the riparian zones of Nellipuzha is the anthropogenic interferences and this disturbance

is thought to facilitate successful invasions by exotic species also. Anthropogenic

disturbances increase the chances of introduction of exotic species to riparian zones, and

natural disturbances may facilitate their spread throughout the drainage network (Pollock et

al., 1998; Gregory et al., 1991; Pysek and Prach, 1994; Henderson and Wells, 1986).

Compared to other rivers, Nellipuzha is highly disturbed and direct impacts of grazing,

agriculture and plantations along with urbanization might be the reasons for reducing riparian

cover, and facilitate increased frequency of non-native species.

Life form spectrum analysis showed that phanerophytic life form dominated the

biological spectrum of Thuthapuzha, Kunthipuzha and Thuppanadupuzha and therophytic life

form dominated the biological spectrum of Kanjirapuzha and Nellipuzha. The dominance of

phanerophytes indicates that these linear ecotones have a phanerophytic climate as observed

in the warm humid tropical regions (Raunkiaer, 1934). The dominance of therophytes in

Kanjirapuzha and Nellipuzha indicates that, the frequent modification of the landscape due to

natural and anthropogenic disturbances supports the therophytic type of vegetation (Nazir and

Malik, 2006) so that the species recruitment and establishment of phanerophytes has been

limited. As Kanjirapuzha is a regulated river, the riverine beds are subjected to continuous

modification with interrupted flow of water and this might be one of the reasons for restricted

establishment of phanerophytes and favours establishment of therophytes. The table 18

summarizes the deviation from normal spectra recorded in the main river channel along with

its tributaries.

102

Table.18. Comparison of biological spectra of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries with

Raunkiaer’s normal biological spectra

Location No. of

species

Pha Cha Hem Cry The

Normal Spectra

(Raunkiaer , 1934)

1000 46 9 26 6 13

Thuthapuzha 415 48 3 0.47 3.03 45.54

Kunthipuzha 270 53.33 3.7 0.70 3.3 39.3

Thuppanadupuzha 260 55.76 4.23 0.77 4.62 34.62

Kanjirapuzha 196 41.82 4.1 - 1.53 52.55

Nellipuzha 138 42.45 3.61 - 0.70 53.6

Critical evaluation of vegetation distribution along altitudinal gradients

The Thuthapuzha sub basin has an area of 1015.08 km2, including 2.60 km2 lowland,

456.93km2 midland, 409.57km2 highland and 145.98km2 high range. The longest river stretch

was Thuthapuzha with 63km of midland stretch. Vegetation analysis revealed the presence of

60 endemics, 14 threatened and 38 invasive taxa. The endemic and threatened category taxa

showed a gradual increase in distribution from midland to highland. The distribution of

species richness along elevation gradients is governed by a series of interacting biological,

climatic and historical factors (Colwell and Lees, 2000). Further, elevation represents a

complex gradient along which many environmental variables change simultaneously (Austin

et al., 1996). In the present study, the vegetation profile showed concentration of endemic

and threatened plants in the highland stretches of the river. On the other hand, the distribution

of invasive species showed a divergent trend, concentrated in the midland stretches of

Thuthapuzha. This is directly correlated with the anthropogenic disturbances in the lowland

and midland stretches, which in turn aid in colonization of the invasive taxa. Though the

increase in elevation along the river stretch is meager, ranging between 7-700m, the climatic

and edaphic factors combined with lesser anthropogenic disturbances might have contributed

for the higher concentration of endemics and threat category taxa in the highland sectors of

the river. Hence conservation measures need to focus on the highland stretches of riverine

belts which in turn can maintain the river flow in lower stretches. Annexure 16 summarizes

the location based distribution of endemic, threatened and invasive taxa along elevation

gradients.

103

Biological invasion in riparian zones

The vegetation analysis of riparian flora of the study area revealed the presence of 612

flowering plants under 129 families and of the taxa recorded, 110 species belongs to alien

plants which contribute 18% of the total riparian flora. Data on alien and endemic species of

the region forms the basis for inferring potential threats by aliens on the native diversity

(Paul, 2012).The invasion pattern of alien species along the riparian system is determined by

composition of native flora and disturbance regime (Pysek and Prach, 1993; 1994; Planty-

Tabacchi, et al., 1996; Richardson, et al., 2007). The present study has shown that the relative

percentage of naturalized alien species is higher in the riparian system of Thutha and its

tributaries. This indicates that higher ratio of naturalized species is due to the issue of biotic

homogenization, i.e. the gradual replacement of distinct native species by locally expanding

non-natives. It was also noticed that natural disturbances like water table fluctuations and

flood regimes due to climatic and topographic features of the study area may lead to the

invasibility of exotic species. Moreover, anthropogenic disturbances by way of cutting up of

riparian elements and consequent canopy loss also contribute for the invasion by alien taxa

with higher ecological amplitude.

In the present study 38 introduced plant species are regarded as invasives. The

identified invasive species has been classified in to four categories High risk, Medium risk,

Low risk and Insignificant based on the probable impact risk due to each species (Sankaran et

al., 2013). The High Risk Category consists of 13 (20 species listed from all over Kerala),

Medium Risk Category with 10 (22 species listed from all over Kerala), Low Risk Category

with 6 (14 species listed from all over Kerala) and Insignificant Category with 9 taxa (26

species listed from all over Kerala). River wise analysis has shown that Thuthapuzha is the

highly affected river stretch with 36 species (13 species under High risk category, 10 species

under Medium Risk category, 5 species under Low Risk category and 8 species under

Insignificant category) followed by Kunthipuzha with 26 species (10 species under High risk

category, 4 species under Medium Risk category, 6 species under Low Risk category and 6

species under Insignificant category), Kanjirapuzha with 26 invasive species (9 species under

High risk category, 7 species under Medium Risk category, 5 species under Low Risk

category and 5 species under Insignificant category), Thuppanadupuzha with 20 species (9

species under High risk category, 3 species under Medium Risk category, 3 species under

Low Risk category and 5 species under Insignificant category) and Nellipuzha with 17species

(7 species under High risk category, 3 species under Medium Risk category, 3 species under

104

Low Risk category and 5 species under Insignificant category (Fig.40). The present study

revealed that out of the 82 invasive species recorded from Kerala, 46% of them represented

along the riparian system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries. It was also observed that

frequently disturbed sites near the active channel of Thuthapuzha contain the higher

percentage of invasive species other than tributaries. The same factors supporting high

diversity in riparian habitat such as transport of propagules through water, flood disturbances

and water availability may increase the chance of species invasion (Naiman, et al., 2005).

Biological invasions cause ecological and economic impacts across the globe. Species

invasion is the second most important cause behind habitat loss, decline in biodiversity and

changing composition of riparian communities (Naiman, et al., 2005). The present study

analyses the qualitative impacts of invasive alien plants on riparian ecosystem of

Thuthapuzha and its tributaries. Many of the world’s worst invasive species are distributed in

riparian system of Thutha and its tributaries and their spread results in native species loss,

reduced species richness, diversity, evenness and decreased river flow. The present study

recorded two aquatic invasive plants Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms and Monochoria

vaginalis (Burm.f.) C. Presl ex Kunth from the study area. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.)

Solms is present in all locations of the study area but an extensive growth is noticed only in

the riparian system of Kanjirapuzha. In this river Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms forms

dense, mono specific, free-floating mats. It has the highest rate of nutrient uptake, causes

significant reductions in dissolved oxygen, and has a high water transpiration rate (Lallana et

al., 1987).

The present work suggests that riparian zones are more vulnerable to invasion than

adjacent upland areas. One explanation for the high plant species richness of riparian zones is

that regular floods decrease the strength of competitive interactions, periodically return

portions of the riparian community to early successional stages, and create a complex and

shifting mosaic of landforms that provides a diversity of microhabitats (Pollock et al. 1998;

Gregory et al. 1991). The same factors supporting high plant species richness in riparian

habitats may also increase susceptibility to invasion by exotic species (Pysek and Prach 1994;

Henderson and Wells 1986). The availability of moisture and the dispersal of propagules by

water can be alternative causes for the invasibility of riparian zones (Ramakrishnan and

Vitousek 1989; Vitousek 1986; Graf 1978).

Impact of flood in August 2018 and post flood modification

In recent years Kerala have faced increasing number of climate induced disasters. Due

to the changing climatic dynamics and peculiar physiographic conditions, the state has

105

become one of the most vulnerable states in India with respect to the natural disasters. Nott

(2006) pointed out that the most vulnerable landscape for flood is low lying river basins. In

Kerala it was observed that riparian zones of the major rivers are one of the areas which are

highly affected by the flood and landslide of August 2018 (KSBB, 2018). The devastating

effects of flood can be seen on riparian vegetation, agriculture, industry, settlements, some

time causing loss of human and animal lives and materials (Saxena, 2010). Riparian system

of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries got severely affected by the flood of 2018. The high

intensity flow of water through the rivers, along with river bank slumping and continuous

water inundation caused major changes to the riparian ecosystem. The unique geographical

setting of the region, highly potent monsoon rainfall regime, easily erodible geographical

formations in the upper catchments, accelerated rates of basin erosion, massive deforestation,

intense land use pressure, explosive population growth especially in the riparian systems are

some of the dominant factors that cause floods (Ramaswamy, 1985).

