1 Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour to understand binge drinking: the importance of beliefs for developing interventions David P. French 1 *, and Richard Cooke 2 1. Applied Research Centre in Health and Lifestyles Interventions, Coventry University 2. Psychology, School of Life Sciences, Aston University *Corresponding author; Professor David P. French Applied Research Centre in Health and Lifestyles Interventions, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Coventry University, Whitefriars Building, Priory Street, Coventry CV1 5FB Tel: +44(0)2476 885 429 Fax: +44(0)2476 795 987 Email: [email protected]Running title: Beliefs about binge drinking Key words: binge drinking; theory of planned behaviour; outcome expectancies; alcohol; beliefs
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1
Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour to understand binge
drinking: the importance of beliefs for developing interventions
David P. French1*, and Richard Cooke2
1. Applied Research Centre in Health and Lifestyles Interventions, Coventry
University
2. Psychology, School of Life Sciences, Aston University
*Corresponding author;
Professor David P. French
Applied Research Centre in Health and Lifestyles Interventions,
Griffin, S.J., Hardeman, W. & Kinmonth, A.L. (2003). Eliciting salient beliefs in
research on the Theory of Planned Behaviour: The effect of question wording.
Current Psychology 22, 229-246.
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Table one Differences in attitudes, intentions and behaviour, according to presence or absence of salient positive behavioural beliefs
Attitudes Intentions Behaviour Category Yes No Mean (SD)
yes Mean (SD) no
t-value (sig)
Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
t-value (sig)
Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
t-value (sig)
Fun 117 71 18.786 (4.690)
15.732 (6.243)
3.81 (<0.001)
12.222 (6.050)
9.887 (5.937)
2.58 (0.011)
8.842 (6.672)
8.381 (7.575)
0.43 (0.670)
Sociable 96 92 18.708 (4.493)
16.511 (6.243)
2.78 (0.006)
12.385 (5.855)
10.250 (6.187)
2.43 (0.016)
8.870 (6.950)
8.561 (7.093)
0.21 (0.834)
Relaxation 76 112 17.513 (5.355)
17.714 (5.646)
0.747 (0.807)
10.487 (5.615)
11.920 (6.365)
0.159 (0.114)
7.093 (4.930)
9.788 (7.993)
2.59 (0.010)
Effect on behaviour 60 128 18.933 (5.256)
17.023 (5.551)
2.24 (0.027)
12.350 (6.000)
10.867 (6.110)
1.56 (0.120)
9.060 (7.275)
8.488 (6.893)
0.51 (0.609)
Confidence 34 154 17.353 (5.438)
17.695 (5.550)
0.33 (0.745)
12.265 (6.793)
11.136 (5.939)
0.98 (0.330)
10.833 (8.523)
8.242 (6.609)
1.86 (0.064)
Getting drunk 32 156 18.094 (4.707)
17.539 (5.678)
0.52 (0.605)
13.273 (6.414)
10.929 (5.970)
2.02 (0.045)
11.552 (7.912)
8.122 (6.704)
2.45 (0.015)
Taste 15 173 19.733 (4.543)
17.451 (5.567)
1.54 (0.125)
10.250 (4.640)
11.442 (6.218)
0.75 (0.456)
6.767 (3.076)
8.843 (7.234)
1.10 (0.273)
Atmosphere 15 173 17.600 (5.096)
17.636 (5.566)
0.24 (0.981)
9.867 (6.128)
11.468 (6.097)
0.98 (0.331)
8.393 (5.481)
8.695 (7.128)
0.15 (0.877)
Same answer to previous question
12 176 18.167 (6.450)
17.597 (5.467)
0.35 (0.730)
11.308 (6.170)
11.343 (6.111)
0.02 (0.984)
8.962 (7.333)
8.649 (6.999)
0.16 (0.877)
No advantages/ likes 20 168 10.450 (6.074)
18.488 (4.793)
6.88 (<0.001)
5.500 (3.395)
12.036 (5.980)
4.79 (<0.001)
5.900 (6.717)
9.016 (6.980)
1.89 (0.060)
No answer 5 183 10.800 (6.380)
17.820 (5.391)
2.86 (0.005)
4.200 (2.168)
11.536 (6.055)
2.70 (0.008)
3.583 (3.323)
8.846 (7.035)
1.82 (0.070)
Miscellaneous 35 153 18.143 (5.231)
17.516 (5.590)
0.61 (0.546)
11.333 (5.923)
11.342 (6.158)
0.01 (0.994)
8.471 (6.217)
8.718 (7.191)
0.19 (0.853)
Behavioural beliefs elicited in response to questions about what participants thought were the advantages or what they would like or enjoy about drinking 10.5/ 7 units of alcohol that evening.
