Sep 15, 2014
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FOREWORD
How does one value a company? While at a broad level one may be able to understand why a company may be worth a certain amount to an investor or a buyer, it is not always possible to understand why someone is willing to pay a certain amount for a business.
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FOREWORD
A business worth a significant amount at a certain point in time may suddenly lose much of its value a very short while later. This is what happened in many companies commonly referred to as ‘dot-com companies,’ which were valued at amounts which may seem absurd now…. in hindsight.
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AGENDATopic Slide no.Background 6Valuation methods 13Cost based 16 Book value 18 Goodwill 24 Intangible assets 28 Replacement 31 Liquidation 32Income based 33 Earnings capitalisation 35 DCF 36 Limitations of DCF 43Market based 52
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AGENDATopic Slide no.What value depends on 63
Valuation process 67Special situations Multi business 75M & A 84Cyclic companies 91Companies in distress 94Cross border transactions 97Privatisation 102
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BACKGROUND - FAQs Why do values of companies change from
time to time? Does value depend on whether one wants
to sell a company, to buy a minority stake or to buy the entire company?
Will a strategic investor value a company differently from a financial investor?
How can a company which is continually losing money have any value?
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VALUATION PROCESS
Review and selection of the methods of valuation
Understanding of issues which impact valuation
Special situations and their impact on valuation
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What is value
Cost vs. Market Value Historical vs. Replacement Differs depending on need of
person doing valuation – buyer, seller, employee, banker, insurance company
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Value to user
Valued because of expected return on investment over some period of time; i.e. valued because of the future expectation
Return may be in cash or in kind
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Complex nature of valuationValue A + Value B can be
greater or less than
Value (A+B)
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Why Value When do you think a company is to be valued?
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Why Value To Purchase Sell Transact Take decisions Report
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VALUATION METHODS
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Valuation methodsThese can be broadly classified into:
Cost based Income based Market based
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Valuation methods
Different experts have different classifications of the various methods of valuation
Within these methods, there are sub-methods
Sometimes the methods overlap
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1. COST BASED METHODS
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Cost based methods
Book value
Replacement value
Liquidation value
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Book value method
Historical cost valuation All assets are taken at historical book value Value of goodwill* is added to this above figure
to arrive at the valuation
*We will see how goodwill is valued in later slides
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Book value method
Historical cost valuation All assets are taken at historical book
value Value of goodwill is added to this
above figure to arrive at the valuation
Do you think there would be any difficulties in this?
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Book value methodCurrent cost valuation All assets are taken at current value and summed to
arrive at value This includes tangible assets, intangible assets,
investments, stock, receivables
VALUE = ASSETS - LIABILITIES
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Book value methodCurrent cost valuation All assets are taken at current value and summed to
arrive at value This includes tangible assets, intangible assets,
investments, stock, receivables
What do you think could be difficulties in this method?
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Book value methodCurrent cost valuation: Difficulties Technology valuation – whether off or on balance
sheet Tangible assets – valuation of fixed assets in use
may not be a straightforward or easy exercise Could be subject to measurement error
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Book value methodCurrent cost valuation: More difficulties The company is not a simple sum of stand alone elements in the balance
sheet Organisation capital is difficult to capture in a number – this includes
– Employees– Customer relationships– Industry standing and network capital– Etc…
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Valuation of goodwill
Based on capital employed and expected profits vs. actual profits
Based on number of years of super profits expected
May be discounted at suitable rate
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Valuation of goodwill Normal capitalisation method
– Normal capital required to get actual return less actual capital employed
Super profit method– Excess of actual profit over normal profit multiplied by number
of years super profits are expected to continue Annuity method
– Discounted super profit at a suitable rate
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Valuation of goodwillCOMPANY A Capital employed: Rs. 45 cr Normal rate of return: 12 % Future maintainable profit: Rs. 5.5 cr What would be the goodwill under the
normal capitalization method? SOLUTION: (change font colour to see this) = (5.5/.12) – 45 = Rs. 0.83 cr
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Valuation of goodwillCOMPANY B Capital employed: Rs. 50 cr Normal rate of return: 15 % Future maintainable profit: Rs. 8 cr Super profit can be maintained for:3 years What would be the goodwill under the super
profit method?SOLUTION: (change font colour to see this)= [8 – (50*.15) ] * 3 = Rs.1.50 cr
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Valuation of IAThe value of the IA is from Economic benefit provided Specific to business or usage Has different aspects
– Accounting value– Economic value– Technical value– Can you think of examples of these
different values?