Functional vegetation and flood tolerance

Riparian plants have several morphological and physiological adaptations suiting

them for growing in wet environment (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993; Blom and Voesenek,

1996; Naiman and Decamps, 1997). Many riparian taxa are adapted to cope up with flooding,

sediment deposition, physical abrasion and stem breakage (Naiman, et al., 2005). In the

present study the functional groups of riparian vegetation was analyzed and found that the

resisters has the capacity to withstand against flooding and other disturbances. Flooding

stress the plants through erosion of the surface soil and abrasion by suspended sediments. A

number of riparian plants subjected to habitual flooding produce prop-roots, silt roots and

buttress formation as in Leea, Myristica, Holigarna, Madhuca and Pandanus. These resisters

in the riparian system permit to establish in the riparian slopes and able to maintain the river

bank integrity, channel morphology and habitat of the region.Some resisters such as

Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.Don) Ridsdale, Crateva religiosa G. Forst.,

Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser and Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. prefers

floodplain and protects the floodplains in a large extent due to tolerance to flooding (Hupp,

1983; Cowell, 1993) which was observed in the present investigation also. Taxa such as

Rotula aquatica Lour having riparian endemism shows much morphological dissimilarities in

plants of same habitat and locality in a river. The plant produces two types of branches in a

growing season; one type is of arrested, tiny branches with dense leaves and having

inflorescence or flower and the later is trailing type. These adaptations help to survive the

plant in adverse heavy monsoon floods in riparian habitat. It was observed that avoiders lack

106

adaptations to specific disturbances. They produce large number of propagules to avoid

unfavourable conditions because individuals germinating in an unfavourable habitat do not

survive. The plants belongs to Endurer group has the capacity to produce rhizomes and other

vegetative propagules to survive the unfavourable season and regenerate after the

disturbances. A small group of plants belongs to invaders produce large number of wind and

water dispersed seeds and colonizes the marshy areas of the riparian system.

Biodiversity in regulated river Vs unregulated rivers

In the present study, Kanjirapuzha one of the tributary of Thuthapuzha is regulated by

the construction of a masonry earth dam with a catchment area of 7,000 hectares which lies

entirely within the state boundary. The regulation of the river has made serious impact on the

riparian ecosystem of Kanjirapuzha. The impacts of river regulation on riparian ecosystems

were well recorded from the temperate regions (Nilson et al., 1991; Johnson, 2002). In the

present study it was observed that there was a decrease in the species diversity in the riparian

system along the regulated river stretch of Kanjirapuzha as indicated by Bachan (2010). It

was also found that the dam construction had changed the riparian habitat, the composition

and diversity of riparian plants between downstream and upstream of the dam. The vegetation

analysis revealed that the species diversity of riparian system of Kanjirapuzha is very less

when compared to the similar vegetation types of Thuthapuzha, Kunthipuzha and

Thuppanadupuzha. This indicates that any modification of river flow through damming alters

the flow characteristics and impact negatively on river ecosystem. This is accompanied by

low species diversity. Moreover, changes in river flow have led to the replacement of natural

riparian plant communities to alien plant species.

Summary and conclusion

Rivers and their riparian systems are among the most important ecosystems of the world

and compared with other ecosystems, rivers supports a variety of plants and animals. Healthy

rivers are important for people and nature, but much damage by way of massive exploitation

and misuse has been caused to Indian rivers. Bharathappuzha, the second longest river in

Kerala is much significant for its cultural and historical significance. Thuthapuzha is the

major tributary of Bharathapuzha and its riparian system is highly fragmented due to natural

and human interferences. The restoration and management of this requires baseline data of

the riparian vegetation.

The riparian system of Thuthapuzha sub-basin composed of 612 angiosperms belonging

to 402 genera in 116 families, 34 pteridophytes in 15 families and 2 gymnosperms in 2

107

families. Fabaceae constitute the dominant family with 52 species followed by Poaceae (47

sp.) (Rubiaceae (34 sp.), Cyperaceae (29 sp.), Asteraceae (28 sp.) and Acanthaceae (26

sp.).Vegetation profile revealed the dominance of herbaceous plants (293 sp.) followed by

trees (121 sp.), shrubs (101 sp.) and climbers (97 sp.). Floristic exploration of the 4 tributaries

of Thuthapuzha documented 287 taxa from the riparian system of Kunthipuzha, 286 taxa

from Thuppanadupuzha, 204 taxa from Kanjirapuzha and 146 taxa from Nellipuzha.

The floristic analysis of riparian system of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries revealed that

152 wetland taxa were found to occur frequently along the riparian zones and 16 species were

identified as typical riparian elements. The remaining taxa includes 15 evergreen, 40 semi

evergreen, 115 moist deciduous, 58 dry deciduous and 69 degraded forest elements.

The analysis of the floristic elements shows that 60 species are endemic to various

geographical boundaries of India. Out of the 60 endemic species, 22 species were endemic to

Southern Western Ghats, 16 species to Western Ghats, 15 species to Peninsular India, 6 to

India and 1 species to India. Out of the 612 species, 14 species falls under various threatened

categories of IUCN of which two taxa belongs to critically endangered, two under

endangered, one species under near threatened and nine under vulnerable category.

It was recorded that 110 species were alien, which contribute 20% of the total riparian

flora of Thuthapuzha. More than half of the alien flora of the study area is from South

America and other important source area is Africa (28%). Thirty eight invasive species were

identified from the study area, of which 13 species falls under high risk category, 10 species

under medium risk, 6 species under low risk category and 9 species under insignificant

category.

The biological spectra of this river basin consists of 25 Chamaephytes, 23 Cryptophytes,

two Hemicryptophytes, seven Hydrophytes, three Helophytes, two Epiphytes, 307

Phanerophytes and 243 Therophytes. The phanerophytes (50.2%) dominated the biological

spectrum of riparian vegetation followed by Therophytes (39.7%). The functional vegetation

type of each species of Thutha and its tributaries were analyzed and the result revealed that

390 species belongs to Resisters followed by Avoiders (141 species), Endurers (68 species)

and Invaders (13 species).

Floristic assessment of riparian angiosperm vegetation of Thutha and tributaries reveals

that 186 species were found to be new addition to the district flora of Palghat, 56 of them

accounted as new distributional record in Palakkad district and one species Lindernia

108

tamilnadensis Prasad was found to be new to the flora of Kerala state with its presence at

Mothikkal.

The present study has mapped the different vegetation types of the study area using GIS

and identified nine distinct land use classes along the riparian system of which 50% of

riparian lands were used for the cultivation of mixed crops and it was also noticed that the

downstream riparian system is severely disturbed on both sides with reduced riparian

vegetation.Post flood monitoring of the riparian system revealed that the major impact of the

flood and landslides of August 2018 in the riparian areas of Thuthapuzha and tributaries are

erosion and deposition of sand, mud and inorganic wastes especially plastics on the banks.

Another major impact of the flood was the spread of many invasive taxa.

Recommendations for riparian management and conservation

Riparian management strategies, widespread conservation practices and rehabilitation

activities are receiving careful scrutiny in many parts of the world because these ecosystems

deliver irreplaceable goods and services to the society. Moreover it plays a fundamental role

in the landscape not only as a corridor and as natural filters but also as symbolic

representations of the environment. An understating of human perception of riparian

ecosystem is essential for scheduling, manipulating and executing management practices.

Riparian management strategies are closely related to the catchment and to river

management. Effective riparian management needs cooperation among local people,

government agencies, private organizations and academic institutions because of the

complexity of information processing and the inherent socio environmental changes. For

effective management of riparian system in the study area, as suggested by Dale(2000),

guidelines could be made with specific goals set on basic principles (Table 19).

Human attitude towards riparian ecosystem find its extremism over last few decades.

Along with environmental alterations, four ultimate human mediated changes to the riparian

ecosystems are population expansion, resource use, technology development and social

organizations. All the above facts pin point the need for new strategies for river management

to maintain ecosystem services.

109

Table. 19. Relationship between ecological principles, land use goals and guidelines

Principles Goals Guidelines

Species Maintain viable population of

all native species

1. Examine impact of local

decisions in a regional context

2. Plan for long-term changes

3. Preserve rare landscape

elements and associated species

4. Avoid land uses that deplete the

natural resources

5. Retain large connected

undeveloped areas

6. Minimize the introduction and

spread of invasive species

7. Avoid or compensate for effect

of development on ecological

processes

Time

Maintain ecological processes

and components

Productivity

Disturbance

Landscape

Maintain landscape

containing intact and

connected patches of natural

vegetation

Place

The present study suggests some recommendations for environmental conservation

and management of the riparian areas of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries.

Maintain a minimum width of 5-106m riparian buffer for the proper functioning of

riparian ecosystem as suggested by Bavin, et al., (2000).

Ensure a minimum flow of water in the river needed for regeneration of riparian

ecosystem.

