Abnormal Psychology
Abnormal Psychology
Definition: Scientific study of abnormal behaviour:
psychological disorders/mental disorders.
An empirical method to study...
Description
Classification; diagnosis: what is classified as abnormal? How
can we tell?
Diagnosis of psychological disorders is very different from
physical illness
Causation
Bio-psycho-social factors
The factors all interact with each other; cause is never due to
either/or
Treatment
Effectiveness of treatment need to be closely monitored
It is difficult to find out if a treatment is effective since
there could also be many factors that affect the patients mental
state
...of Psychological/Mental disorders or abnormalityWhat is
Abnormal? Deviant (unexpected/rare/unusual)E.g: fetishism (sexual
dysfunction)
However: positively valued deviations exist; eccentricity
Impractical to define a characteristic as abnormal just because
it is rare
Everyone is different
Distressing (to self or to others)E.g: depression, anxiety
Many symptoms in abnormal behaviour are found in everyday life
(healthy people have anxiety too)
Some abnormal behaviour does not involve distress (e.g bipolar
disorder)
Dysfunctional (interferes with life goals)E.g: ADHD
What is dysfunctional is defined by society (women wanting to
work was dysfunctional as it interfered with societys expectation
of them as housewives and child-bearers)
Those with abnormal characteristics can have a fulfilled life (a
person with psychopathic tendencies could be born into a wealthy
family and thus have a great life
Accepted guideline to what is abnormal: A mental disorder is
whatever is included in the DSM, aka Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental DisordersSatisfying one or two of the above three
conditions does not mean it is necessary or sufficient to diagnose
that behaviour as abnormal.
It is important to note that abnormality is always defined by
society and cultural values: different societies may classify
different behaviours as abnormal
Psychological abnormality exists on a continuum with normality,
and a behaviour is defined as abnormal when it crosses a cut-off
point (which can be vague).
Thus, psychological disorders are not as readily definable as
physical illness.
Models of Mental Illness
ModelCauseTreatment
SupernaturalSpirits; stars/moon; past livesExorcisms, prayers
etc
BiologicalInternal physical problems; biological dysfunction;
all disorders are from a biological sourceBleeding, diet, celibacy,
exercise, rest, medication
PsychologicalBeliefs, perceptions, values, goals, motivation
etc; psychological dysfunction; people see things in a way that
causes them to sufferPsychotherapy
SocioculturalPoverty, prejudice, social and cultural
systemsFixing social issues
Biological/medicinal model of mental illness
DefinitionCriticisms
Oldest and currently most dominant model of mental illness
Assumes that psychological disorders can be diagnosed similarly
to physical illness
Explains mental illness in terms of biological disease process
such as
Structural brain abnormalities (schizophrenia)
Neurochemical imbalance (depression)
Best treated with medication, surgery etcExtreme
reductionism
Certain complex psychological phenomena (e.g creativity) may be
impossible to explain at a purely neural/molecular level
Over-extrapolation from animal research
Animals dont live in the complex society that humans do live in,
so animal research overlooks many social and psychological factors
that affect us in everyday life
Assuming causation from treatment
May not be applicable to conceptualising and diagnosing mental
illnesses
Clear boundary between physical health and illness; however
mental health and disorder is a continuum
There are clear boundaries between different physical illnesses;
however psychological disorders commonly co-occur
Psychological Models
PsychoanalyticMost dominant during first half of 20th century;
usage discontinued by 1970s
Sigmund Freuds id, ego and superego
Three parts of the mind that are always in conflict
Maladjustment (abnormality) arises from unresolved conflicts
causing
Anxiety
Defence mechanisms
Protect us from knowing what is causing us suffering
When overly used can also become abnormal symptoms
Is thus both normal and abnormal behaviour
Critiques: lack empirical evidence and also lack
falsifiability
HumanisticBelieve that people are born good rather than evil
Happiness is achieved by becoming fully-functioning,
self-actualized persons
Maladjustment arises from blockage of ones path to
self-actualization
Environments that impose conditions of worth (e.g not being able
to pursue a dream career because of familys expectations)
Having ones own experience, emotions and needs suppressed
Treatment: empathy and unconditional positive regard
Critiques: difficult to research
Still used in counselling, though not in critical psychology
Behavioural
Shaping of self purely through environmental influence such as
Classical and Operant (Instrumental) conditioning
Maladjustment arises from aversive learning history
Many treatment applications, such as implanting new learning to
cover old learning (extinction)
Critiques: does not factor in cognition or emotion, implies that
we learn by doing only
Bandura (1974) found that learning is not purely from behaviour
with his observational learning theory, which incorporated
cognition to behaviourism
Cognitive-Behavioural ModelCurrently dominant model in
psychology
Our interpretation of our environment influences our emotions
and behaviour
Maladjustment arises from latent core negative beliefs
Negative views of the world formed by past experiences
Could lead to pessimistic/negative interpretation of situations
that are consistent with such core negative beliefs, even if
situation is ambiguous
Cognitive biases; only picking up information that fits in with
our believes
(Over-generalizing, selective attention, catastrophising,
personalizing, magnification, mistaking feelings for facts,
etc)
Negative automatic thoughts
Models are not necessarily either/or; different models could
combine to fit a situation
Classification and Causation (why?)