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Valuation of IA
Depends on objective and can vary widely depending on purpose
For accounting purposes – to show in financial statements
For acquisition/merger/investment For management to understand
value of company for decision making
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IA value in transactions
Often value paid in M&A deals is more than market value/book value. This could be:
Partly due to over bidding due to strategic reason (existing or perceived) and
Partly due to IA of company, not captured in balance sheet
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Replacement value method
Cost of replacing existing business is taken as the value of the business
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Liquidation value method Value if company is not a going
concern Based on net assets or piecemeal
value of net assets
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INCOME BASED METHODS
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Income Based methods
Earnings capitalisation method or profit earning capacity value method
Discounted cash flow method (DCF)
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Earnings capitalisation method
This method is also known as the Profit earnings capacity value (PECV)
Company’s value is determined by capitalising its earnings at a rate considered suitable
Assumption is that the future earnings potential of the company is the underlying value driver of the business
Suitable for fairly established business having predictable revenue and cost models
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Discounted cash flow method
Creame Corner wants to acquire Samosa Specials for Rs. 10 million. The net cash flows are in the table below. Creame Corner wants to apply a discount rate of 15%. Should it buy Samosa Specials?
Year Net CF 15% disc.Rs. ‘000
1 -10,000 12 1,000 0.86963 3,000 0.75614 5,000 0.65755 6,500 0.5718
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Discounted cash flow method NPV is positive hence
based on this method, the answer is YES, the acquisition should be made!
Can you think of three deficiencies in this valuation method?
Year Net CF 15% disc.
NPVRs. ‘000 Rs. ‘000
1 -10,000 1 -10,0002 1,000 0.8696 8703 3,000 0.7561 2,2684 5,000 0.6575 3,2885 6,500 0.5718 3,717
5,500 142
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Applicability of DCF method
Cash flow to equity– Discount rate reflects cost of equity
Cash flow to firm– Discount rate reflects weighted
average cost of capital
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Discounted cash flow Cash flow to equity
– Valuation of equity stake in business– Based on expected cash flows – Net of all outflows, including tax,
interest and principal payments, reinvestment needs
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Discounted cash flow Cash flow to firm
– Value of firm for all claim holders, includes equity investors and lenders
– Net of tax but prior to debt payments– Measures free cash flow to firm
before all financing costs
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Discounted cash flow
nt
tt
t
rCFValue
1 )1(• CF is cash flow • t is the year and • r the discount rate
i.e. the cash flow for each year from year 1 to year n (which is the timeperiod under consideration) is discounted to arrive at the present valueof future cash flows from year 1 to n
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Applicability
Discounted cash flow is based on expected cash flow and discount rates
Sometimes it is difficult to get a reliable estimate for the future and the valuation model may need modification
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Limitations Companies in difficulty
– Negative earnings– May expect to lose money for some
time in future– Possibility of bankruptcy– May have to consider cash flows after
they turn negative or use alternate means
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Limitations Companies with cyclic business
– May move with economy & rise during boom & fall in recession
– Cash flow may get smoothed over time– Analyst has to carefully study company
with a view on the general economic trends. The bias of the analyst regarding the economic scenario may find its way into the valuation model
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Limitations
Unutilised assets of business– Cash flow reflects assets utilised by
company– Unutilised and underutilised assets may
not get reflected in the valuation model– This may be overcome by adding value
of unutilised assets to cash flow. The value again may be on assumption of asset utilisation or market value or a combination of these
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Limitations Companies with patents or product
options– Unutilised product options may not
produce cash flow in near future, but may be valuable
– This may be overcome by adding value of unutilised product using option pricing model or estimating possible cash flow or some similar method
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Limitations
Companies in process of restructuring– May be selling or acquiring assets– May be restructuring capital or