Grazing should be managed in the riparian zone

Illegal sand mining should be strictly banned and legally permitted miners should follow

properly guided scientific operations in the riparian area.

Arranging awareness programmes to the local people especially living on the river banks

about the significance of riparian vegetation.

Restoration of the fragmented corridors by planting ecologically and economically

important riparian plants like Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn., Crateva religiosa

G.Forst., Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) H. J. Lam, Mallotus nudiflorus (L.) Kulju &

Welzen., Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) Ridsdale. Ochlandra travancorica

(Bedd.) Gamble etc. with local participation.

Encroachment of the riparian zone by individuals and organizations should be recognized

and necessary protective measures should be undertaken.

In many places riparian zones were assaulted by plantations. Such areas should be

identified and necessary steps should be taken for regeneration.

Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides must be restricted along the riparian zones.

110

Riparian slopes should be managed by planting hard rooted woody plants.

Strict action should be taken against the entry of tourist into the river within the forest

areas other than tourist sites.

Invasive species should be cleared to facilitate the natural species establishment

Hence location based studies on any geographical unit, especially of riverine sub-basins

could reveal much data that could be utilized in future measures of conservation and planning

of land uses to protect our mother nature. Such studies in the state of Kerala are inevitable as

far as the effects of climate change and human interventions cause much destruction to our

habitat and the very existence of human life.

I. PAPERS PUBLISHED:

A. JOURNALS

a. International : 2

1. Jisha. K and Maya C. Nair. 2018. Diversity analysis of angiosperms in

riparian system along Thuppanadu river, Southern Western Ghats,

Kerala, India. Int. J. Adv. Res. 6(9): 531-539. ISSN: 2320-5407

DOI:10.21474/IJAR01/7707.

2. Soumya M., Rampradeep, R., Jisha K., Arabhi P., Rekha Vasudevan A

and Maya C. Nair. 2017. Sonerila victoriae, a new species of

Melastomataceae from Southern Western Ghats, India. Phytotaxa 324

(2), 187-192 https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.324.2.7 ISSN 1179-

3155 (print) ISSN 1179-3163(online).

b. National : 2

1. Jisha, K., Shanid, M.M.I and Maya C. Nair. 2018. Angiosperm

diversity and phytogeographical affinities of riparian vegetation along

Kanjirapuzha basin, Kerala, India. Trends in Biosciences 11(7), 1102-

1107. ISSN 0974-8431.

2. Aswani, V.J., Rekha Vasudevan A., Arabhi, P., Jabeena, M.K., Jisha,

K and Maya, C. Nair. 2020. Record of Oldenlandia hygrophila

Bremek. (Spermacoceae: Rubiaeae), a lesser known herb from Palghat

Gap of Western Ghats, Kerala, India. Journal of Threatened taxa. 12

(3), 15400-15404. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5673.12.3.15400-

15404. ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print).

111

B. CONFERENCES/ SEMINARS etc..

a. International : 1

1. Jisha, K. and Maya C. Nair. 2018. Cross analysis of invasibility of

alien vegetation across Thutha river and tributaries – A case study

from Palghat Gap of southern Western Ghats, Kerala. Poster presented

at International Biodiversity Congress (IBC 2018), FRI, Dehradun,

India. 4-6 October 2018.

b. National : 2

1. Jisha, K., Shanid, M.M.I and Maya C. Nair. 2018. Angiosperm

diversity and phytogeographical affinities of riparian vegetation along

Kanjirapuzha basin, Kerala, India. National Seminar on ‗Insights into

the Interdisciplinary perspectives of Chemical and Biosciences‘

organized by Chemistry, Botany and Biotechnology departments of

Govt. Arts College, Thiruvananthapuram on 26th to 28th February

2018.

2. Jisha, K and Maya C. Nair. 2017. Diversity and bio-monitoring of

Angiosperm vegetation in riparian system along Thuppanadu river,

Kerala, India. 4th Indian Biodiversity Congress. 10-12 March, 2017;

Pondicherry University, Puducherry.

c. Regional : 1

1. Jisha, K. and Maya C. Nair. 2018. Diversity and Endemism in the

riparian flora of Thuppanadu river, Palakkad, Kerala, India. Poster

presented at XXth Kerala Science Congress, 28-30 January, Govt.

Brennen College, Thalassery.

II. PARTICIPATION (In Workshops/Seminars etc..)

a. National : 1

National seminar on “ Species the Passion IV” organized by Post Graduate and

Research Department of Botany, St. Thomas College, Thrissur held from 28-06-2018 to

29-06-2018

b. Regional : 2

National River Festival held from 2-06-2017 to 5-06-2017 at Cheruthuruthy,

Kerala.

112

Rainforest Outreach Programme conducted on 23-06-2018at Govt. Victoria College,

Palakkad organized by Silent valley division, Kerala forest and Wildlife Department

Significance of the present study

Bharathapuzha is one of the highly exploited river basins in the state of Kerala. In the

recent years, the river is facing severe dearth of water and drought like situations. This is

mainly because of increasing anthropogenic pressures and unsustainable development

activities neglecting the hydrologic flow regime of the basin. Unsustainable exploitation of

water, in stream sand mining and clay mining for brick kilns are among the striking threats to

flow of the river. There are many initiatives for conservation of the River from many

Government programs like the Rural Development Department program but none of them

had an integrated approach and is failed. However, there is a need proper scientific

documentation of the current status of the river and developing an action plan with integrated

approach and its implementation through all stakeholder participation. The present study on

the riparian system of Thuthapuzha one of the major tributary of Bharathapuzha tries to shed

more light on the ecological uniqueness of these riparian zones with special reference to

floristic composition and their interaction, the different threats casting over these ecosystems

and also some possible conservation strategies. The analysis of the vascular plant diversity

will result in the development of an integrated database on the species composition, richness

and community structure of the Thuthapuzha sub-basin. Plant community composition and

relevant information on the appropriate plant species is inevitable for river bank stabilization

and regeneration of riparian ecosystems. Many of these plants act as effective soil binders,

phytoremediators and play a significant role to maintain the water quality of the river.

Application of GIS on riparian attributes such as vegetation, soil characteristics, land use

pattern etc. will provide useful data in developing conservation programme and sustainable

utilization of biological resources. However, the role played by the riparian vegetation to

sustain the Thuthapuzha sub-basin has not yet been subjected to scientific investigation. No

significant scientific research has so far been undertaken on the taxonomy and diversity of

riparian vegetation in the Thuthapuzha sub-basin and the present investigation is expected to

bridge the gap in this sphere of knowledge.

113

Annexure 1

Wetland taxa in the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Sl.

No

Name of the species Family

1 Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau Alismataceae

2 Acorus calamus L. Acoraceae

3 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

4 Cryptocoryne retrospiralis (Roxb.) Kunth Araceae

5 Lagenandra meeboldii (Engl.) C.E.C.Fisch Araceae

6 Crinum asiaticum L. Amaryllidaceae

7 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae

8 Commelina clavata C. B. Clarke Commelinaceae

9 Commelina diffusa Burm. f. Commelinaceae

10 Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D. Don ex Sweet Commelinaceae

