Using Secondary Data(3)

8/8/2019 Using Secondary Data(3)

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Research Methods

Using Secondary Data


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Questions a literature review can answer

Literaturesearch and review

on your topic

What are the keysources ?

What are the key conceptstheories and ideas?

What are themain questionsand problemsthat have been

addressed to date?

What are themajor issuesand debates

about the topic?

What are thepolitical

standpoints?

What are the origins anddefinitions of the topic?

How have approaches to these questions increased our understandingand knowledge?


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Main readingMain reading

Saunders et al (2 nd ed.) ch. 7


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Aims and objectives

Aims and objectivesT o identify the wide variety of secondary data

(SD) that are available;

T o appreciate ways in which SD can be utilisedto help to answer research question(s) and to meet

objectives;

T o understand the advantages and disadvantagesof using SD in research projects;


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Aims and objectives

Aims and objectivesT o use a range of techniques, including published

guides and the Internet, to locate secondary data;

T o evaluate the suitability of SD for answeringresearch questions(s) and meeting objectives

in terms of coverage, validity, reliability, andmeasurement bias;

T o apply the knowledge, skills, and understanding

gained in your research project;


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Aims and objectives

Aims and objectivesT o consider a range of techniques with which

to analyse secondary data;

T o focus on documentary evidence in particular.


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P reviouslyP reviously we looked atwe looked atturning Research ideas into Research P rojectsturning Research ideas into Research P rojects

M ove from a R esearch idea

T o a General Focus R esearch Question

To a series of R esearch Questions

T o Specific R esearch Objectives


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A nd we considered..The literatureA nd we considered..The literature

review processreview process R esearc h questions and objectives

Define parameters

Generate and refine key words

Conduct searc h

O btain literature

Evaluate

R ecord

Start drafting review.after several iterationsWritten critical review of t h e literature..

Feedback loop


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Differing approaches to research

Th e researc h process onion

Data collectionmethods

R esearch strategies

Time horizons

R esearch approaches

R esearch philosophy


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Sampling issues also

Sampling issues also

P opulationSample

Case orelement


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Documents

Documents


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Documentary sources

Documentary sources

L ife HistoriesT

he Diary Newspapers and magazinesL ettersStories, essays and other writings

Official documents and recordsResearch reports


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Documentary sources

Documentary sources

M anuscriptsT

reatisesAccountsM inutes/memosHandbills

M aps, paintingsFilms, photographs


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Databases

Databases - -

PROMT

PROMT

Over 4

m records


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Subject C overageInformation in PRO MT includes:

Capital Expenditures

Financial ReportingIndustry and Business IssuesM anagement ProceduresM arket Plans and Strategies

M arket Size/Shares/ T rends


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Subject C overageInformation in PRO MT includes:

Plus

M ergers and Acquisitions New Products and T echnologies New and Expanded Facilities

Research and Development


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Sources include -

Annual reportsBusiness journalsInvestment analystsreportsM arket research studies

News releases News services Newsletters NewspapersT rade journals


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PROMT

PROMT

(Predicasts Overview of M arkets and T echnology)

Find the website


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REU

TE

R TEX

TLINE

REU

TE

R TEX

TLINE

Contains over 5 million citations withabstracts or full-text on companies,

products, services, general businessand economic topics as well asEuropean Union issues gathered fromover 5 00,000 organizations.

Web site:http://www.online.reuters.com


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B usiness ResearchB usiness Research

using this source..using this source.. Naresh. R.Pandit (199 6 )

'T he Creation of T heory:A Recent Application of theG rounded T heory M ethod',

The Q ualitativ e Repor t , 24 , December .


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G T : A rigorousG T : A rigorous

approachapproach


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Definitions

Definitions

Document: the medium on which the

message is stored

Text: the message that is conveyed


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Definitions

Definitions

Unobtrusive measures:Any method of observation thatdirectly removes the observer fromthe set interactions or events being

studied.


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Definitions

Definitions

P roximate: R esearcher has directaccess to data provider and

can influence data collection/generation

Mediate: No direct access.R esearcher cannot influence datacollection process


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Issues of validity :Issues of validity :

Authenticity?

