UNIVERSITY OF GHANA USING CREATIVE DRAMATICS FOR VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT IN PUBLIC BASIC SCHOOLS BY BLESS ISSIDORA AMA AHIAKU (10396877) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN FINE ARTS JULY, 2016 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
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UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
USING CREATIVE DRAMATICS FOR VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT IN PUBLIC
BASIC SCHOOLS
BY
BLESS ISSIDORA AMA AHIAKU
(10396877)
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF
GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN FINE ARTS
JULY, 2016
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
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DECLARATION
Candidate’s Declaration
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own original work and that no part of it
has been represented elsewhere with all references duly acknowledged.
Bless Issidora Ama Ahiaku ………… ……………
Student Signature Date
Supervisors Declaration
I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this dissertation were supervised in
accordance with guidelines on supervision of dissertation laid down by the University of Ghana,
Legon.
Dr. Grace Uchechukwu Adinku ………… ……………
Supervisor Signature Date
Dr. Regina Kwakye Opong ………… ……………
Supervisor Signature Date
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ABSTRACT The process of teaching and learning is old as human beings. Teaching has been carried out by
human beings to disseminate information, knowledge and skills for successful development.
Psychologists and Educationists have designed several teaching and learning methods to provide
effective ways of teaching and learning. Among other teaching methods one can mention
Creative Dramatics teaching method. This method has been tested in the USA and European
Countries, and proven to be effective and efficient teaching method. The objective of this study
was to test the effectiveness and efficiency of Creative Dramatics teaching method. By
comparing it as well as using it as an alternative to the Direct Instruction in the Ghanaian
teaching environment. The study was also to identify challenges faced by teachers using Direct
Instruction in Basic Schools in Ghana Education Service (GES). To carry out the study of
Creative Dramatics, teaching experiments were conducted and quizzes as well as class tests were
administered to assess pupils/students. With the marks obtained from students, descriptive
statistics were computed and conclusion drawn. Questionnaires were also administered to
teachers in some selected Basic Schools in the GES. It was established that Creative Dramatics
is an effective and efficient teaching method which can be adopted in the Ghanaian contest.
The main barriers to the use of Creative Dramatics in Basic Schools in GES borders on the
fact that GES teachers have little understanding and mastery of Creative Dramatics, and
faced with the inadequacy of resources.
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DEDICATION This work is dedicated first to the Almighty God who provided the strength and ability to put this
study together. I also dedicate it to my daughters, Aseye and Esinam Voegborlo, my mum, my
siblings and Dr. Akua B. Sakyiwah.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This dissertation could not have been done without some lecturers, colleagues and friends, who
advised me on how to improve this dissertation, gave me financial, material and moral support.
On account of this, I wish to express my special thanks to my supervisors Dr. Grace Adinku and
Dr. Regina Kwakye Opong. Their considerable experience in guiding me in writing this
dissertation has made their contribution invaluable. I am indebted to Dr. Akua B. Sakyiwah
for her immense contribution to my work. She was always ready to read the draft of this
dissertation and made invaluable technical contribution concerning the Creative Dramatics aspect
of this work. I am also grateful to my Drama in Education lecturer, Mr. Sandy Arkurst of School
of Performing Arts, University of Ghana, Legon. He is the reason for my interest in the
teaching of Creative Dramatics in our public schools.
My heartfelt appreciation goes to my brother Dr. Francis Ahiaku, Ms. Patience Pomary and
Gertrude Awuletey for their financial support during my MPhil in t h e Theatre Arts
programme. I owe special thanks to my course mates, for their moral support. I can never forget
my lecturers who encouraged me never to give up when I needed their counselling. To all my
friends in the School of Performing Arts who urged me on even though vertebra pain in
my back restrained me from working fast, my thanks. For Awuah and Seyram, of the Dance
Department, God bless and reward you bountifully. My gratitude goes to Marcus Adomey,
Pamela Pomary, Solomon Mensah, Lydia Quayson, Ebenezar Asime and Valeria for their input
to this dissertation. Thanks to my truest friends: Voegborlo Aseye and Esinam, who are my
lovely daughters for their tolerance as Mum was always spending much time and finances on this
dissertation.