changing ownership structure– Difficult to understand impact on cash
flow
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Limitations Companies in process of
restructuring– Firm will be more risky, how can this
be captured?– Historical data will not be of much
help– Analysis should carefully try to
consider impact of such change
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Limitations Companies in process of M&A
– Estimation of synergy benefit in terms of cash flow may be difficult
– Additional capex may be calculated based on inadequate information or limited data
– Difficult to capture effect of change in management directly in cash flow
– Analyst should try to study impact of M&A with due care
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Limitations Companies in process of M&A
Historically, many M&As have not done as well as expected. Many times this has been attributed to valuation being too high. To minimise this risk of over valuation, a proper due diligence review (DDR) exercise is to be done, with one of the mandates for this being careful review of the value drivers and the business proposition.
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Limitations Unlisted companies
– Difficult to estimate risk– Historical information may not be
indicative of future, particularly in early stage, growth phases
– Market information on similar companies can be difficult to obtain
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MARKET BASED METHOD
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Market based method Also known as relative method Assumption is that other firms in
industry are comparable to firm being valued
Standard parameters used like earnings, profit, book value
Adjustments made for variances from standard firms, these can be negative or positive
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Exercise in Valuation
Plantation Co. Garden Co. Park Co.Enterprise market value/sales 1.4 1.1 1.1Enterprise market value/EBITDA 17.0 15.0 19.0Enterprise market value/free cash flows 20 26 26
Application to Meadows Co.Sales Rs. 200 croresEBIDTA Rs. 14 croresFree cash flow Rs. 10 crores
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Value estimated
Plantation Co. Garden Co. Park Co. AverageEnterprise market value/sales 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.2Enterprise market value/EBITDA 17.0 15.0 19.0 17.0Enterprise market value/free cash flows 20.0 26.0 26.0 24.0
Application to Meadows Co. Average ValueSales Rs. 200 crores 1.2 Rs. 240 croresEBIDTA Rs. 14 crores 17.0 Rs. 238 croresFree cash flow Rs. 10 crores 24.0 Rs. 240 crores
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Exercise in Valuation
Papers Co Docs Co. Prints Co.Enterprise market value/sales 2.6 1.9 0.9Enterprise market value/EBITDA 10.0 21.0 4.0Enterprise market value/free cash flows 21.0 30.0 24.0
Application to PenPencil Co.Sales Rs. 300 croresEBIDTA Rs. 15 croresFree cash flow Rs. 7.5 crores
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Value estimated ?Papers Co Docs Co. Prints Co. Average
Enterprise market value/sales 2.6 1.9 0.9 1.8Enterprise market value/EBITDA 10.0 21.0 4.0 11.7Enterprise market value/free cash flows 21.0 30.0 24.0 25.0
Application to PenPencil Co. Average ValueSales Rs. 300 crores 1.8 Rs. 540 croresEBIDTA Rs. 15 crores 11.7 Rs. 175.5 croresFree cash flow Rs. 7.5 crores 25.0 Rs. 187.5 crores
Since multiples differ, this cannot be used as a dependable guide for valuation
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Relative Valuation Using fundamentals
– Valuation related to fundamentals of business being valued
Using comparables– Valuation is estimated by comparing
business with a comparable fit
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Relative Valuation Using fundamentals for multiples
to be estimated for valuation– Relates multiples to fundamentals of
business being valued, eg earnings, profits
– Similar to cash flow model, same information is required
– Shows relationships between multiples and firm characteristics
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Relative Valuation
Using Comparables for estimation of firm value– Review of comparable firms to
estimate value– Definition of comparable can be
difficult– May range from simple to complex
analysis
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Applicability Simple and easy to use Useful when data of comparable
firms and assets are available
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Limitation Easy to misuse Selection of comparable can be
subjective Errors in comparable firms get
factored into valuation model
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VALUATION: What it depends on
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Valuation depends on Management team Historical performance Future projections Project, product, USP Industry scenario Country scenario Market, opportunity, growth
expected, barriers to competition
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Valuation depends on Nature of transaction Whether 1st round or later round Whether family and friends or other parties Amount of money required Stage of company - early stage, mezzanine
stage (pre-IPO), later stage (IPO)