To improve communication between researchersTo improve
communication between health professionalsMay improve communication
and understanding of mental health in the communityMay reduce
social stigma against those with mental health issuesClassification
Systems
International Classification of Diseases and Health Related
Problems (ICD)
Published by World Health Organisation
Mental disorders added for first time in 1948
Currently in 10th edition
DSM
Published by the American Psychiatric Association
1st edition published in 1952
Currently in 5th edition (DSM-5)
Development of DSMDSM-I (1952), DSM-II (1968)
Strongly influenced by psychoanalytic theory
Therefore had problematic reliability
Had no specific conditions to diagnose patients with
How much self depreciation must one exhibit before they can be
diagnosed?
How often must patient display conditions?
Can a patient still be suffering from mental health issues if
some conditions are not met?
Therefore it was difficult for psychiatrists to agree on
diagnosis
Problematic validity
Are the descriptors really accurate?
Freuds theories were often not disprovable/cannot be
falsified
DSM-III (1980) and beyond
DSM-III (1980), DSM-III-R (1987), DSM-IV (1994), DSM-IV-TR
(2000), DSM-5 (2013)
Major development in classification
Now reflects the medical/biological model (physiological
causation)
No theoretical assumptions about causation - all symptoms and
causes can be seen or shown through patient report, direct
observation and measurement
If causation is not known, then descriptions of symptoms can be
used to diagnose
No assumptions about unconscious processes
Clear, explicit criteria and decision rules
Has improved reliability and validity
See lecture 2 slides for comparison between descriptors of
depression
Anxiety and Related DisordersDefinition: Systems that are
activated in response to perceived threat. The experience of
anxiety is the same in normal and abnormal anxiety. Abnormal
anxiety is when the occurrence of anxiety is excessive (more
intense than objective level of threat) or inappropriate (in
absence of objective threat). It is characterised by overestimation
of threat, such that the probability and cost of a negative outcome
is exaggerated.
There are three interrelated anxiety systems: the Physical,
Cognitive and Behavioural systems;
Physical SystemSympathetic nervous system: fight/flight
response
Mobilises all resources in the body to deal with threat
Symptoms: sweating, heart rate increase, trembling etc; classic
symptoms of autonomic arousal
Cognitive SystemPerception of threat
Hypervigilance: where attention is focused onto the threat
alone
Leads to difficulty concentration on other tasks
Behavioural SystemEscape/Avoidance
Aggression
Freezing
Anxiety Disorders according to DSM-IVCategorised according to
the focus of anxiety; experience of anxiety is same/similar in
each
Separation anxiety disorderAnxiety when away from primary
caregiver
Occurs mostly in children
Specific phobiasIrrational fear of things such as animals,
blood, specific situations etc
Social phobiaFear of negative social evaluation
Generalized anxiety disorderExcessive and uncontrollable worry
about a range of outcomes
No specific focus of anxiety; worried about everything
Obsessive-Compulsive disorderObsessions: intrusive thoughts or
impulses
Compulsions: ritualized behaviours to relieve the anxiety caused
by obsessions (such as hand-washing)
Often subjects are aware of their compulsive behaviour
Post-traumatic stress disorderAnxiety at thoughts/memories of
traumatic experience
Panic disorder (with/without Agoraphobia)Unexpected/spontaneous
panic attacks (at least 2), leading to anxiety about having another
attack
Agoraphobia: fear and avoidance of places where panic attacks
have occurred
Strong avoidance of source of anxiety will maintain the anxiety
(because no experience of going to the place and not having an
attack)
Those with severe agoraphobia cannot even leave their homes
Selective Mutism (DSM-V)Occurs mostly in children
Will not talk to strangers/will only talk to certain people
Anxiety disorders are highly comorbid (tend to occur with each
other. Most people with mental disorders will have several
disorders at the same time) with each other as well as
Depression.