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Table two Differences in attitudes, intentions and behaviour, according to presence or absence of negative salient behavioural beliefs
Attitudes Intention Behaviour Category Yes No Mean (SD)
yes Mean (SD) no
Significance Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance
Hangover 138 50 17.710 (5.428)
17.420 (5.807)
0.32 (0.751)
11.684 (6.155)
10.367 (5.887)
1.30 (0.195)
8.818 (7.159)
8.216 (6.548)
0.50 (0.621)
Money 88 100 17.636 (5.054)
17.630 (5.920)
0.01 (0.994)
10.379 (5.531)
12.168 (6.461)
2.02 (0.045)
8.372 (7.214)
8.942 (6.832)
0.55 (0.586)
Losing control 60 128 16.450 (6.474)
18.188 (4.937)
2.03 (0.044)
10.950 (6.237)
11.523 (6.048)
0.60 (0.549)
8.553 (7.615)
8.726 (6.734)
0.15 (0.878)
Short term illness 50 138 17.480 (5.926)
17.688 (5.383)
0.23 (0.820)
11.900 (6.478)
11.138 (5.966)
0.76 (0.450)
8.078 (7.015)
8.904 (7.011)
0.71 (0.477)
Regret 44 144 17.432 (5.555)
17.694 (5.523)
0.28 (0.783)
11.311 (6.222)
11.350 (6.081)
0.04 (0.071)
8.864 (7.561)
8.610 (6.842)
0.21 (0.835)
Commitments 34 154 17.647 (5.063)
17.630 (5.628)
0.02 (0.987)
11.706 (5.755)
11.260 (6.186)
0.39 (0.701)
9.952 (7.900)
8.407 (6.801)
1.12 (0.265)
Long term health problems
31 157 17.419 (4.71)
17.675 (5.675)
0.24 (0.814)
10.546 (5.518)
11.510 (6.218)
0.83 (0.411)
9.717 (8.425)
8.464 (6.698)
0.90 (0.372)
Weight gain 20 168 18.950 (5.744)
17.476 (5.486)
1.13 (0.260)
12.900 (6.290)
11.155 (6.067)
1.21 (0.227)
6.737 (4.617)
8.898 (7.207)
1.28 (0.204)
Same answer to similar question
16 172 14.875 (6.692)
17.890 (5.346)
2.11 (0.036)
8.625 (6.365)
11.593 (6.030)
1.88 (0.062)
7.750 (7.708)
8.749 (6.960)
0.51 (0.610)
No disadvantages/ dislikes
8 180 21.500 (5.014)
17.461 (5.488)
2.04 (0.042)
15.625 (4.749)
11.150 (6.092)
2.05 (0.042)
8.318 (6.071)
8.688 (7.058)
0.15 (0.883)
No answer 10 178 15.700 (5.012)
17.742 (5.537)
1.14 (0.256)
9.500 (5.836)
11.444 (6.112)
0.98 (0.328)
8.300 (6.206)
8.693 (7.062)
0.17 (0.864)
Miscellaneous 32 156 16.531 (5.858)
17.859 (5.436)
1.24 (0.216)
10.970 (6.342)
11.419 (6.063)
0.38 (0.702)
8.586 (7.432)
8.688 (6.943)
0.07 (0.943)
Behavioural beliefs elicited in response to questions about what participants thought were the disadvantages or what they would dislike about drinking 10.5/ 7 units of alcohol that evening.