11 Cyanotis cristata (L.) D. Don Commelinaceae

12 Floscopa scandens Lour. Commelinaceae

13 Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan Commelinaceae

14 Murdannia spirata (L.) Brueck. Commelinaceae

15 Canna indica L. Cannaceae

16 Indianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Suksathan & Borchs. Marantaceae

17 Eriocaulon xeranthemum Mart. Eriocaulaceae

18 Cyperus compressus L. Cyperaceae

19 Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Suringar Cyperaceae

20 Cyperus cyperoides (L.) Kuntze Cyperaceae

21 Cyperus difformis L. Cyperaceae

22 Cyperus diffusus Vahl Cyperaceae

23 Cyperus digitatus Roxb. Cyperaceae

24 Cyperus distans L.f. Cyperaceae

25 Cyperus exaltatus Retz. Cyperaceae

26 Cyperus haspan L. Cyperaceae

27 Cyperus javanicus Houtt. Cyperaceae

28 Cyperus malaccensis Lam. Cyperaceae

29 Cyperus nutans Vahl Cyperaceae

30 Cyperus platystylis R.Br. Cyperaceae

31 Cyperus procerus Rottb. Cyperaceae

32 Cyperus rotundus ssp. Rotundus Cyperaceae

33 Cyperus tenuispica Steud. Cyperaceae

34 Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl Cyperaceae

35 Fimbristylis argentea (Rottb.) Vahl Cyperaceae

36 Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani Cyperaceae

114

37 Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl Cyperaceae

38 Fimbristylis dipsacea (Rottb.) C.B. Clarke Cyperaceae

39 Fimbristylis quinquangularis (Vahl) Kunth Cyperaceae

40 Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Cyperaceae

41 Kyllinga bulbosa P.Beauv. Cyperaceae

42 Kyllinga nemoralis (J.R. Forst. &G. Forst.) Dandy ex Hutch.

& Dalziel

Cyperaceae

43 Kyllinga odorata ssp. Cylindrical Cyperaceae

44 Kyllinga odorata Vahl Cyperaceae

45 Pycreus polystachyos (Rottb.) P.Beauv. Cyperaceae

46 Pycreus pumilus (L.) Nees Cyperaceae

47 Apluda mutica L. Poaceae

48 Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P.Beauv. Poaceae

49 Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf Poaceae

50 Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. Poaceae

51 Coix lacryma-jobi L. Poaceae

52 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae

53 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd Poaceae

54 Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P.Beauv. Poaceae

55 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae

56 Eragrostis amabilis (L.) Wight & Arn. Poaceae

57 Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter Poaceae

58 Eragrostis patula (Kunth) Steud. Poaceae

59 Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae

60 Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E.Hubb. Poaceae

61 Garnotia tenella (Arn. ex Miq.) Janowski Poaceae

62 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Poaceae

63 Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze Poaceae

64 Ischaemum polystachyum J.Presl Poaceae

65 Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth Poaceae

66 Ochlandra travancorica (Bedd.) Gamble Poaceae

67 Panicum auritum J.Presl ex Nees Poaceae

68 Panicum paludosum Roxb. Poaceae

69 Panicum repens L. Poaceae

70 Paspalum conjugatum P.J.Bergius Poaceae

71 Paspalum distichum L. Poaceae

72 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. Poaceae

73 Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. Poaceae

74 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

75 Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf Poaceae

76 Aeschynomene americana L. Fabaceae

77 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

115

78 Begonia crenata Dryand. Begoniaceae

79 Elatostema acuminatum (Poir.) Brongn. Urticaceae

80 Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. Urticaceae

81 Euphorbia thymifolia L. Euphorbiaceae

82 Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Phyllanthaceae

83 Ammania baccifera L. Lythraceae

84 Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne Lythraceae

85 Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell Onagraceae

86 Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

87 Ludwigia peruviana (L.) H.Hara Onagraceae

88 Melastoma malabathricum L. Melastomataceae

89 Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern Brassicaceae

90 Persicaria chinensis (L.) H. Gross Polygonaceae

91 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M.Gómez Polygonaceae

92 Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. & Schweinf. Caryophyllaceae

93 Polycarpon tetraphyllum (L.) L. Caryophyllaceae

94 Alternanthera ficoidea (L.) Sm. Amaranthaceae

95 Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae

96 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae

97 Alternanthera tenella var. tenella Amaranthaceae

98 Alternanthera tenella var. versicolor Amaranthaceae

99 Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae

100 Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug.DC. Molluginaceae

101 Mollugo pentaphylla L. Molluginaceae

102 Portulaca oleracea L. Potulacaceae

103 Dentella repens (L.) J.R.Forst. &G.Forst. Rubiaceae

104 Dentella repens var. Serpyllifolia Rubiaceae

105 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Rubiaceae

106 Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb. Rubiaceae

107 Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R.Br. ex Roem. & Schult. Gentianaceae

108 Coldenia procumbens L. Boraginaceae

109 Heliotropium indicum L. Boraginaceae

110 Heliotropium keralense Sivar. & Manilal. Boraginaceae

111 Aniseia martinicensis (Jacq.) Choisy Convolvulaceae

112 Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. Convolvulaceae

113 Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Convolvulaceae

114 Ipomoea hederifolia L Convolvulaceae

115 Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Verdc. Convolvulaceae

116 Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br. Convolvulaceae

117 Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl Hydroleaceae

118 Rhynchoglossum notonianum (Wall.) B.L. Burtt Gesneriaceae

119 Epithema carnosum Benth. Gesneriaceae

116

120 Limnophila aromatica (Lam.) Merr. Plantaginaceae

121 Limnophila chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. Plantaginaceae

122 Limnophila repens (Benth.) Benth. Plantaginaceae

123 Stemodia verticillata (Mill.) Hassl. Plantaginaceae

124 Lindernia anagallis (Burm.f.) Pennell Linderniaceae

125 Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston Linderniaceae

126 Lindernia caespitosa (Blume) Panigrahi Linderniaceae

127 Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell Linderniaceae

128 Lindernia crustacea (L.) F.Muell. Linderniaceae

129 Lindernia oppositifolia (Retz.) Mukerjee Linderniaceae

130 Lindernia procumbens (Krock.) Philcox Linderniaceae

131 Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Alston Linderniaceae

132 Lindernia tamilnadensis Prasad M.G Linderniaceae

133 Torenia bicolor Dalzell Linderniaceae

134 Hygrophila ringens (L.) R. Br. ex Spreng. Acanthaceae

135 Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine. Acanthaceae

136 Justicia japonica Thunb. Acanthaceae

137 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene Verbenaceae

138 Lobelia alsinoides Lam. Companulaceae

139 Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn Companulaceae

140 Acmella ciliata (Kunth) Cass. Asteraceae

141 Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. Asteraceae

142 Blumea belangeriana DC Asteraceae

143 Blumea membranacea DC. Asteraceae

144 Blumea oxydonta DC. Asteraceae

145 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

146 Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

147 Sphaeranthus indicus L. Asteraceae

148 Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

149 Spilanthes radicans Schrad. Asteraceae

150 Spilanthes vazhachalensis Sheela Asteraceae

151 Struchium spargonophorum (L.) Kuntze Asteraceae

152 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae

117

Annexure 2

Moist deciduous elements in the riparian flora of Thutha and its tributaries

Sl.