Obed Asamoah, thanks for programming my questionnaire and scores, keying them into the
SPSS for analysis.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content Page
DECLARATION i
ABSTRACT ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi 1.1 Overview
CHAPTER ONE
1
1.2 Background of the study
2
1.3 Problem Statement
5
1.4 Objectives
6
1.5 Research Questions
6
1.6 Significance of the Study
7
1.7 Delimitation
7
1.8 Limitations
8
1.9 Organization of the Study 8
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2.1
CHAPTER TWO
Introduction
9
2.2
Overview of Concepts of the Study
9
2.3
Effective teaching and learning
10
2.4
Teaching Methods
17
2.5
Direct teaching methods and vocabulary in English Language
30
2.6
Creative Dramatics
34
2.8
Concluding Remarks
42
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2
The Research Philosophy
43
3.3
Research Design
46
3.4
Population and Sample of the Study
48
3.5
Teaching Experiments
49
3.6
Data collection and analysis
50
3.7
Conclusion
52
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Introduction 53
4.2
Results Analysis
54
4.3
Suitability of Creative Dramatics
77
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4.4 Resources (Teaching and Learning Materials) 78
Table 10: Comments 81 Table 11: Demographics of Pupils 83
Table 12: Evaluation Scores for Primary Level 84
Table 13: Evaluation Scores for the JHS Level 85
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Current Stage (Class of Teaching) 58
Figure 2: Teaching Techniques 59
Figure 3: Category of Creative Dramatics User 68
Figure 4: Number of Times Per week of Creative Dramatics Application 74
Figure 5: Time Allocated for the Creative Dramatics Method 75
Figure 6: Expectation about Creative Dramatics Compared to its Outcomes 76
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ANT - Accra New Town
BECE - Basic Education Certificate Examination
CD - Creative Dramatics
D/A - District Authority
DI - Direct Instruction
DISTAR - Direct Instruction Systems in Arithmetic and Reading
DT - Direct Teaching
ELT - English Language Teaching
GES - Ghana Education Service
JHS - Junior High School
L1 - First Language
L2 - Second Language
SGRP - Simulation, Games and Role Play
SPSS - Statistical Package for Social Scientist
St - Saint
UNICEF - United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
USA - United States of America
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview Despite the hard work by teachers in the Ghana Education Service (GES) towards educating and
enlightening basic school pupils in the proper way of communicating in English, most of them
find it extremely difficult to express themselves in the English Language. Observing a cluster of
school children on break, between 9:30am and 10am, 5th
November 2013, at the La-
Nkwantanang Cluster of Schools, Redco, Madina, pupils communicated with ease amongst each
other in the local lingo, (that is their first language (L1) and English language being their second
language (L2) serves as the medium of instruction and should be practiced as they interact in
class or at break. Their interpersonal engagement often stems from using Twi, Ga, and Hausa for
social activities such as: purchasing food, playing football, playing Ampe, and chatting on the
school pavements. The use of English language was however spoken by a few pupils in
comparison to the number that communicated in the local (indigenous) languages.
Amankwah, C. (2013) duly observes in a newsprint article:
A total of 182,000 students, who sat for the Basic Education Certificate
Examination (B.E.C.E) in June 2013, could not be placed in any of the Senior
High Schools in the country. This was due to failure in core subjects –
Mathematics, Social Studies, Integrated Science as well as English Language, the
instructional medium.
Amankwah’s story buttresses the current argument expressing the difficulty some students have
communicating in English.
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At the Madina D/A ‘1’ Primary, on the Madina ‘1’ Cluster of schools compound, the Head of the
school and five other teachers revealed (through an interview) that teachers do their best to
impart knowledge to the pupils/students without adequate teaching and learning resources (see
Appendix 3). The minimal teaching and learning resources available include: illustrations on
manila cards, textbooks, workbooks and teachers manuals and a few classrooms structures.
Edmund Mingle, (2013, p.10), in a newsprint article, Second Lady Calls for Quality Teaching to
Rural Students, has also duly noted the inadequacy of comprehensive educational resources in
the classrooms in the GES sector. As part of my field engagement, I had a discussion with some
of the pupils/students express their difficulty in the English language being used as content. It is
evident that the failure of most pupils and students in public schools is related to lack of effective
communication, understanding and writing in English and the methods and processes used to
impart the knowledge to the students.
In addition, inadequate material and non- material resources confronting the teaching and
learning process(es) of the teacher and the learner, also make it difficult to achieve good
impartation of the English Language.