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Table three Differences in subjective norms, intentions and behaviour, according to presence or absence of salient positive normative beliefs
Subj Norm Intention Behaviour Category Yes No Mean (SD)
yes Mean (SD) no
Significance Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance
Friends 121 69 18.050 (5.059)
15.362 (4.693)
3.61 (<0.001)
12.496 (6.105)
9.348 (5.588)
3.51 (0.001)
9.259 (7.210)
7.672 (6.566)
1.48 (0.141)
Drink companies 33 157 17.242 (5.268)
17.038 (5.062)
0.21 (0.835)
11.485 (6.286)
11.310 (6.078)
0.15 (0.881)
8.424 (6.447)
8.726 (7.140)
0.22 (0.833)
Teams 23 167 18.435 (5.647)
16.886 (4.992)
1.37 (0.172)
12.591 (6.522)
11.175 (6.041)
1.02 (0.307)
14.100 (10.407)
7.997 (6.177)
3.81 (<0.001)
Family 13 177 19.846 (4.879)
16.870 (5.053)
2.05 (0.041)
14.308 (6.047)
11.120 (6.061)
1.83 (0.069)
10.750 (7.497)
8.524 (6.966)
1.07 (0.288)
Students 12 178 16.167 (3.713)
17.135 (5.167)
0.64 (0.525)
9.667 (5.015)
11.455 (6.161)
0.98 (0.327)
7.636 (3.392)
8.738 (7.174)
0.51 (0.614)
Health professionals 5 185 18.000 (2.739)
17.049 (5.135)
0.41 (0.681)
12.600 (4.879)
11.306 (6.135)
0.47 (0.641)
9.500 (4.062)
8.648 (7.074)
0.27 (0.791)
Role models 2 188 20.000 (2.828)
17.043 (5.099)
0.82 (0.415)
17.500 (4.950)
11.274 (6.086)
1.44 (0.151)
13.000 (7.071)
8.623 (7.007)
0.88 (0.381)
Non-drinkers 1 189 18.000 17.069 (5.098)
0.18 (0.856)
14.000 11.326 (6.111)
0.44 (0.663)
8.000 8.675 (7.022)
0.10 (0.924)
Yes 10 180 15.900 (4.483)
17.139 (5.120)
0.75 (0.455)
7.900 (3.348)
11.534 (6.165)
1.85 (0.067)
4.667 (5.657)
8.881 (7.016)
1.77 (0.078)
No 21 169 14.381 (4.811)
17.408 (5.031)
2.61 (0.010)
9.333 (5.304)
11.593 (6.159)
1.61 (0.110)
9.119 (6.812)
8.613 (7.046)
0.31 (0.756)
No answer 5 185 13.200 (3.834)
17.178 (5.081)
1.74 (0.084)
8.200 (5.404)
11.426 (6.107)
1.17 (0.244)
7.667 (8.914)
8.706 (6.957)
0.36 (0.722)
Miscellaneous 19 171 17.737 (4.817)
17.000 (5.122)
0.60 (0.550)
11.368 (5.918)
11.337 (6.135)
0.02 (0.983)
8.765 (7.308)
8.662 (6.993)
0.06 (0.954)
Normative beliefs elicited in response to question about who the participants thought would approve of them drinking 10.5/ 7 units of alcohol that evening.