No Name of the species

Family

1 Piper longum L. Piperaceae

2 Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. Annonaceae

3 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae

4 Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook.f. Dioscoreaceae

5 Dioscorea oppositifolia L. Dioscoreaceae

6 Smilax wightii A.DC Smilacaceae

7 Smilax zeylanica L. Smilacaceae

8 Gloriosa superba L. Colchichaceae

9 Murdannia gigantea (Vahl) G.Brückn. Commelinaceae

10 Murdannia japonica (Thunb.) Faden Commelinaceae

11 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae

12 Indianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Suksathan & Borchs. Marantaceae

13 Costus speciosus (J. Koenig) Sm Costaceae

14 Aristida hystrix L.f. Poaceae

15 Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf Poaceae

16 Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. Poaceae

17 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler Poaceae

18 Oplismenus burmanni (Retz.) P.Beauv Poaceae

19 Oplismenus compositus (L.) P.Beauv Poaceae

20 Setaria intermedia Roem. & Schult. Poaceae

21 Sporobolus tenuissimus (Schrank.) Kuntze Poaceae

22 Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. Menispermaceae

23 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae

24 Diploclisia glaucescens (Blume) Diels Menispermaceae

25 Stephania japonica var. discolor (Blume) Forman Menispermaceae

26 Tiliacora racemosa Colebr. Menispermaceae

27 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers Menispermaceae

28 Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC. Ranunculaceae

29 Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gagnep. Vitaceae

30 Cissus heyneana Planch. Vitaceae

31 Cissus javana DC. Vitaceae

32 Cissus latifolia Lam. Vitaceae

33 Leea asiatica (L.) Ridsdale Vitaceae

34 Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Fabaceae

35 Cassia fistula L. Fabaceae

36 Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

118

37 Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. Fabaceae

38 Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars Fabaceae

39 Canavalia mollis Wight & Arn Fabaceae

40 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Fabaceae

41 Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. Fabaceae

42 Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC Fabaceae

43 Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv. Fabaceae

44 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Fabaceae

45 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Fabaceae

46 Spatholobus parviflorus (DC.) Kuntze Fabaceae

47 Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight Polygalaceae

48 Ficus dalhousiae Miq. Moraceae

49 Ficus exasperata Vahl Moraceae

50 Ficus hispida L.f. Moraceae

51 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae

52 Ficus tsjahela Burm. f. Moraceae

53 Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae

54 Pouzolzia auriculata Wight Urticaceae

55 Trichosanthes cucumerina L. Cucurbitaceae

56 Connarus monocarpus L. Connaraceae

57 Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch Oxalidaceae

58 Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. Putranjivaceae

59 Hydnocarpus pentandrus (Buch.-Ham.) Oken Achariaceae

60 Antidesma acidum Retz. Euphorbiaceae

61 Antidesma montanum Blume Euphorbiaceae

62 Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae

63 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae

64 Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz Euphorbiaceae

65 Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston Phyllanthaceae

66 Breynia rhamnoides Müll. Arg. Phyllanthaceae

67 Bridelia retusa (L.) A. Juss. Phyllanthaceae

68 Phyllanthus airy – Shawii Jean F.Brunel & J. P.

Roux Phyllanthaceae

69 Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthaceae

70 Phyllanthus virgatus G.Forst. Phyllanthaceae

71 Terminalia paniculata Roth. Combretaceae

72 Osbeckia muralis Naudin Melastomataceae

73 Garuga pinnata Roxb. Burseraceae

74 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae

75 Sapindus trifoliatus L. Sapindaceae

76 Schleichera oleosa ( Lour.) Merr. Sapindaceae

77 Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. Rutaceae

119

78 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) D.H. Nicolson Rutaceae

79 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae

80 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. Meliaceae

81 Abutilon persicum (Burm.f.) Merr. Malvaceae

82 Grewia abutilifolia Vent. ex Juss. Malvaceae

83 Grewia serrulata DC. Malvaceae

84 Hibiscus surattensis L. Malvaceae

85 Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex G.Don Malvaceae

86 Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalzell Malvaceae

87 Triumfetta pilosa Roth Malvaceae

88 Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. Loranthaceae

89 Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume Amaranthaceae

90 Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. Amaranthaceae

91 Impatiens minor (DC.) Bennet Balsaminaceae

92 Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) A. DC. Primulaceae

93 Careya arborea Roxb. Lacythidaceae

94 Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. Rubiaceae

95 Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae

96 Spermacoce alata Aubl. Rubiaceae

97 Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Hook.f. Apocynaceae

98 Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don Apocynaceae

99 Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Apocynaceae

100 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. Apocynaceae

101 Argyreia hirsuta Arn. Convolvulaceae

102 Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae

103 Solanum americanum Mill. Solanaceae

104 Jasminum coarctatum Roxb. Oleaceae

105 Asystasia dalzelliana Santapau Acanthaceae

106 Barleria prattensis Santapau Acanthaceae

107 Eranthemum capense L. Acanthaceae

108 Justicia procumbens L. Acanthaceae

109 Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. Acanthaceae

110 Radermachera xylocarpa Bignoniaceae

111 Tectona grandis L.f. Lamiaceae

112 Vitex altissima L. f. Lamiaceae

113 Elephantopus scaber L. Asteraceae

114 Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

120

Annexure 3

Dry deciduous elements in the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Sl.

No Name of the species Family

1 Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P. Beauv. Poaceae

2 Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. Poaceae

3 Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae

4 Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae

5 Acacia planifrons Wight &Arn Fabaceae

6 Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Fabaceae

7 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Fabaceae

8 Crotalaria verrucosa L. Fabaceae

9 Erythrina variegata L. Fabaceae

10 Tephrosia pumila (Lam.) Pers. Fabaceae

11 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Rhamnaceae

12 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight & Arn. Rhamnaceae

13 Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) Mill. Rhamnaceae

14 Ziziphus rugosa Lam. Rhamnaceae

15 Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Ulmaceae

16 Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae

17 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M. Roem. Cucurbitaceae

18 Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell. Violaceae

19 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae

20 Acalypha paniculata Miq. Euphorbiaceae

21 Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook.f. Euphorbiaceae

22 Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae

23 Flueggea leucopyrus Willd Phyllanthaceae

24 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae

25 Helicteres isora L. Malvaceae

26 Hibiscus vitifolius L Malvaceae

27 Sida acuta Burm.f. Malvaceae

28 Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss.Waalk. Malvaceae

29 Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

30 Cansjera rheedii Blanco Opiliaceae

31 Santalum album L Santalaceae

32 Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae

33 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

34 Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae

35 Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin Alangiaceae

36 Canthium coromandelicum (Burm.f.) Alston Rubiaceae

121

37 Morinda pubescens Sm. Rubiaceae

38 Strychnos nux-vomica L. Loganiaceae

39 Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. Apocynaceae

40 Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.T.Aiton Apocynaceae

41 Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. Apocynaceae

42 Heliotropium rottleri Lehm. Boraginaceae

43 Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. Boraginaceae

44 Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet Convolvulaceae

45 Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Convolvulaceae

46 Ipomoea staphylina Roem. & Schult. Convolvulaceae

47 Merremia tridentata (L.) Hallier f. Convolvulaceae

48 Solanum violaceum Ortega Solanaceae

49 Barleria prionitis L. Acanthaceae

50 Staurogyne zeylanica Kuntze Acanthaceae

51 Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl Verbenaceae

52 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze Lamiaceae

53 Ocimum gratissimum L. Lamiaceae

54 Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore Asteraceae

55 Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob Asteraceae

56 Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex DC. Asteraceae

57 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

58 Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae

122

Annexure 4

Degraded forest elements in the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Sl.

No. Name of the species Family

1 Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth. Piperaceae

2 Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Suringar Cyperaceae

3 Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl Cyperaceae

4 Chloris barbata Sw Poaceae

5 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae

6 Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Poaceae

7 Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Poaceae

8 Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. Poaceae

9 Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Vitaceae

10 Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae

11 Mimosa diplotricha Sauvalle Fabaceae

12 Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. Fabaceae

13 Indigofera tinctoria L. Fabaceae

14 Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

15 Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. Fabaceae

16 Zornia gibbosa Span. Fabaceae

17 Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew Urticaceae

18 Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. Urticaceae

19 Croton hirtus L'Hér. Euphorbiaceae

20 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

21 Tragia involucrata L. Euphorbiaceae

22 Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Phyllanthaceae

23 Phyllanthus urinaria L. Phyllanthaceae

24 Corchorus olitorius L. Malvaceae

25 Melochia corchorifolia L. Malvaceae

26 Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Malvaceae

27 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

28 Waltheria indica L. Malvaceae

29 Cleome monophylla L. Cleomaceae

30 Cleome rutidosperma var. burmannii (Wight & Arn.)

Siddiqui & S.N.Dixit Cleomaceae

31 Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

32 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. Amaranthaceae

33 Allmania nodiflora (L.) R.Br. ex Wight Amaranthaceae

34 Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

35 Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

36 Alternanthera pulchella Kunth Amaranthaceae

37 Amaranthus caudatus L. Amaranthaceae

38 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae

123

39 Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC. Rubiaceae

40 Oldenlandia auricularia (L.) K.Schum Rubiaceae

41 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Rubiaceae

42 Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb Rubiaceae

43 Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand. Apocyanaceae

44 Catharanthus pusillus (Murray) G.Don Apocyanaceae

45 Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. Convolvulaceae

46 Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl. Convolvulaceae

47 Ipomoea triloba L. Convolvulaceae

48 Merremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hallier f. Convolvulaceae

49 Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae

50 Solanum torvum Sw. Solanaceae

51 Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae

52 Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) I.Darbysh. Acanthaceae

53 Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees Acanthaceae

54 Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Acanthaceae

55 Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae

56 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

57 Clerodendrum paniculatum L. Lamiaceae

58 Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

59 Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

60 Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Lamiaceae

61 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae

62 Orthosiphon thymiflorus (Roth) Sleesen Lamiaceae

63 Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. Asteraceae

64 Ageratum houstonianum Mill. Asteraceae

65 Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King& H.Rob Asteraceae

66 Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

67 Mikania micrantha Kunth Asteraceae

68 Spilanthes radicans Schrad. Asteraceae

69 Tridax procumbens (L.) L. Asteraceae

124

Annexure 5

Medicinal plants in the riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Sl.

No

Name of the species Family Habit

1 Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth Piperaceae Climber

2 Piper betle L. Piperaceae Climber

3 Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae Climber

4 Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou Aristolochiaceae Shrub

5 Myristica fragrans Houtt. Myristicaceae Tree

6 Annona reticulata L Annonaceae Tree

7 Uvaria narum Wall. Annonaceae Climber

8 Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) J.Presl Lauraceae Tree

9 Cinnamomum verum J.Presl Lauraceae Tree

10 Acorus calamus L. Araceae Herb

11 Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson Araceae Herb

12 Cryptocoryne retrospiralis (Roxb.) Kunth Araceae Herb

13 Lagenandra meeboldii (Engl.) C.E.C.Fisch Araceae Herb

14 Rhaphidophora pertusa (Roxb.) Schott Araceae Climber

15 Dioscorea alata L. Dioscoreaceae Climber

16 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae Climber

17 Dioscorea oppositifolia L. Dioscoreaceae Climber

18 Smilax zeylanica L. Smilacaceae Climber

19 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Aspholidaceae Herb

20 Gloriosa superba L. Colchicaceae Climber

21 Crinum asiaticum L. Amaryllidaceae Herb

22 Pancratium triflorum Roxb Amaryllidaceae Herb

23 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae Herb

24 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Asparagaceae Climber

25 Areca catechu L. Arecaceae Tree

26 Arenga wightii Griff. Arecaceae Tree

27 Borassus flabellifer L. Arecaceae Tree

28 Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae Tree

29 Corypha umbraculifera L. Arecaceae Tree

30 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae Herb

31 Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) C. Presl ex Kunth Pontederiaceae Herb

32 Musa × paradisiaca L. Musaceae Herb

33 Costus pictus D.Don Costaceae Herb

34 Costus speciosus (J. Koenig) Sm Costaceae Herb

35 Maranta arundinacea L. Marantaceae Herb

36 Curcuma amada var. amada Roxb Zingiberaceae Herb

37 Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Zingiberaceae Herb

38 Curcuma longa L Zingiberaceae Herb

39 Cyperus procerus Rottb. Cyperaceae Herb

125

40 Kyllinga nemoralis (J.R. Forst. &G. Forst.) Dandy ex

Hutch. & Dalziel

Cyperaceae Herb

41 Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. Poaceae Shrub

42 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Herb

43 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd Poaceae Herb

44 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Poaceae Herb

45 Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. Poaceae Herb

46 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae Herb

47 Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf Poaceae Herb

48 Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn Menispermaceae Climber

49 Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson Menispermaceae Climber