1.2 Background of the study
The process of teaching and learning is an effective means to the dissemination of information,
knowledge and skills to students for successful adjustment in the society. According to
Moumouni (1964), cited in Aboagye, P.K. (2002, p.5),
Learning in the traditional system was simply done through observation, imitation
and participation. This was achieved by engaging children in participatory
education through ceremonies, demonstrations, and imitations. They were also
involved in practical farming, fishing, cooking, knitting and other activities.
Recreational subjects comprised, dancing, drumming, racing, hide and seek, and
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among others. Intellectual training included the study of local history,
environment, poetry, reasoning, riddles, proverbs, and storytelling. All the experiences that the Ghanaian child had in this type of education that Moumouni claims
had been effective came about during periods of informal teaching. Thus when considering
that learning in a practical and participating manner still achieves results, then it is prudent for
Aboagye stating that ‘traditional education is therefore an integrated experience’ (Aboagye, 2002
p.5).
The use of Creative dramatics (CD) involving the learner is learner-centred and teacher friendly.
The child feels comfortable because the teacher believes he or she can perform, hence, the
learner is motivated to learn by using creative drama to achieve this aim. The pupils in the formal
context should be given the chance to talk and converse with vocabulary learnt whether during
the reading of comprehension passages or during the spelling of words during class periods. The
learner who is made to learn through role play method does a lot more interaction than in an
indirect instruction. Thus, a lot more interaction in due time with the role play approach serves as
a mechanism to start speaking the language naturally as declared by linguist Noam Chomsky
(1966).
Effective teaching according to Kyriacou (1997) is essentially concerned with how best to bring
about the desired pupil’s learning by some educational activities. He also confirmed that until the
1960s, research on effective teaching was largely dominated by attempts to identify attributes of
teachers, such as personality traits, sex, age, knowledge and training which might have a bearing
on their effectiveness. After the 1960s, research on effective teaching has focused on activities in
the classroom, in particular on the interaction between teacher and pupil. This means
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participation between teacher and pupil is paramount in the learning process thus, making it
child-centered.
Appropriate teaching and learning strategies are used by the teacher/facilitator to effect active
participation by learners. A Chinese proverb which states that; “Tell me and I will forget. Show
me and I will remember. Involve me and I will understand.’’ The practical use of the five senses
- hearing, seeing, and smelling, tasting and touching through movements, expression of words,
body language expressions, builds the learners' potentials and skills whilst role playing.
(Devishaj, 2014)
Creative Dramatics (CD), a learner-centered teaching method with different teaching techniques,
has been tested with pupils, students and children in the United States of America, Canada, and
Europe and, as well as parts of Asia. It has proven to be an effective teaching method which is
still utilized by their teachers.
A final discussion with pupils/students of the University of Ghana Staff Village Basic School of
the Ghana Education Service (GES) revealed that instructors sometimes use drama topics in their
English Language textbooks lessons though rarely using the role playing aspect. Gogovi, et al
(2004) found that the technique has been ignored by teachers, even though teachers who were
interviewed said that drama is utilized in imparting knowledge.
Creative Dramatics which includes role play, simulation, dramatic play, story enactment,
miming, puppetry, theatre games, music and dance is usually reserved for children’s skill
development. “Let’s pretend” is not just a child’s game, but the norm in a creative drama class.
Children naturally act out their perceptions; try out roles and play “pretend.” This process is
among the primary ways very young ones learn about their world. Creative Drama activities are
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structured in a way that pupils/students are able to explore their topics experientially (Buchanan,
2006).
1.3 Problem Statement The standards of spoken and written language in general among our basic school learners have
fallen greatly. However, the Ghanaian educational training institutions are capacitated
enormously to train teachers to be adequately knowledgeable in all taught subjects at our public
basic schools. It is noteworthy though to consider a few challenges that stems from the child’s
early development. An observation could be made that most Ghanaian families due to several
factors do not engage their children in the speaking of English language. This, as a result, does
not help the learners to practice the second language (L2) in the home environment considering
the non-practice also during school break periods. Hence, the lack of L2 practice between home,
school and community affects the English language fluency.