21
Table four Differences in subjective norms, intentions and behaviour, according to presence or absence of salient negative normative beliefs
Subj Norm Intention Behaviour Category Yes No Mean (SD)
yes Mean (SD) no
Significance Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance
Family 112 78 17.777 (5.015)
16.064 (5.046)
2.31 (0.022)
12.227 (5.896)
10.090 (6.196)
2.49 (0.017)
8.649 (6.853)
8.707 (7.284)
0.06 (0.957)
Role models 44 146 18.250 (5.177)
16.719 (5.021)
1.76 (0.080)
12.581 (6.594)
10.972 (5.917)
1.53 (0.129)
10.547 (8.628)
8.087 (6.337)
2.03 (0.044)
Non-drinkers 22 168 16.454 (4.626)
17.155 (5.149)
0.61 (0.545)
10.182 (5.207)
11.494 (6.204)
0.95 (0.344)
7.611 (3.763)
8.788 (7.270)
0.68 (0.500)
Health professionals
19 171 14.895 (4.806)
17.316 (5.071)
1.98 (0.049)
12.211 (5.702)
11.243 (6.149)
0.66 (0.513)
8.441 (5.876)
8.695 (7.124)
0.14 (0.887)
Friends 14 176 14.500 (5.080)
17.278 (5.043)
1.98 (0.049)
8.857 (5.246)
11.540 (6.131)
1.59 (0.113)
6.500 (7.654)
8.853 (6.939)
1.21 (0.288)
Drink companies 3 187 17.000 (5.196)
17.075 (5.097)
0.03 (0.980)
13.333 (5.508)
11.308 (6.115)
0.57 (0.570)
7.000 (7.550)
8.699 (7.012)
0.42 (0.678)
Teams 2 188 17.000 (5.657)
17.075 (5.095)
0.02 (0.984)
9.500 (0.707)
11.360 (6.128)
0.43 (0.669)
8.500 (3.536)
8.673 (7.037)
0.04 (0.972)
Students 0 190 17.074 (5.085)
11.340 (6.098)
8.671 (7.002)
Yes 7 183 13.286 (2.984)
17.316 (5.098)
2.03 (0.044)
9.714 (4.071)
11.403 (6.162)
0.72 (0.474)
7.500 (4.087)
8.711 (7.085)
0.42 (0.678)
No 22 168 17.636 (5.095)
17.000 (5.094)
0.55 (0.582)
10.955 (6.786)
11.392 (6.022)
0.32 (0.753)
7.429 (7.001)
8.834 (7.008)
0.86 (0.389)
No answer 9 181 14.444 (4.157)
17.204 (5.101)
1.60 (0.112)
9.889 (6.772)
11.413 (6.074)
0.74 (0.466)
11.813 (8.750)
8.526 (6.908)
1.30 (0.195)
Miscellaneous 19 171 16.000 (4.955)
17.193 (5.099)
0.97 (0.333)
9.895 (6.437)
11.503 (6.057)
1.09 (0.277)
7.941 (8.156)
8.747 (6.896)
0.45 (0.806)
Normative beliefs elicited in response to question about who the participants thought would disapprove of them drinking 10.5/ 7 units of alcohol that evening.
22
Table five Differences in PBC, intentions and behaviour, according to presence or absence of salient positive control beliefs
Category
Yes
No
PBC Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance
Intention Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance
Behaviour Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance
Money 112 76 12.589 (2.534)
12.526 (1.887)
0.25 (0.802)
11.107 (6.039)
11.684 (6.208)
0.64 (0.526)
8.347 (7.230)
9.151 (6.672)
0.76 (0.450)
Social influences 43 145 12.209 (1.909)
12.669 (1.599)
1.58 (0.116)
10.705 (5.437)
11.535 (6.291)
0.79 (0.431)
7.138 (5.632)
9.106 (7.304)
1.58 (0.117)
Environment 34 154 12.706 (2.023)
12.533 (1.601)
0.54 (0.587)
11.794 (6.700)
11.240 (5.976)
0.48 (0.633)
11.424 (9.075)
8.057 (6.327)
2.54 (0.012)
Celebration 30 158 12.267 (1.057)
12.620 (1.699)
1.06 (0.292)
12.103 (5.960)
11.201 (6.131)
0.73 (0.465)
11.839 (7.806)
8.092 (6.712)
2.65 (0.009)
No commitments
26 162 12.692 (1.594)
12.543 (1.698)
0.42 (0.676)
10.385 (6.073)
11.494 (6.107)
0.86 (0.391)
7.769 (5.054)
8.823 (7.281)
0.71 (0.479)
Drinking patterns
23 165 12.870 (1.424)
12.521 (1.713)
0.93 (0.353)
12.044 (6.677)
11.242 (6.029)
0.59 (0.556)
11.614 (8.447)
8.264 (6.709)
2.12 (0.035)
With friends 22 166 11.864 (1.754)
12.657 (1.654)
2.10 (0.037)
12.650 (6.491)
11.185 (6.051)
1.02 (0.311)
8.796 (8.051)
8.654 (6.873)
0.09 (0.930)
To forget bad things
22 166 12.636 (1.432)
12.554 (1.714)
0.22 (0.830)
10.381 (5.408)
11.461 (6.184)
0.76 (0.446)
7.159 (4.560)
8.881 (7.262)
1.08 (0.281)
Nothing 0 188 12.564 (1.681)
11.340 (6.098)
8.671 (7.002)
No answer 1 187 14.00 12.556 (1.682)
0.86 (0.393)
9.000 11.353 (6.112)
0.38 (0.701)
5.000 (1.414)
8.712 (7.030)
0.75 (0.457)
Miscellaneous 26 162 12.654 (1.700)
12.549 (1.683)
0.29 (0.769)
11.192 (6.812)
11.364 (5.999)
0.13 (0.894)
9.900 (9.259)
8.474 (6.587)
0.95 (0.346)
Control beliefs elicited in response to question about what the participants thought would make it easy for them to drink 10.5/ 7 units of alcohol that evening.