50 Diploclisia glaucescens (Blume) Diels Menispermaceae Climber

51 Tiliacora racemosa Colebr. Menispermaceae Climber

52 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers Menispermaceae Climber

53 Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC. Ranunculaceae Climber

54 Ampelocissus indica (L.) Planch Vitaceae Climber

55 Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gagnep. Vitaceae Climber

56 Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin Vitaceae Climber

57 Cissus javana DC. Vitaceae Climber

58 Cissus latifolia Lam. Vitaceae Climber

59 Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae Climber

60 Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Leeaceae Shrub

61 Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae Climber

62 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Fabaceae Climber

63 Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Fabaceae Tree

64 Bauhinia scandens L. Fabaceae Climber

65 Bauhinia tomentosa L. Fabaceae Shrub

66 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub Fabaceae Tree

67 Caesalpinia sappan L. Fabaceae Tree

68 Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars Fabaceae Climber

69 Cassia fistula L Fabaceae Tree

70 Clitoria ternatea L. Fabaceae Climber

71 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. Fabaceae Climber

72 Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. Fabaceae Herb

73 Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC Fabaceae Herb

74 Erythrina variegata L. Fabaceae Tree

75 Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae Herb

76 Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Fabaceae Climber

77 Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv. Fabaceae Shrub

78 Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.)Benth Fabaceae Tree

79 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Fabaceae Tree

80 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae Shrub

81 Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae Herb

82 Tamarindus indica L. Fabaceae Tree

83 Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) Mill. Rhamnaceae Climber

84 Ziziphus rugosa Lam. Rhamnaceae Shrub

126

85 Holoptelea grandis (Hutch.) Mildbr. Ulmaceae Tree

86 Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae Tree

87 Ficus microcarpa L.f. Moraceae Tree

88 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae Tree

89 Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae Tree

90 Begonia malabarica Lam. Begoniaceae Herb

91 Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae Tree

92 Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. Urticaceae Herb

93 Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. Cucurbitaceae Climber

94 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Cucurbitaceae Climber

95 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.Roem. Cucurbitaceae Climber

96 Trichosanthes cucumerina L. Cucurbitaceae Climber

97 Trichosanthes nervifolia L. Cucurbitaceae Climber

98 Connarus monocarpus L. Connaraceae Climber

99 Biophytum reinwardtii Var. reinwardtii (Zucc.)

Klotzsch Oxalidaceae Herb

100 Calophyllum inophyllum L. Clusiaceae Tree

101 Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Roxb. Clusiaceae Tree

102 Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. Putranjivaceae Tree

103 Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz Malpighiaceae Tree

104 Hydnocarpus pentandrus (Buch.-Ham.) Oken Achariaceae Tree

105 Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.Muell. Violaceae Herb

106 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae Herb

107 Acalypha paniculata Miq. Euphorbiaceae Herb

108 Croton tiglium L. Euphorbiaceae Tree

109 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae Herb

110 Euphorbia thymifolia L. Euphorbiaceae Herb

111 Homonoia riparia Lour. Euphorbiaceae Shrub

112 Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Tree

113 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Tree

114 Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Herb

115 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Shrub

116 Tragia involucrata L. Euphorbiaceae Herb

117 Antidesma acidum Retz. Phyllanthaceae Shrub

118 Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr. Phyllanthaceae Tree

119 Phyllanthus airy-shawii Jean F.Brunel & J.P.Roux Phyllanthaceae Herb

120 Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Phyllanthaceae Herb

121 Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthaceae Tree

122 Phyllanthus urinaria L. Phyllanthaceae Herb

123 Phyllanthus virgatus G.Forst. Phyllanthaceae Herb

124 Getonia floribunda Roxb. Combretaceae Climber

125 Ammania baccifera L. Lythraceae Herb

126 Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. Lythraceae Tree

127 Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Shrub

128 Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.Hara Onagraceae Herb

129 Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell Onagraceae Herb

127

130 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Tree

131 Melastoma malabathricum L. Melastomataceae Herb

132 Garuga pinnata Roxb. Burseraceae Tree

133 Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae Tree

134 Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. Anacardiaceae Tree

135 Allophylus serratus (Hiern) Kurz Sapindaceae Shrub

136 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae Climber

137 Sapindus trifoliatus L. Sapindaceae Tree

138 Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. Sapindaceae Tree

139 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Rutaceae Tree

140 Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Rutaceae Tree

141 Citrus medica L. Rutaceae Shrub

142 Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. Rutaceae Shrub

143 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) D.H. Nicolson Rutaceae Shrub

144 Toddelia asiatica (L.) Lam. Rutaceae Climber

145 Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Simaroubaceae Tree

146 Simarouba amara Aubl. Simaroubaceae Tree

147 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Meliaceae Tree

148 Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. Meliaceae Shrub

149 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. Meliaceae Herb

150 Corchorus olitorius L. Malvaceae Herb

151 Helicteres isora L. Malvaceae Shrub

152 Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. Malvaceae Shrub

153 Hibiscus surattensis L. Malvaceae Shrub

154 Sida acuta Burm.f. Malvaceae Shrub

155 Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss.Waalk. Malvaceae Shrub

156 Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae Shrub

157 Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex G.Don Malvaceae Tree

158 Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalzell Malvaceae Shrub

159 Vateria indica L. Dipterocarpaceae Tree

160 Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Moringaceae Tree

161 Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Tree

162 Cleome monophylla L. Cleomaceae Herb

163 Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae Herb

164 Santalum album L Santalaceae Tree

165 Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Herb

166 Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall. ex J.Graham Ancistrocladaceae Climber

167 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Herb

168 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. Amaranthaceae Herb

169 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae Herb

170 Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Herb

171 Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae Herb

172 Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae Herb

173 Mollugo pentaphylla L. Molluginaceae Herb

174 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Herb

175 Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. Lacythidaceae Tree

128

176 Careya arborea Roxb. Lacythidaceae Tree

177 Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) A. DC. Primulaceae Shrub

178 Canthium rheedei DC Rubiaceae Shrub

179 Ixora coccinea L. Rubiaceae Shrub

180 Morinda citrifolia L. Rubiaceae Shrub

181 Morinda pubescens Sm. Rubiaceae Shrub

182 Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae Shrub

183 Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser Rubiaceae Tree

184 Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.Don) Ridsdale Rubiaceae Tree

185 Oldenlandia auricularia (L.) K.Schum. Rubiaceae Herb

186 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Rubiaceae Herb

187 Ophiorrhiza mungos L. Rubiaceae Herb

188 Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R.Br. ex Roem. & Schult. Gentianaceae Tree

189 Strychnos nux-vomica L. Loganiaceae Tree

190 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Apocyanaceae Tree

191 Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand. Apocyanaceae Shrub

192 Catharanthus pusillus (Murray) G.Don Apocyanaceae Herb

193 Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Hook.f. Apocyanaceae Climber

194 Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. Apocyanaceae Climber

195 Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don Apocyanaceae Shrub

196 Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.T.Aiton Apocyanaceae Climber

197 Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. Apocyanaceae Climber

198 Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Apocyanaceae Shrub

199 Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. Apocyanaceae Shrub

200 Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. ex Roem. &

Schult.

Apocyanaceae Shrub

201 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. Apocyanaceae Tree

202 Heliotropium indicum L. Boraginaceae Herb

203 Rotula aquatica Lour. Boraginaceae Herb

204 Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. Boraginaceae Herb

205 Aniseia martinicensis (Jacq.) Choisy Convolvulaceae Climber

206 Hewettia malabarica (L.) Suresh Convolvulaceae Climber

207 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk Convolvulaceae Climber

208 Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Convolvulaceae Climber

209 Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Verdc. Convolvulaceae Climber

210 Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl. Convolvulaceae Climber

211 Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br. Convolvulaceae Climber

212 Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Convolvulaceae Climber

213 Merremia tridentata (L.) Hallier f. Convolvulaceae Climber

214 Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae Shrub

215 Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae Herb

216 Solanum americanum Mill. Solanaceae Shrub

217 Solanum torvum Sw. Solanaceae Shrub

218 Solanum violaceum Ortega Solanaceae Shrub

219 Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P.S.Green Oleaceae Tree

220 Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton Oleaceae Climber

129

221 Myxopyrum smilacifolium (Wall.) Blume Oleaceae Climber

222 Olea dioica Roxb. Oleaceae Tree

223 Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae Herb

224 Sesamum indicum L. Pedaliaceae Herb

225 Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) B.Heyne ex Roth Acanthaceae Herb

226 Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine. Acanthaceae Herb

227 Hygrophila ringens (L.) R. Br. ex Spreng. Acanthaceae Herb

228 Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae Shrub

229 Justicia betonica L. Acanthaceae Shrub

230 Rungia repens (L.) Nees Acanthaceae Herb

231 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene Verbenaceae Herb

232 Anisochilus carnosus (L.f.) Wall. Lamiaceae Herb

233 Basilicum polystachyon (L.) Moench Lamiaceae Herb

234 Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze Lamiaceae Shrub

235 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae Shrub

236 Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Lamiaceae Herb

237 Ocimum gratissimum L. Lamiaceae Shrub

238 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae Shrub

239 Tectona grandis L.f. Lamiaceae Tree

240 Vitex negundo L. Lamiaceae Shrub

241 Nymphoides hydrophylla (Lour.) Kuntze Menyanthaceae Herb

242 Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Asteraceae Herb

243 Acmella ciliata (Kunth) Cass. Asteraceae Herb

244 Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. Asteraceae Herb

245 Blumea belangeriana DC Asteraceae Herb

246 Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. Asteraceae Herb

247 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae Herb

248 Sphaeranthus indicus L. Asteraceae Herb

249 Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae Herb

250 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae Herb

130

Annexure 6

Endemic taxa in the riparian vegetation of Thuthapuzha sub basin

Sl.