A primary investigation noted earlier revealed that despite the efforts of the teachers most pupils
still find it difficult to employ the use of the English language. The poor understanding of the
application of the English language by pupils and students in the basic public schools may be due
to the teaching method. The required knowledge and skills employed by teachers to impart the
lessons could be the challenge to good performance. Kyriacou (1997) has expressed an idea to
effective teaching and has thus stated that “teaching which successfully achieves the learning by
pupil as intended by the teacher.” Teaching is essentially concerned with how best to bring about
the desired pupil’s learning by some educational activities. Kyriacou’s postulation drives the
researcher to believe that the application of an effective teaching method is the answer to
effective learning.
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A cursory look at two of the class performances (interaction between teacher and pupils, and
between the pupils in and outside class reveals that learners do not find it easy using the English
language in building vocabulary, spelling, reading and writing when learning other subjects as
well as when communicating in it. The teaching method as well as the process employed by
teachers therefore needs to be reviewed.
1.4 Objectives The objectives of the study are to:
i. Identify the problems associated with the teaching of vocabulary in English Language
using the direct teaching methods.
ii. Assess the impact of the creative dramatics technique in teaching English vocabulary. 1.5 Research Questions
The following research questions will be answered:
i. What are the problems associated with the teaching of English vocabulary using the
direct teaching methods?
ii. How far can the use of creative dramatics as an instructional tool improve upon
students’ performance in English vocabulary?
iii. What are the challenges of implementation of the creative dramatics method to the
GES teacher in the public school?
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1.6 Significance of the Study
The study seeks to test the effectiveness of Creative dramatics method of teaching English
vocabulary. The study will also serve as a resource base for the Ghana Education Service and to
provide a guide to policy formulators to the adoption of effective method of teaching. Moreover,
the study is aimed at aiding teachers to improve their methods and skills of teaching.
Creative dramatics is what children do best. Through this means, the children engage all the
human senses in the process of learning and teaching. For this reason, formal and informal
teaching done through play will stimulate children's sense of touch, taste, sight, hearing and
smelling. This process, to a larger extent, can serve as a conduit to ease the stress of teaching and
learning which are usually associated with other strategies such as discussion, questioning,
brainstorming and other ways of engagement (Buchanan, 2006). The research work hopes that
the result of the study will serve as a reference point for further research in the area of improving
reading competence.
1.7 Delimitation
English Language is a subject of study and although its aspects (phonics, words, spelling,
reading, dictation, comprehension, grammar, composition, etc) are many, the study will highlight
only the use of vocabulary in conversation. The data collection and the level of the study will be
Basic School classes, that is, either class three or six in the primary section and Junior High
School students in form three. The field data will be collected from the Accra Metro Metropolis,
Ayawaso Sub-district schools as well as the La-Nkwantanang Municipal schools.
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1.8 Limitations Availability of teachers and students at certain days and time of the school year is a challenge to
researchers. School time-table for the term is normally crowded with sports activities, holidays,
and other unplanned eventualities. These activities, to a greater extent, inhibit the continuity of
teaching and learning and can delay the research work. In most public schools visited, pupils and
students felt comfortable communicating in the local Ghanaian languages instead of the English
Language which is the standard medium of instruction in the schools.
1.9 Organization of the Study. The thesis is presented in five chapters. The first chapter constitutes a general overview of the
whole study, that is, the background of the study. Chapter two concentrates on the review of
relevant literature. Chapter three provides the Methodology of the study, which is the research
design, population, sampling and sampling techniques, and data collection. Chapter four
concentrates on the analysis of the data, presentation of the results of the investigations and the
discussion of the research findings. The final chapter focuses on the conclusion, suggestions and
recommendations for further research.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the review of relevant and related literature on the topic of study. It
focuses on the conceptual issues which are affecting effective teaching, direct teaching method
(also known as traditional teaching), effective learning, and creative dramatics. Due to the
direction of the study, emphasis will be laid on creative dramatics (also known as creative drama,
participation drama, dramatic activity and plays) and further delve into its technique as a
teaching methodology for effective transmission and assimilation of knowledge.