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Valuation depends on Strategic requirements and need for
transaction Demand / supply position Flavour of the season
Initial ballpark valuation can alsobe a deal issue
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VALUATION: Process
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Process of valuation Consider Net assets tangible and intangible Financial data Historical information Company info Industry info Economic environment
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Process of valuation Include elements of cash, costs, revenues,
markets Plan long term not short haul Use more than one model Discount for risks, assign probabilities Arrive at range
A valuation range is preferable to a single number
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Process of valuation
Finally after arriving at the value rangeraise some fundamental questions Does the value reflect the past
performance and the expected future? Does the value reflect the USP as compared
to competition? Does the value reflect the quality of the
management?
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Process of valuationThe last mile…
Does the valuation reflect the picture you have of the business?
Would you be willing to pay this price?
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Valuation: for investment Valuation is perception in the eye
of the beholder It is subject to negotiation
InvestorInvestorValue
CompanyCompanyValue
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Valuation: in M&A Value of combined business is
expected to be more than value of the individual companies
Value (A+B)Value (A+B)
Value A + Value BValue A + Value B
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APPLICATION OF VALUATION MODELS
In special cases
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Multi business models The entire business is valued as a sum
of the parts Valuation depends on successful
management of different units Strategic decisions usually occur at
each business unit level To understand the company one needs
to first understand the opportunities and threats faced by each business unit
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Multi business models Valuation of company that is based
on valuation of individual business units provides deeper insight
Valuation of individual business units also helps understand whether the company is more valuable as a whole or in parts and to understand where the value is (eg. in some units or in the company as a whole)
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Multi business models Particularly useful in restructuring
and reworking business and financial strategy of the business going ahead
Helps understand and get a better picture of costs of the corporate office and understand allocation of these costs and whether these can be reduced
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Multi business models Identifying business units can be
complex Cash flows projection can be
complex and interdependent on different units
Allocation of corporate office costs and other company costs/benefits may be difficult
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Multi business models A business unit is identified as one which
can be split off as a stand alone unit or sold to another enterprise– Units are to be logically separable– They should not have depend
production/sales/distribution etc.– Some joint products may fall under one unit,
if there is interdependency which calls for this– If there is limited interdependency, this may
be viewed by considering transfer pricing and whether transactions could be considered ‘arms length’
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Multi business models Allocation of corporate costs
including some or all of these:– Salary and other costs of key
management – Board costs– Corporate administration costs– Costs of listing as a public company– Advertising and marketing costs
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Multi business models Allocation methods are to be
carefully thought through and could be a combination of different methods for different costs, including– Based on time spent (time sheets)– Advertising based on revenue
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Multi business models Benefits are also to be incorporated,
including– Saving on operational costs– Information/communications– Tax benefits / shields (ie one loss producing
unit would provide a shield to another profit making one – important when one is considering a split up / hive off of some units)
– Intangible benefits – can these be quantified? (Eg key person in management team / Board)
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Multi business models Difficulties and concerns
– Partial holdings in units (taken as a percentage of ownership of business unit value)
– Double counting may occur– Allocation may pose difficulties– Interdependency may not be easy to separate – Intangibles cannot be easily quantified– Transfer pricing to be viewed in the regulatory
context
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Mergers/Acquisitions These have become very
important as companies try to grow inorganically or network to exploit possible synergies