Contrast between DSM-IV and DSM-V in Anxiety Disorders
ChapterDSM-IVDSM-V
Separation Anxiety Disorder
Specific Phobia
Social Phobia
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Panic Disorder
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
Acute Stress Disorder
Obsessive-Compulsive DisorderSeparation Anxiety Disorder
Selective Mutism
Specific Phobia
Social Phobia
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Panic Disorder
Agoraphobia
New Chapters in DSM-V:
Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders:
Inc. Post-traumatic stress disorders and Acute stress
disorder
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders:
Inc. Obsessive-Compulsive disorder
Panic AttackAbrupt and intense fear or anxiety
Anxiety peaks within 10 minutes
Has classic symptoms of autonomic arousal and other associated
physical symptoms
Produces fear of dying, losing control, going mad, epilepsy and
hear attacks
Two types:
Cued panic (situationally bound): occurs in presence or
anticipation of feared stimulus and can be associated with any
anxiety or related disorder
Uncued panic (unexpected): specifically associated with panic
disorder
Average duration is 10 years before receiving psychological
treatment
Anxiety and Stress Related Disorders Chart
DisorderDiagnostic (DSM-V)Causes/Associations
Panic disorderAt least 2 uncued panic attacks
Having anxiety/worry about having another attack
Having concerns about heart attacks, going mad, epilepsy etc
because of the panic attacks
Significant behavioural changes to try and avoid having another
attack (e.g agoraphobia)
Symptoms persisting for 1+ monthsCognitive theory of Panic
disorder:
Bodily sensations (heavy breathing, shaking etc) maybe after
strenuous activity
Misinterpretation of sensations as cues for heart attack, death
etc
Anxiety
Increased bodily sensations (physical system activated)
Increased anxiety
Persist in cycle until panic attack
Specific phobiasExtreme, disabling fear of specific objects or
situations that pose little/no objective danger
E.g animals, injections, heights etc
Person knows what they fear and therefore will have great
anxiety when encountering the feared object
Anxiety experienced when encountering object is exaggerated to
danger level
Can be associated with cued panic attacks
Symptoms persist for 6+ monthsClassical conditioning: previous
experience may cause fear of things related to that event
However: conditioning is not sufficient nor necessary to cause
phobia
Some stimuli are more likely to become phobic than others (e.g
cliffs, snakes)
Associated with evolution: objects that once posed significant
threat to survival
Therefore easier to learn to fear/exists as innate fear
Generalized anxiety disorderExcessive and uncontrollable
worry
About wide range of outcomes (2+ for diagnosis)
Physical symptoms different from Panic:
Tension, irritability, restlessness, sleep problems, being on
edge, inability to relax
3-6(+) needed for diagnosis
Not classic autonomic arousal symptoms (anxiety)
Symptoms persist for 6+ monthsHigh trait anxiety
Trait: tendency to experience anxiety
Intolerance of uncertainty
Need to be 100% certain negative outcome will not occur
Therefore would rather 100% negative outcome than uncertain
positive
Reduced ability to tolerate distress (have a need to reduce
possibility of distress)
Reduced problem solving confidence/success (since needs to find
a perfect solution; thinks of negative outcome with each
solution)
Obsessive-Compulsive behaviourObsessions: repeated, intrusive,
irrational thoughts or impulses that cause severe anxiety or
distress
A minor thought could cause big distress
Compulsions: ritualized behaviours to relieve anxiety caused by
obsessions
No longer anxiety disorder because while anxiety is a big part,
lots of other negative emotions also occurIntolerance of
uncertainty: need to be sure obsessive thought will not occur
(leads to repetition of compulsive behaviour)
However trying to not think about something makes thoughts
stronger
Inflated responsibility: blames self for possible negative
outcome
Thought-action fusion: thinking is as bad as doing
Magical ideation: creating superstitions and rules that the self
believes will lead to good outcome
Post-traumatic stress disorderIntrusive symptoms (1+):
Intrusive images, memories, dreams
Re-experiencing: as if events were recurring
Persistent avoidance of stimuli (1+):
Avoidance of reminders of traumatic event
Negative changes in cognition, mood (2+):
Fear, helplessness, self-blame, anger, hopelessness
Changes in arousal, reactivity (2+):
Sleep disturbance, poor concentration, hypervigilance,
exaggerated startle, recklessnessExposure to actual or threatened
death, serious injury or sexual violence in 1(+) following
ways:
Direct experience
Witnessing event that occurred to others
Learning that traumatic event occurred to close family/friends
(violent or accidental)
Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of
traumatic events
Eating Disorders
DSM-IVDSM-V
Anorexia Nervosa
Bulimia Nervosa
EDNOS
Subclinical AN or BN
Binge Eating Disorder
Purging Disorder
Night Eating Syndrome
GrazingAnorexia Nervosa
Bulimia Nervosa
Pica
Rumination Disorder
Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disoder
Binge-Eating Disorder
Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder
Unspecified Feeding or Eating Disorder
Eating Disorders Chart (DSM-IV)
Anorexia NervosaBulimia Nervosa