2.2 Overview of Concepts of the Study
Discussions below are based on the concepts: effective teaching, teaching method, direct
teaching method, creative dramatics and effective learning. These concepts become relevant to
the study because of the need to understand why the method of instruction used in the public
schools is not producing the expected outcomes in the Basic Education Certificate Examination
(BECE), especially, with the English Language subject. Apart from the fact that English language
is a core course in BECE, it is also the official language in Ghana and the medium of instruction
in GES. This situation calls for a closer look at the English Language subject and the methods of
teaching same in Ghana Education Service (GES). The d iscussions a lso cover the role of the
teacher and the pupil/student, who are the main participants in this case. Teachers’ approach to
teaching is analysed to determine its effectiveness.
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2.3 Effective teaching and learning
The conceptualization of teaching as well as effective teaching has been well debated and
documented in literature (Lahey, 2004; Singer and Revenson, 1997; Kyriacou, 1992, 1997;
Freeman and Richards, 1993; Chauhan, 1979).
Perrott (1990), for instance, has revealed that teaching without doubt is a complex task and
cannot be defined because the criteria for teaching differ from every teacher and every
instructional situation. In this line, Perrott (1990) stated that teaching [and learning] is achieved
when knowledge, skills and attitudes are deemed to have increased, improved or changed
for the better.
The implications for the differing criteria for teaching, as alluded to by Perrott, would usually
depend on the group of people being taught. For instance, play-based learning has enormously
shown to be somewhat effective among children both in the formal education system and in the
homes. Sadly however, the focus on the value of play is rather limited and the researcher strongly
advocates for the need for parents and teachers to review the focus and place of play-based
learning amongst children. That will obviously impact on the complexity in teaching as alluded
to by Perrott. Dewey (1899) a s c i t e d b y Mooney (2013:16), for instance, recommends that
“education [thus teaching and learning] should be child centred; … must be both active and
interactive; … must involve the social world of the child and the community”.
Lahey (2004) adds to it by stating the point on permanent change. He explains the above
definition with Aristotle’s (1985) view referring to the mind of infants as blank tablets, on which
experiences leave their mark through learning. As more classroom topics/lessons are imparted
through Play, more enactive experiences fill the child’s mind/memory aiding retention of
knowledge, as indicated by Aristotle. In addition, Aristotle states that human beings are active
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participants and not passive or blank tablets in the flow of life.
Consequently, claiming that people passively allow experiences to teach and make them what
they become, hence the “permanent change” observed in behaviour. Lahey further concludes
that, using dramatic activity to encourage learning creates better memory retention for the
child/pupil /learner.
Knowles (1997) indicates that; adults do not come to any learning environment with blank
tablets because by the time they become adults, much experience is gained in life through
learning hence confirming Aristotle’s thoughts that a child learns and grows through
experiences.
Teaching is characterized by communication, process, dissemination and motivation (Chauhan,
1979). According to Chauhan (1979), communication between two or more persons is a
mechanism by which person(s) influence each other by their ideas and learn something in the
interaction. A process is also when a learner, teacher, curriculum and other variables are
organized in a systematic way to attain some pre-determined goal; whilst dissemination is the
way the mind of the learner is filled with information and knowledge of facts for future use. The
information and knowledge acquired, in turn, motivates the learner to learn more.
Freeman and Richard (1993) also perceive teaching as an art or a craft which is employed
through teacher personality and skill. They cited Zahorik (1986) who asserted that a good
teacher is a person who assesses the needs and possibilities of a situation and creates and uses
practices that have promise for that situation.
In a 2000 report of UNICEF International Working Group on Education, teacher education
curriculum which is child-centred and relevant to present day teaching methods and skills was
advocated to be utilised. It also noted that teaching that projects only knowledge is a limited type
of teaching strategy which no longer suits current ideas of how and what students learn.
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According to Singer and Revenson (1997), Piaget (1973) expressed that the child plays an active
role in his/her own growth of intelligence and also learns by doing. Piaget regarded the “child as
a philosopher who perceives the world as he has experienced it” For example; a class can play a
‘Market Scene’ where children apply negotiation skills of bargaining. This helps children to
develop problem solving skills; they understand the monetary value and can apply them to
numbers. They also develop the appropriate vocabulary that enables them to express themselves
through words.
Additionally, the ability to construct sentences rightly during the creative drama process is
developed through the assistance of the teacher. Marley, S.C, Levin J.R. Glenberg, A.M. (2010)
noted that the theoretical reasons of cognitive development provided by Bruner (1964)
highlights the importance of activity, imagery, and symbolic reasoning. The process of
negotiation the children enter as explained above bears on Bruner’s theory of cognitive
development. Undoubtedly, Bruner’s thought that all humans correspond mentally to their
environment when using actions, imagery and language.