Credibility?

Representativeness?

M eaning?


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Other criteria for Other criteria for

analysing documentsanalysing documents

Reliability?

Bias?

Cultural assumptions?


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A pply this to archivalA pply this to archival

evidenceevidence


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A drawing of Leeds inA drawing of Leeds in

18461846 Credibility?


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Issues of M

eaning?

L eeds in 18 46


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Otley Road,Otley Road,1930s1930s

Representativeness?


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B riggate, Leeds 1898?B riggate, Leeds 1898?CulturalCultural

Assumptions?Assumptions?


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H ydeP

ark Corner, 1903?H ydeP

ark Corner, 1903?Authenticity?

Authenticity?


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A classification of documentsA classification of documents

Authorship

P ersonal OfficialPrivate State

ClosedRestrictedOpen-archivalOpen-

published

Access


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U sing official statistics:U sing official statistics:P

rosP

ros

Readily available cost nothing to use

Sample sizes often large

Well planned with detailedinterview schedules


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U sing official statistics:U sing official statistics:P

rosP

ros

Conducted regularly allows for comparisons over time

Sometimes the only major source


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U sing official statistics:U sing official statistics:

ConsConsV alidity: do official statistics

measure what they claim to measure?

Can be deliberately biased in favour of officialdom

Classification e.g. unemployment


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Analysis

Analysis


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Types of A

nalysisTypes of A

nalysis

Content Analysis

T hematic Analysis


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Types of A

nalysisTypes of A

nalysis

T extual Analysis

Discourse Analysis


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CONTENT ANALYSIS CONTENT ANALYSIS

Example sExample s --

po litical s pee che s

t heme s in pop ula r songs

t re nds in new s pa per s

id eol o gical t one of e dit or ials

ans wer s t o ope n-end ed sur vey q s

t heme s in adv er tising me ssag e s

enemy prop aganda etc


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CONTENT ANALYSIS CONTENT ANALYSIS

Uni ts of anal ys i sUni ts of anal ys i s --

a word

a phrase

a theme or

series of related themes

a plot

a character


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M ea sur ing th e impor t an c e of a u ni t of M ea su ring th e impor t an c e of a u ni t of

anal ys i sanal ys i s --number of times mentioned (frequency)

number of column inches devoted to it

number of times it appears in the index

number of readers letters.


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A CODING SYSTE M

A CODING SYSTE M

- a set of inst r ucti onson how t o s y st ematicall y ob ser ve

and re cor d cont ent from t ext.


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A CODING SYSTE M A CODING SYSTE M

MANI FES T C O D IN G

coding the visible, surface content

L A T E N T C O D IN G

looks for the underlying, implicit meaning


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A n e x ampleA n e x ample

Nicola M orant Social representations

of gender in the media: quantitativeand qualitative content analysis

inM iell, D and Wetherell, M (eds) (1998).Doing Social Psychology. L ondon: Sage.


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V isual imagesV isual images

Colour

Body postureBackground contextClothes

Positioning of people in relationto each other G eneral feel of the image


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Te x tual imagesTe x tual images

Choice of headline message

Relative emphasis of themes withinthe topic

Positive or negative associations


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V alue judgements

M etaphors

Feel of the writing e.g.Factual, humorous, dramatic?


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Perspective of the writing

Who is the subject?

From whose perspective is

the article written?

With whom the reader isintended to identify?


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A pply this toA pply this towebsiteswebsites


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ContrastsContrasts


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6 0


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Source.... titl e/ aut hor/p ublisher/ye ar, e tc.

A rticle topic......

N umber.... from a sampl e of .........

Coder........Date of coding ...........

Developing a Codebook


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Subcategory...........

column inc h es..........

TH E M ES references frequency

ch

osen (incl. page ref.) (number) ....... ....... .... ...... ....... .... N otes.......

Developing a Codebook


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Other forms of analysisOther forms of analysis

D iscourse Analysis ( DA)

and

C ritical D iscourse Analysis ( CDA)


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Techniques of DATechniques of DA

1. Using key words and themes;

2. L ooking for variation in the texte.g. sets of oppositions;

3. Read for emphasis and detail;

4 . L ook for silences, gaps, omissions.