DescriptionRefusal to maintain body weight at a minimally normal
weight for age and height
Weight is less than 85% of that expected
Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat even though
already underweight
Two types:
Restricting: successful in restricting intake of foods; usually
eat same foods every day
Binging/Purging: sometimes break restriction; then feel like
have to compensate for extra calorie intake
Objective binging: eating larger than normal human amount
Subjective binging: larger than normal restricted amount
Body image disturbance
Denial/unable to realize extent of underweight
Undue influence of body weight/shape on self evaluation: believe
they will only be happy/good person if they are skinny
Amenorrhoea (periods stop)Binge eating + compensatory
behaviours
Recurrent episodes of binge eating
Objective binging
Lack of control over eating during episode
Eating because cannot stop eating
Tend to be ashamed of binging episodes
Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviour to prevent weight
gain
Purging: self-induced vomiting, laxative abuse
Non-purging: fasting, excessive exercise
Tend to be normal/slightly over weight
Because compensatory methods do not work
Body image disturbance
Associated FeaturesPsychological problems:
Depressed mood, irritability, anger, social withdrawal,
preoccupation with food, poor concentration
Often associated with starvation syndrome: become obsessed with
food as result of starvation;
Unable to maintain social relationship; complete daily tasks
Comorbid with: mood disorder, anxiety disorders (esp. Social
phobia), substance abuse (amphetamines to suppress appetite);
personality disorders (OCPD [obsessive])
Physical problems:
Low body temperature, brittle hair/nails, hair growth
Low estrogen -> osteoporosis (brittle bones)
Malnutrition, anaemia, immune system suppression
Mortality rate of 5-10% over 10 year period
Anorexic thinking remains (e.g obsessing over calories) even
after patient symptoms no longer meet criteria for
DSM-VPsychological problems:
Comorbid mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance abuse,
personality disorders (BPD [impulsive])
Physical problems:
Associated with binges (e.g stomach rupture)
Associated with compensatory behaviours e.g:
Loss of dental enamel, scarring/ulceration of oesophagus,
salivary glad enlargement,
Loss of normal bowel function,
Dehydration,
Electrolyte disturbances (irregular heartbeat, heart
failure)
EpidemiologyPrevalence
Affects 0.5-1.0% of females
90% of individuals with AN are female
Age of onset
Mid-late adolescence (though getting earlier)
Course
Slow recovery (up to 10 years for most)
20% remain chronically ill
50% then develops BNPrevalence
Affects 1.0-3.0% of females
90% of individuals with BN are female
Age of onset
Late adolescence-early adulthood
Course
Long term outcome better than for AN
10% still affected after 10 years
Proposed Causes of Eating Disorders
BiologicalPsychological
Genetic factors
Family and twin studies suggest moderate heritability component
for AN and BN
Chances of depression, personality disorders, substance abuse
are also higher in families of persons with ED
No adoption studies have been conducted because of difficulty
separating genetics and environment
Neurotransmitter disturbances
Serotonin involved in appetite regulation
There are mixed findings regarding direction of causation
As in serotonin could cause ED, or ED could cause disturbance in
serotonin levels
NOTE: ED is becoming more recognised in males (who display the
same symptoms), except they want to be overly buff rather than
skinny
AN and BN have many features in common
Tendency to base self-worth on weight/shape
Desire to attain unrealistic levels of thinness
Intense fear of gaining weight
High degree of overlap in proposed causes
Cognitive-Behavioural theory (refer to Lecture 5 ppt)
Proposed Psycho-Social Causes
Family factors
Higher parental criticism, control and conflict
Lower parental empathy and support
Comments regarding childs eating/body
Parental modeling of eating/body concerns
Peer factors: social approval
Social-cultural valuesEmphasis on thinness as key basis for
attractiveness for females
Note that many non-western cultures had low levels of ED before
west invaded
Mood Disorders
Mood Disorders Chapter in DSM-IV:Depressive DisordersBipolar
Disorders
Unipolar: negative end of mood spectrum only [Depressive]
Depressive: abnormally low mood
Such as:
Major Depressive Disorder
Dysthymic Disorder
DD-NOSBipolar: extremes in both ends of mood spectrum:
Both Depressive and Manic
Manic: abnormally elevated mood
Manic episodes are extreme highs in normal mood, as opposed to a
normally energetic person
Such as:
Bipolar I Disorder
Bipolar II Disorder [mild version of I]
Cyclothymic Disorder
NOS
NOTE: DSM-V both are given own chapters rather than under Mood
Disorders
Depressive Disorders:
Major Depressive Disorder
SymptomsDiagnosis
One or more major depressive episodes with symptoms:
Depressed mood for most of the day, nearly every day
Markedly diminished pleasure/interest in activities
Significant weight loss/gain
Recurrent thoughts of death/suicide attempts
Nearly every day:
Insomnia/hypersomnia
Psychomotor agitation or retardation
Fatigue/loss of energy
Feeling worthlessness, excessive guilt
Diminished ability to concentrate
IndecisivenessMajor Depressive EPISODE:
5 or more symptoms including 2. or 3.