Bruner’s cognitive development theory lends credence to the GES curricula that lays
emphasis on children’s cognitive engagement; therefore as the learners are offered the
opportunity to develop their cognitive aptitudes, they fulfill the GES requirement.
Modality usage had age-related differences, and with younger children greater cognitive benefits
which were derived are higher when enactive representations are present. The uniqueness of
human beings when learning is brought to bear when the ‘play’ lesson is used in the enactive
modality. The researcher therefore reasons with Bruner when the former asserts that some
pupils/students learn through the activities or movements of the play. Enactive muscle memory
has been used synonymously with psycho-motor learning; it is also used to describe the
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observation that various muscle-related tasks seem to be easier to perform after previous
practice, even if the task has not been performed for a while. It is as if the muscles remember.
Further, in the iconic situation, the children become more skilled at representing their
environments through visual memory going through creative dramatics. Visual memory is a form
of memory which preserves some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience.
The researcher believes that, it is easy to place in memory, visual information which resembles
objects, places, animals or people in a mental image. This process involves both the mental
storage of such information and the ability to retrieve it. The process of recalling visual
information is typically considered to be different than other types of memory.
Again, it is the observation by the researcher through other studies on the subject that,
language memory expands through the use of expressions in the social environment. It includes
how people think, remember, learn and perceive.
Language memory is a large part of the cognitive psychology of man, which is portrayed in the
symbolic modality Marley et al. (2010).
Per discussions thus far, it is apparent, and the researcher affirms that combination of ‘play’ and
learning as designed in this research helps the children to develop holistically. Through this
play-learning process the children are able to develop physically, emotionally, psychologically,
socially and cognitively.
When employing creative drama technique, to a concept/subject matter such as ‘Fires in
government public buildings’, for students in Junior High form one /class seven for example,
either as a class or in groups; Learners brainstorm; discuss, suggest and argue out issues
surrounding ‘The causes that lead to these fires; as well as its solutions’. Words that are crucial
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to such occurrences in communication will be discussed and practiced. Through the process of
arguing and discussion, a new knowledge is arrived at and this becomes their solutions to the
issue. This sets the readiness for dialogue and movements for play acting.
As aptly put by Keller (1988) the various processes; reading, discussion, brainstorming,
composing a storyline, voluntary auditioning and acting of the subject matters, help the pupil.
With regards to the various processes suggested by Keller (1988), it is true that the learner gains
a lot of experiences through interaction/play to gain knowledge, skills and attitudes. Hence, the
learner who plays in the ‘market scene’ uses the life skill experience in any trading environment
now and in the future. The learner in the ‘fires in public buildings’ will also tend to pay more
attention to fire extinguishers in buildings, allowing easy access to emergency routes in a
building, switching off plugs when they are not in use.
Consequently, in the play-lesson method, the child with the support of his/her classmates and the
facilitator, exercise critical thinking skills as they brainstorm, discuss and argue the various
issues in class, thus a team spirited group is promoted.
These processes as exemplified above, are culminated into a teaching method which is known as
creative dramatics. The researcher believes that, with the application of creative dramatics, a
learner in class or group, is given a topic, such as ‘Embolden the teenager against rape in
Mpatakrom’. Students/group preparation in the community will be to carry out interviews to
arrive at some possible causes that lead to such occurrences’ in the community. When the
group/class gets together, they break down issues concerning the topic, with the teacher’s
guidance. The subject matter assists pupils/students to develop a storyline; after that voluntary
participants from the class get the story played. The facilitators, participation audience as well as
the participants engage in debriefing the play. Debriefs help learners to think critically and apply
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alternate thoughts/results for better practical replays or outcomes.
As facilitators/teachers consider the needs of the learners and apply an active learning technique
it results in group participation and teamwork by learners. The educator will avoid what has been
considered by Carron & Chau (1996) in quality education in the UNICEF, (2000) report, stating
that teaching styles of the mid twentieth century (traditional teaching method) still remains a
technique used in today’s world, which is teacher-centred, fairly rigid and even authoritarian.
Hence, teachers should consider affecting child-centred teaching and learning strategies to
reduce memorisation or rote learning, whereby supporting their ability to remember what is
taught. The teaching technique evident in the GES public classrooms is the traditional teaching
method, and that is subsequently reviewed.