23
Table six
Differences in PBC, intentions and behaviour, according to presence or absence of salient negative control beliefs
Category
Yes
No
PBC Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance
Intention Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance
Behaviour Mean (SD) yes
Mean (SD) no
Significance
Lack of money 107 81 12.776 (1.341)
12.284 (2.020)
2.00 (0.047)
11.804 (6.298)
10.728 (5.805)
1.20 (0.232)
8.652 (7.342)
8.696 (6.584)
0.04 (0.967)
Illness 59 129 12.627 (1.376)
12.533 (1.807)
0.35 (0.728)
12.948 (6.160)
10.623 (5.955)
2.45 (0.015)
10.421 (7.655)
7.867 (6.558)
2.31 (0.022)
Commitments 51 137 12.647 (1.339)
12.600 (1.795)
0.41 (0.680)
10.510 (5.658)
11.650 (6.246)
1.14 (0.256)
8.392 (6.782)
8.798 (7.106)
0.39 (0.695)
Being sensible 24 164 12.333 (1.949)
12.615 (1.642)
0.72 (0.473)
9.875 (6.124)
11.555 (6.084)
1.26 (0.208)
6.792 (4.868)
8.959 (7.243)
1.42 (0.159)
Poor environment
22 166 12.046 (1.704)
12.633 (1.671)
1.55 (0.124)
11.048 (6.749)
11.377 (6.033)
0.23 (0.816)
8.500 (6.850)
8.693 (7.042)
0.12 (0.908)
Unavailability 18 170 12.667 (1.782)
12.553 (1.675)
0.27 (0.786)
11.556 (6.653)
11.318 (6.057)
0.16 (0.875)
9.941 (7.222)
8.540 (6.989)
0.79 (0.434)
Around family 8 180 11.750 (2.121)
12.598 (1.657)
1.40 (0.162)
8.750 (6.251)
11.456 (6.084)
1.23 (0.220)
5.813 (3.683)
8.804 (7.097)
1.18 (0.239)
Nothing 6 182 11.000 (4.147)
12.615 (1.536)
2.34 (0.020)
15.167 (5.811)
11.214 (6.082)
1.57 (0.119)
9.000 (6.928)
8.662 (7.024)
0.11 (0.916)
No answer 4 184 13.750 (0.500)
12.538 (1.688)
1.43 (0.154)
8.250 (4.992)
11.408 (6.114)
1.03 (0.307)
6.250 (6.344)
8.726 (7.023)
0.70 (0.486)
Miscellaneous 23 165 12.044 (1.591)
12.636 (1.693)
1.59 (0.113)
10.375 (6.163)
11.482 (6.095)
0.83 (0.408)
8.546 (8.883)
8.689 (6.736)
0.09 (0.929)
Control beliefs elicited in response to question about what the participants thought would make it difficult for them to drink 10.5/ 7 units of alcohol that evening.
24
Table seven
Predicting intentions to binge drink with beliefs as independent variables: linear regression analysis
Beliefs Beta coefficients p-values
BB+ Fun 0.127 0.097
BB+ Sociable 0.106 0.169
BB+ Getting drunk 0.131 0.066
BB- Money -0.138 0.050
NB+ Friends 0.171 0.025
NB- Family 0.103 0.174
CB- Illness 0.053 0.454
Adjusted R2 = 0.11 (F=4.4, df=7,180, p<0.001).
25
Table eight
Predicting alcohol consumption at end of evening with beliefs as independent variables: linear regression analysis