No

Name of the species Family Endemic to

1 Sageraea laurina Dalzell Annonaceae Western Ghats

2 Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) J.Presl Lauraceae Southern Western

Ghats

3 Litsea coriacea Hook.f. Lauraceae Peninsular India

4 Cryptocoryne retrospiralis (Roxb.) Kunth Araceae S. Western Ghats

5 Lagenandra meeboldii (Engl.) C.E.C.Fisch Araceae Western Ghats

6 Dioscorea alata L. Dioscoreaceae Peninsular India

7 Dioscorea kalkapershadii Prain & Burkill Dioscoreaceae S. Western Ghats

8 Smilax wightii A.DC Smilacaceae S. Western Ghats

9 Bulbophyllum rosemarianum Sath. Kumar,

P.C.S.Kumar & Saleem

Orchidaceae S. Western Ghats

10 Arenga wightii Griff. Arecaceae Western Ghats

11 Dictyospermum montanum Wight Commelinaceae Peninsular India

12 Curcuma amada var. amada Roxb Zingiberaceae India

13 Globba sessiliflora Sims Zingiberaceae India

14 Eragrostis riparia (Willd.) Nees Poaceae Peninsular India

15 Ochlandra travancorica (Bedd.) Gamble Poaceae S. Western Ghats

16 Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabb. Fabaceae

S. Western Ghats

17 Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight Polygalaceae Western Ghats

18 Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. Moraceae S. Western Ghats

19 Ficus beddomei King Moraceae Western Ghats

20 Ficus dalhousiae Miq. Moraceae S. Western Ghats

21 Begonia crenata Dryand. Begoniaceae Western Ghats

22 Hydnocarpus pentandrus (Buch.-Ham.) Oken Achariaceae Western Ghats

23 Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Müll.Arg Euphorbiaceae Peninsular India

24 Terminalia paniculata Roth. Combretaceae Peninsular India

25 Memecylon depressum Benth. Melastomataceae S. Western Ghats

26 Osbeckia muralis Naudin Melastomataceae Western Ghats

27 Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. Anacardiaceae S. Western Ghats

28 Nothopegia travancorica Bedd. ex Hook.f. Anacardiaceae S. Western Ghats

29 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. Meliaceae Peninsular India

30 Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. Dipterocarpaceae S. Western Ghats

31 Vateria indica L. Dipterocarpaceae Western Ghats

32 Impatiens scapiflora B.Heyne ex Roxb. Balsaminaceae Western Ghats

33 Impatiens gardneriana Wight Balsaminaceae S. Western Ghats

34 Impatiens minor (DC.) Bennet Balsaminaceae Peninsular India

35 Argostemma courtallense Arn. Rubiaceae India

36 Canthium rheedei DC Rubiaceae Peninsular India

37 Canthium travancoricum Bedd Rubiaceae S. Western Ghats

131

38 Ixora brachiata Roxb. Rubiaceae Western Ghats

39 Ixora elongata B. Heyne ex G.Don Rubiaceae India

40 Ixora lanceolaria Colebr. Rubiaceae S. Western Ghats

41 Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. Rubiaceae S. Western Ghats

42 Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae Peninsular India

43 Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.Don)

Ridsdale

Rubiaceae S. Western Ghats

44 Spermacoce hispida L. Rubiaceae Peninsular India

45 Heliotropium keralense Boraginaceae S. Western Ghats

46 Heliotropium rottleri Lehm. Boraginaceae Peninsular India

47 Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Verdc. Convolvulaceae South West India

48 Chionanthus mala- elangi ssp. mala-elangi

(Dennst.) P.S. Green

Oleaceae Peninsular India

49 Olea dioica Roxb. Oleaceae India

50 Epithema carnosum Benth. Gesneriaceae Western Ghats

51 Lindernia oppositifolia (Retz.) Mukerjee Linderniaceae S. Western Ghats

52 Lindernia tamilnadensis Prasad M.G Linderniaceae S. Western Ghats

53 Torenia bicolor Dalzell Linderniaceae Western Ghats

54 Barleria caurtallica Nees Acanthaceae Western Ghats

55 Barleria prattensis Santapau Acanthaceae Western Ghats

56 Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees Acanthaceae India

57 Gymnostachyum latifolium T.Anderson Acanthaceae Western Ghats

58 Strobilanthes lupulinus Nees Acanthaceae Peninsular India

59 Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) K. Schum. Bignoniaceae Peninsular India

60 Spilanthes vazhachalensis Sheela Asteraceae S. Western Ghats

132

Annexure 7

IUCN Categorization of riparian flora of Thuthapuzha and its tributaries

Sl.No Plant name Family IUCN

Category

1 Myristica fragrans Houtt. Myristicaceae DD

2 Acorus calamus L. Acoraceae LC

3 Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson Araceae LC

4 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae LC

5 Cryptocoryne retrospiralis (Roxb.) Kunth Araceae LC

6 Lemna perpusilla Torr. Araceae LC

7 Typhonium flagelliforme (Lodd.) Blume Araceae LC

8 Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Hydrocharitaceae LC

9 Gloriosa superba L. Colchicaceae LC

10 Arenga wightii Griff. Arecaceae VU

11 Caryota urens L. Arecaceae LC

12 Corypha umbraculifera L. Arecaceae DD

13 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae LC

14 Commelina clavata C.B.Clarke Commelinaceae LC

15 Commelina diffusa Burm.f. Commelinaceae LC

16 Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D.Don ex Sweet Commelinaceae LC