Further, the UNICEF report suggested that learners, environment, content, process and outcome
are components that lead to quality teaching in education (UNICEF, 2000). The processes
are means through which trained teachers use child-centred teaching approaches in well-managed
classrooms to facilitate learning and reduce disparities.
The researcher finds the following explanations of the variables mentioned by Kyriacou quite
revealing. Firstly, Kyriacou provides that context variables, in a classroom-based lesson, refer to
all those characteristics of the context of the learning activities, which may promote the success
of the learning activity. In those variables, one could name:
a) teacher’s characteristics - such as sex, age, experience, social class, training,
personality
b) pupil’s characteristics - such as ability, values, personality, age, social class
c) class characteristics - such as size, range of ability, social class mix
d) subject characteristics - such as subject matter, level of difficulty, general interest
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e) school characteristics - such as size, building facilities, ethos, disciplinary policy,
proportion of high ability intake
f) Community characteristics - such as affluence, population density, geographical
location
g) Occasion characteristics - such as time of the day, preceding lesson, weather
and period of academic year.
Although all the above characteristics form the basis for most of the argument advanced by the
researcher, the researcher finds characteristics a), b) and c) very much aligned to the case for
creative dramatics. The experience, training, personality variables in characteristics a) for
instance will inform the instructor/teacher what method to employ in other to meaningfully
impart knowledge to the students/pupils.
Kyriacou (1997:5-7) in his effective teaching framework, defines effective teaching as that
“teaching which successfully achieves the learning by pupils as intended by the teacher.” It is
essentially concerned with how best to bring about the desired pupil’s learning by some
educational activities. Kyriacou opines that Context variables, Process variables and Product
variables constitute the basic framework of effective teaching. (Kyriacou 1997). The researcher
finds Kyriacou’s framework akin to that of Freeman and Richard (1993), Perrott (1990),
Chauhan (1979).
Secondly, Process variables refer to all those characteristics of teacher and pupil behaviour and
of the learning task and activities which take place in the classroom which may have some
bearing on the success of the learning activity. The characteristics of the learning task and
activities are the resultant of the teacher perceptions, strategies and behaviour and of the pupil
perceptions, strategies and behaviour.
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Finally, Product variables refer to all those educational outcomes which are desired by teachers
and which have formed the basis of the teacher’s planning of the learning activities and/or of the
objectives or criteria which can be used to consider and monitor effectiveness. Many of these
outcomes can be translated into variables based on tests, such as external examinations or
national examinations and aptitude tests; other variables are based on more subjective forms of
assessment, such as a teacher's opinion.
2.4 Teaching Methods
The “process” mentioned by Chauhan (1979) and UNICEF (2000), and “teacher’s strategies” in
the Process Variables of Kyriacou (1997) is also known as Teaching Methods or Teaching
techniques. According to Kyriacou, Teaching Methods are ways of presenting instructional
materials or conducting instructional activities. They can be thought of as a combination of
activities supported by the use of appropriate resources to provide a particular learning
experience. Since the criteria for every instructional situation differ and every teacher differs
(Perrott, 1990), it is important to draw the attention to the fact that Zahorik (1986), cited by
Freeman and Richard (1993) is of the view that “instructors methods should not be generalized
instead teachers should be given the freedom to analyze the happenings in the classrooms”, so
that after realizing the options on the ground, the instructor chooses the best or alternative skill to
be effective in that instance. It is realized by Carron and Chau (1996) in the UNICEF report
that imparting knowledge only, is not holistically beneficial to the learner. Therefore, dramatic
application of the traditional teaching will enhance the method. For example, a storyline taken
from a passage read in the class five English Textbook entitled ‘Dangerous drugs’, and discussed
to arrive at ‘Drug abuse among the youth’ for the Creative dramatics topic is brainstormed,
discussed to form a play for the lesson.
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It is, therefore, obvious that teachers, who are prepared/ skilled with the application of different
or alternate methods, will solve the teaching and learning needs of the GES pupils/students for
good results. Some of these methods are: direct instruction and creative dramatics. These two
teaching methods are further examined.
2.4.1 Direct Teaching
According to Kozloff et al. (1999) Backer and Engelmann designed direct teaching for teaching
elementary through secondary language, reading, mathematics, higher-order thinking
(reasoning), writing, science, social studies, and legal concepts.