Over 2 week period
NOTE: bereavement waives time condition as many symptoms can be
also caused by grief
NOTE 2: bereavement condition deleted in DSM-V
Now anyone can be diagnosed with depression after 2 weeks of
symptoms
Major Depressive DISORDER:
Single or recurrent episodes, not accounted for by other
disorders
One episode will increase risk of recurrent episodes
Risk will build up
Dysthymic Disorder
Renamed persistent depressive disorder in DSM-V
SymptomsDiagnosis
Milder depressed mood compared to MDD e.g
Does not enjoy life; no mood fluctuations
Risk of Double Depression: both MDD and Dysthymia occur
where:
Patient sinks into MDD, recovers back into DysthymiaPersistent:
continues for at least 2 years
Symptoms may remain unchanged over long periods (20+ years)
Cause
Biological Theories
Genetic VulnerabilityHeritability: 35-60%
Some genes associated with vulnerability to mood disorders in
general
More vulnerable to mood disorders when situation triggers it
No specific gene associated with mood disorder/depression
NeurochemistryLow levels of Noradrenalin and/or Serotonin
Only correlation: causal direction is uncertain
Neuroendocrine SystemAlso uncertain if legit cause:
Excess cortisol in response to stress
Cortisol interacts with neurochemicals
Mood disorder = unable to turn stress off (?)
Increased stress strongly related to mood disorders
Biological vulnerability + stress = depression (?)
Psychological Theories
Schema TheoryPre-existing negative schemas based on previous
experience
Have distorted view of self, others and environment
Negative schemas activated in bad/stressful situations:
Result in biased [negative] information processing
In turn strengthens schema
Learned Helplessness TheoryNegative events are interpreted based
on 3 kinds of factors:
Internal (self is cause of bad outcome)
Stable (situation will always be bad)
General (because world and I are bad)
Positive events are associated to luck
Positive events are diminished and negative are exaggerated
Ruminative Response StylesUnable to disengage from negative
outcomes in a situation
Cannot move on from bad event
Interpersonal FactorsThe way patients interact with others
Poor social skills =
Less positive reinforcers in life e.g good job, friends
Rejected by others because of negativity
Gravitate to those who confirm negative self-views
Cognitive vulnerability + stress = depression
Treatments
MethodExplanation/Limitations
BiologicalDrugs
SSRIs
Effective in 70-80%
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
Used as last resort for severe depression
Effective in 80%SSRIs only inhibit serotonin re-uptake
Fewer side effects compared to older drugs
ECT causes seizure to cure depression
Uncertain why it works
Limitation:
Relapse common when treatment stopped
Suggests treatment only suppresses symptoms rather than
targeting cause
PsychologicalCognitive-Behavioural Therapy
Addresses cognitive errors in thinking
Include behavioural components:
Behavioural Activation
Behavioural Experiments
Compared to drug therapy there is lower rate of relapse
29% vs 60%Aims to lead patient into developing more realistic
and complex view of world/event
Compared to unrealistically negative viewpoint
NOT encouraging blind positive thinking
Behavioural Activation:
Encourage patient to start doing previously enjoyable things
again
Helps to see positively on a cognitive level
Behavioural Experiments:
Testing beliefs - is there really no one who loves you?
Tests to deconstruct negative beliefs
Develops skill to recognise relapse and refrain from it