Most senior executives may be involved in such transactions– Directly or indirectly– In the buy side or target side
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Mergers/AcquisitionsRationale for the proposed transaction is to be understood
Synergy – Revenues– Costs– Intangibles
Control/ dominance in market Under valuation perceived
(LBOs/LBIs)
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Mergers/Acquisitions
Studies show that generally acquired company shareholders gain
Reasons for failure– Poor post acquisition management– Over payment for target
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Mergers/Acquisitions Research has suggested that the
following factors have resulted in positive deals– Bigger value creation overall– Lower premiums paid– Better run by acquirers
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Mergers/AcquisitionsOverpayment could be because of a combination of these factors:
Market potential - overoptimistic appraisal
Synergy – overestimated Due diligence – inadequate Bidding – excessive
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Mergers/Acquisitions Synergy
– Operational (vertical and horizontal M&A eg backward integration, captive customer)
– Functional (Production, sales)– Benefits (tax, control etc.) and impact
on cash flow to be quantified (eg. increased sales, reduced wages) keeping timing in mind
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Mergers/Acquisitions LBOs/LBIs Initially high leverage May be followed by rapid reduction
in debt This impacts business risk which
will change
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Cyclic companies Fluctuation in earnings over different
periods in time One approach taken is that if done
correctly, DCF evens out fluctuations /volatility in the long term because all value is reduced to a single period
However position of current year in cycle, needs to be factored in as it is considered as base year
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Cyclic companies Growth rates in different years
need to be adjusted based on expected cycles
There may be difficulty in estimating cycles accurately
If future differs from past, this would impact forecasts and therefore impact valuation
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Cyclic companies It is important to have different
possible scenarios and arrive at a range of values should be arrived
This is useful as managers can implement decisions based on the valuation depending on the stage of the cycle the company is in (eg. for buyback, issue of shares, raising of debt funds)
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Companies in distress
May have one or all these problems Negative cash flow Unable to pay back debt Liquidity crunch
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Companies in distressValuing the company based on expectation of turnaround
Assume the company will be healthy soon and look at future based on a healthier past
Analyse based on future expected transaction in which cash flow is identifiable
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Companies in distress Liquidation value Sum of parts based on individual
identification of units – Consider different alternate scenarios
of units in different combinations– Consider all assets tangible and
intangible Cap at possible realisable value
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Cross border transactionsThere are special issues in such cases, including
Foreign exchange fluctuations Difference in regulations (statutory,
accounting) Estimating cost of capital Country risks Inter country transactions
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Cross border transactions Analyse past performance Translate Fx into host country
financials, based on accounting standards
Include any tax implication (eg subsidiary may pay dividend tax only if this is paid out)
Arrive at FCF and convert to domestic currency
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Cross border transactions Consider impact of restrictions on
transfer of currency In place of FCF, multiples may also
be used
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Cross border transactions View impact of accounting
regulations on financials– Provisions (pension)– Goodwill (amortised or against equity)– Revaluation of assets– Deferred taxes – Fx translations– Non operating assets– Tax
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Cross border transactions Cost of capital
– Market risk premium difficult to estimate, sometimes proxies are used
– Risks in changing regulations – Political risks– Illiquid capital markets– Restrictions on cash flows
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Privatisation
Listed companies have the following which may lead to increased costs
Increase in information to be provided per listing requirements
Separation of ownership and management (good/bad?)
Focus on stock prices at the cost of fundamental growth, in many cases
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PrivatisationImplication of privatisation Reduced access to finance Reduced visibility of company (impact
on brand) Reduced requirement for
compliance/governance
Impacts to be factored in for valuation, to the extent possible