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A ctively seek out :A ctively seek out :

V ariability

C onsistency

in an individuals discourse.

T hese provide clues to the functionsof discourse, i.e. how it works


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Rhetorical OrganizationRhetorical Organization

Look out for the author usingsuch techniques of persuasion as:

Lists (The C rescendo effect ) (Not onlybut also

.......plus the fact. )


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Look out for the author usingsuch techniques of persuasion as:

Generalisation

Extreme case formulations


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Rhetorical techniques used mayRhetorical techniques used mayinclude:include:

P aradoxes

Nominalisations

Metaphor


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Rhetorical techniques used mayRhetorical techniques used mayinclude:include:

R epetition

Juxtapositions: Guilt by association

Absences

The result : obfuscation


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U s ing Cri t i c al Di sc our s e Anal ys i sU s ing Cri t i c al Di sc our s e Anal ys i s( CDA) ( CDA)

1. What is the intended audience?

2. What does a critical reading of these documents uncover in terms of:

(a) what is defined as 'right' andwhat is 'wrong' and therefore whatis seen as problematic;


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C DAC DA

(b) what explanation is offered for whatis seen as problematic;

(c) what, therefore, is seen as thesolution?


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C DAC DA

3. What does a critical reading of

these documents tell us about

(a) what is not seen as problematic;

(b) which explanations are rejected or

omitted;

(c) which solutions are not preferred?


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I an P arker (in Banister et al, 1994 ) Directions for use

Choose a childrens brush that has a smallhead and add a pea-sized amount of Punchand Judy toothpaste.

T o teach your child to clean teeth, stand behind and place your hand under the childs chin to tilt head back

and see mouth. (contd )

E x ample of C DAE x ample of C DA


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E x ample of DAE x ample of DA

Brush both sides of teeth as well as tops.Brush after breakfast and last thing at night.Supervise the brushing of your childs teethuntil the age of eight.

If your child is taking flouride treatment, seek professional advice concerning daily intake.

Contains 0.8% Sodium M onoflourophosphate


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D iscourses found by P arker D iscourses found by P arker includedincluded

D iscourses found by P arker:

1/ rationalist

2/ familial

3/ developmental-educational

4/ medical


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Criticisms of DACriticisms of DA

1/ Positivists claim Its not scientific.

2/ T reating language as more powerful thanother material constraints on action e.g.Decisions made in boardrooms of M NCs

3/ T he authors intentions misrepresented


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Thank y ou! Thank y ou!


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A ppendi x A ppendi x


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Table 7.3 Checklist to evaluateTable 7.3 Checklist to evaluateS econdary D ata sourcesS econdary D ata sources

Ov erall suitability

Does the data set contain the information yourequire to answer your research question(s) andmeet your objecti v es?

Do the measures use match those you require?

Is the data set a proxy for the data you really need?


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Does the data set co v er the population that is thesubject of your research?

Can data about the population that is the subject of your research be separated from unwanted data?

Are the data sufficiently up to date?


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Are data a v ailable for all the v ariables you require toanswer your research question(s) and meet yourobjecti v es?


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P recise suitability

How reliable is the data set you are thinking of using?

How credible is the data source?

Is the methodology clearly described?


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If sampling was used, what was the procedureand what were the associated sampling errorsand response rates?

Who were responsible for collecting or recordingthe data?

(For sur v eys) is a copy of the q aire or inter v iewchecklist included?


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(For complied data) are you clear how the data wereanalysed and complied?

Are the data likely to contain measurement bias?

What was the original purpose for which the data werecollected?


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Who was the target audience and what was theirRelationship to the data collector or complier(were there any v ested interests)?

Hav e there been any documented changes in the waythe data are measured or recorded including definitionchanges?

How consistent are the data obtained from this source?


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How consistent are the data obtained from this sourcewhen compared with data from other sources?

Are you happy that the data ha v e been recordedaccurately?


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Costs and benefits

What are the financial and time costs of obtainingthese data?

Hav e the data already been entered into a computer?

Do the o v erall benefits of using these secondary datasources outweigh the associated costs?


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