17 Cyanotis cristata (L.) D.Don Commelinaceae LC

18 Floscopa scandens Lour. Commelinaceae LC

19 Murdannia spirata (L.) Brueck. Commelinaceae LC

20 Globba sessiliflora Sims Zingiberaceae LC

21 Eriocaulon xeranthemum Mart. Eriocaulaceae LC

22 Cyperus compressus L. Cyperaceae LC

23 Cyperus cyperoides (L.) Kuntze Cyperaceae LC

24 Cyperus diffusus Vahl Cyperaceae LC

25 Cyperus difformis L. Cyperaceae LC

26 Cyperus digitatus Roxb. Cyperaceae LC

27 Cyperus distans L.f. Cyperaceae LC

28 Cyperus exaltatus Retz. Cyperaceae LC

29 Cyperus haspan L. Cyperaceae LC

30 Cyperus nutans Vahl Cyperaceae LC

31 Cyperus procerus Rottb. Cyperaceae LC

32 Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae LC

33 Cyperus tenuispica Steud. Cyperaceae LC

34 Fimbristylis argentea (Rottb.) Vahl Cyperaceae LC

35 Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani Cyperaceae LC

36 Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl Cyperaceae LC

37 Fimbristylis dipsacea (Rottb.) C.B. Clarke Cyperaceae LC

38 Fimbristylis quinquangularis (Vahl) Kunth Cyperaceae LC

39 Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Cyperaceae LC

40 Kyllinga bulbosa P.Beauv. Cyperaceae LC

133

Kyllinga nemoralis (J.R. Forst. &G. Forst.) Dandy

ex Hutch. & Dalziel

Cyperaceae LC

41 Pycreus polystachyos (Rottb.) P.Beauv. Cyperaceae LC

42 Pycreus pumilus (L.) Nees Cyperaceae LC

43 Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf Poaceae LC

44 Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P.Beauv. Poaceae LC

45 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae LC

46 Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae LC

47 Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E.Hubb. Poaceae LC

48 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Poaceae LC

49 Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze Poaceae LC

50 Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth Poaceae LC

51 Panicum repens L. Poaceae LC

52 Paspalum conjugatum P.J.Bergius Poaceae LC

53 Paspalum distichum L. Poaceae LC

54 Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Poaceae LC

55 Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Poaceae LC

56 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. Poaceae LC

57 Pogonatherum paniceum (Lam.) Hack. Poaceae LC

58 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae LC

59 Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. Poaceae LC

60 Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gagnep. Vitaceae VU

61 Tamarindus indica L. Fabaceae LC

62 Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. Fabaceae LC

63 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Fabaceae DD

64 Caesalpinia sappan L. Fabaceae LC

65 Cassia fistula L Fabaceae LC

66 Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars Fabaceae LC

67 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Fabaceae VU

68 Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf. Fabaceae LC

69 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. Fabaceae LC

70 Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC Fabaceae LC

71 Erythrina variegata L. Fabaceae LC

72 Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae LC

73 Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv. Fabaceae LC

74 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Fabaceae LC

75 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Fabaceae NT

76 Spatholobus parviflorus (DC.) Kuntze Fabaceae LC

77 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Fabaceae LC

78 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Rhamnaceae LC

79 Holoptelea grandis (Hutch.) Mildbr. Ulmaceae LC

80 Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Ulmaceae LC

81 Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. Moraceae LC

82 Ficus exasperata Vahl Moraceae LC

83 Lophopetalum wightianum Celastraceae LC

84 Calophyllum inophyllum L. Calophyllaceae LC

134

85 Hydnocarpus pentandrus (Buch.-Ham.) Oken Achariaceae VU

86 Antidesma montanum Blume Euphorbiaceae LC

87 Aporosa fusiformis Thwaites Euphorbiaceae CR

88 Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr. Euphorbiaceae VU

89 Bischofia javanica Blume Euphorbiaceae LC

90 Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook.f. Euphorbiaceae VU

91 Homonoia riparia Lour. Euphorbiaceae LC

92 Mallotus nudiflorus (L.) Kulju & Welzen Euphorbiaceae LC

93 Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne Lythraceae LC

94 Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell Onagraceae LC

95 Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae LC

96 Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston Myrtaceae EN

97 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae DD

98 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae LC

99 Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. Dipterocarpaceae EN

100 Vateria indica L. Dipterocarpaceae CR

101 Carica papaya L. Caricaceae DD

102 Santalum album L Santalaceae VU

103 Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara Polygonaceae LC

104 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M.Gómez Polygonaceae LC

105 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae LC

106 Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Asch. ex

Schweinf.

Talinaceae LC

107 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae LC

108 Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. Lacythidaceae LC

109 Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) H.J.Lam Sapotaceae LC

110 Dentella repens (L.) J.R.Forst. &G.Forst. Rubiaceae LC

111 Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. Rubiaceae LC

112 Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. Rubiaceae VU

113 Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.Don)

Ridsdale

Rubiaceae VU

114 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Rubiaceae LC

115 Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb. Rubiaceae LC

116 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Apocyanaceae LC

117 Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don Apocyanaceae LC

118 Aniseia martinicensis (Jacq.) Choisy Convolvulaceae LC

119 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk Convolvulaceae LC

120 Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet Convolvulaceae LC

121 Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae LC

122 Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae LC

123 Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl Hydroleaceae LC

124 Limnophila chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. Plantaginaceae LC

125 Limnophila repens (Benth.) Benth. Plantaginaceae LC

126 Lindernia anagallis (Burm.f.) Pennell Linderniaceae LC

127 Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston Linderniaceae LC

128 Lindernia caespitosa (Blume) Panigrahi Linderniaceae LC

135

129 Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell Linderniaceae LC

130 Lindernia crustacea (L.) F.Muell. Linderniaceae LC

131 Lindernia oppositifolia (L.) Mukerjee Linderniaceae LC

132 Lindernia procumbens (Krock.) Philcox Linderniaceae LC

133 Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Alston Linderniaceae LC

134 Torenia bicolor Dalzell Linderniaceae LC

135 Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine. Acanthaceae LC

136 Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. Acanthaceae LC

137 Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet Acanthaceae LC

138 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene Verbenaceae LC

139 Lobelia alsinoides Lam. Companulaceae LC

140 Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn Companulaceae LC

141 Nymphoides hydrophylla (Lour.) Kuntze Menyanthaceae LC

142 Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. Asteraceae LC

143 Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. Asteraceae LC

144 Blumea viscosa (Mill.) V.M.Badillo Asteraceae LC

145 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae LC

146 Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae LC

147 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae LC

CR- Critically endangered, DD- Data Deficient EN- Endangered, LC- Least concern, NT- Near

Threatened, VU- Vulnerable,

136

Annexure 8

Alien flora of Thuthapuzha sub-basin

Sl

No

Name of the species Habit Family Nativity Status

1 Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth Herb Piperaceae SA Nt

2 Myristica fragrans Houtt. Tree Myristicaceae EA Cl

3 Annona reticulata L. Tree Anonaceae WI Cl

4 Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau Herb Alismataceae SA N/I

5 Acorus calamus L. Herb Araceae EU Nt

6 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Herb Asphodelaceae AF Nt

7 Borassus flabellifer L. Tree Arecaceae AF Nt

8 Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Herb Pontederiaceae SA In

9 Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) C. Presl

ex Kunth

Herb Pontederiaceae EA In

10 Canna indica L. Herb Cannaceae AS Nt

11 Chloris barbata Sw. Herb Poaceae AF Nt

12 Coix lacryma-jobi L. Herb Poaceae AF Nt

13 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Herb Poaceae AF& EU Nt

14 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd Herb Poaceae AF & SA N/I

15 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Herb Poaceae AF & SA Nt

16 Eragrostis tef (Zuccagni) Trotter Herb Poaceae AF Nt

17 Panicum repens L. Herb Poaceae AF, AS &

EU

Nt

18 Paspalum conjugatum P.J. Bergius Herb Poaceae SA Nt

19 Paspalum distichum L. Herb Poaceae SA Nt

20 Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Herb Poaceae AF N/I

21 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. Herb Poaceae AU Nt

22 Tamarindus indica L. Herb Fabaceae SA & WI In

23 Albizia saman (Jacq.) Merr. Tree Fabaceae MA Nt

24 Mimosa diplotricha Sauvalle Tree Fabaceae SA Nt

25 Mimosa pudica L. Climber Fabaceae SA & NA Nt

26 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Climber Fabaceae SA Nt

27 Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Climber Fabaceae SA Nt

28 Aeschynomene americana L. Tree Fabaceae AF Cl

29 Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Herb Fabaceae SA Nt

30 Centrosema molle Benth. Shrub Fabaceae SA Nt

31 Clitoria ternatea L. Herb Fabaceae SA Nt

32 Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf. Climber Fabaceae SA N/I

33 Erythrina variegata L. Tree Fabaceae AF C/N

34 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. Tree Fabaceae SA Nt

35 Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. Climber Fabaceae AS & AU N/I

36 Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Tree Cannabaceae AF N/I

37 Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. &

Nakai

Climber Cucurbitaceae AF Cl

137

38 Croton hirtus L'Hér. Herb Euphorbiaceae WI & SA Nt

39 Croton tiglium L. Herb Euphorbiaceae CH Nt

40 Euphorbia hirta L. Herb Euphorbiaceae SA N/I

41 Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A.Juss.)

Müll.Arg.

Tree Euphorbiaceae BR Cl

42 Jatropha curcas L. Shrub Euphorbiaceae SA Nt

43 Jatropha gossypiifolia L. Shrub Euphorbiaceae SA Nt

44 Jatropha integerrima Jacq. Shrub Euphorbiaceae AF Nt

45 Manihot esculenta Crantz. Shrub Euphorbiaceae BR Cl

46 Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll. Arg. Herb Euphorbiaceae AF & AU Nt

47 Ricinus communis L. Shrub Euphorbiaceae AF N/I

48 Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Herb Phyllanthaceae SA Nt

49 Passiflora foetida L. Climber Passifloraceae SA N/I

50 Terminalia catappa L. Tree Combretaceae AU Cl

51 Lawsonia inermis L. Shrub Lythraceae AF Nt

52 Ludwigia peruviana (L.) H.Hara Shrub Onagraceae AF & EU Nt

53 Psidium guajava L. Tree Myrtaceae SA Nt

54 Anacardium occidentale L. Tree Anacardiaceae BR Nt

55 Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Tree Malvaceae MX Nt

56 Helicteres isora C. Presl Shrub Malvaceae AU Nt

57 Sida acuta Burm. f. Shrub Malvaceae SA Nt

58 Theobroma cacao L. Tree Malvaceae SA Cl

59 Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Shrub Malvaceae AF Nt

60 Urena lobata L. Shrub Malvaceae AF N/I

61 Carica papaya L. Tree Caricaceae SA Cl

62 Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn. Climber Polygonaceae SA Nt

63 Polycarpon tetraphyllum (L.) L. Herb Caryophyllaceae Eu Nt

64 Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel)

G.Nicholson

Herb Amaranthaceae SA Nt

65 Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Herb Amaranthaceae SA& NA Nt

66 Alternanthera ficoidea (L.) Sm. Herb Amaranthaceae CA Nt

67 Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.)

Griseb.

Herb Amaranthaceae SA Nt

68 Alternanthera tenella Colla var. Tenella Herb Amaranthaceae SA Nt

69 Amaranthus blitum Moq. Herb Amaranthaceae EU Cl

70 Amaranthus spinosus L. Herb Amaranthaceae SA Nt

71 Mirabilis jalapa L. Herb Nyctaginaceae EU Nt

72 Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Asch.

ex schweinf.

Herb Talinaceae SA Nt

73 Chrysophyllum cainito L. Tree Sapotaceae AF & SA C/N

74 Coffea arabica L. Shrub Rubiaceae AF Cl

75 Coffea liberica Hiern Shrub Rubiaceae AF Cl

76 Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC. Herb Rubiaceae AF & SA Nt

77 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Herb Rubiaceae AF Nt

78 Spermacoce alata Aubl. Herb Rubiaceae MX Nt

79 Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. Shrub Apocyanaceae AF Nt