Lindsay (2014) refers to Zig Engelmann, an expert in instructional theory, for declaring that
Direct Instruction (DI), also known as Direct Teaching (DT) has been observed to be a very
popular and effective teaching technique, utilized by teachers to impart knowledge. He claims
the technique works, it provides rapid gains that persists and increases learners’ self-esteem.
Rosenshine (2008) also states that direct instruction can be taken in five different ways if the
writers use the word without indicating how its meaning should be operational. Rosenshine
further states that some authors even use the term without realizing that it has different meanings.
He defines direct instruction as instruction that is led by the teacher and moreover, suggests
the five ways that the term overlaps when being used and what it means to its readers:
Academic instruction that is led by a teacher regardless of the quality of
instruction.
The instructional procedures that were used by effective teachers in the
teacher effects research.
Instructional procedures used by teachers when they taught cognitive
strategies to students.
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Instructional procedures used in the Direct Instruction Systems in
o Arithmetic and Reading. (DISTAR)
Instruction where direct instruction is portrayed in negative terms such as
settings where the teacher lectures and the students sit passively.
The first bullet referred to an assumption that in DI, a teacher models and demonstrates a skill
but readers are denied any instructional specifics therefore, in this general sense they infer their
own meanings. The second referred to specific patterns of instruction that emerged from
experimental studies that identified instructional procedures used by teachers whose students
made greatest gains in achievement as against those who made the smallest gains. This study
became known as the teacher effectiveness/teacher effects or the process-product research.
In the next bullet researchers around 1968, started referring to their works in cognitive
strategies as well as for the instructional procedures used to teach higher level cognitive tasks
with the term ‘direct instruction’. The fourth use was in reference to the specific instructional
procedures in the curriculum packages that DISTAR developed. The final usage was represented
as an undesirable method of teaching, which had a negative prescription such as “fact
accumulation at the expense of thinking skill development” stated by Edwards (1981), cited by
Rosenshine (2008).
According to Engelmann’s (2007) theory of instruction DI is the most used teaching strategy by
teachers to impart knowledge. He points out that an instructor facilitates the following features as
noted below in the teaching process:
Introduction and Review of lesson/topic: Topics or information to be learned is
presented to the learner or review of information to set the platform for teaching and
learning. This is done to capture the learners’ attention as the goal/outcome’s
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relevance is revealed as previous knowledge is reviewed as well.
Development: Once the goal is known, clear explanations, descriptions,
examples, or models of what is to be learned are communicated to learners. After this
step, learners’ need, informs and assures instructor of pupils/students understanding.
To double check pupils/students understanding, key questions related to topic are
elicited. Teachers also use ‘prompts’ such as (visual aids, multimedia presentations,
etc.) to motivate successful information processing by the learners.
Guided Practice: Activities or tasks are given to the learners once teacher is
confident enough explanation and examples of the material to be learnt have been
provided with sufficient positive pupils’ response to the instruction. Close teacher
monitoring is affected at the practice/tasks period. Also, assistance at this stage is
available to the learners’ who have not mastered the lesson that is, more ‘direct
instruction’ is given and step two is repeated. Bullet Two on the above page -
Development.
Closure: It is the final step to the model. Teacher wraps up what is covered in the
lesson through recap. This part reminds learners of the lesson’s goal and prepares
them to complete the independent practice tasks assigned by the instructor.
Independent Practice: Assignments for reinforcement of lesson without teachers’
prompts and monitoring. This signifies that the pupils have had ample competency at
the Guided Practice. (Homework can be classified as independent practice without
assistance from the class teacher.)
Evaluation: To assess pupils/students, progress evaluation tools like
(classroom assignments, worksheets, etc.) or (tests, projects, etc.) are used to any
given lesson. This provides feedback to both the learner and the teacher and this can
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be used to determine whether expected learning outcomes were achieved or have to
be revisited in future lessons. (Engelmann, 2007).
Interestingly, a review of the curricular of the GES and further observer studies, Engelmann’s
prepositions become valid in the context of the Ghana Education Service. Most of the
teachers/instructors, the researcher observed, for instance develop their lessons notes as spelt out in
the curricular provided by the supervisory body- the GES. The instructors are then expected to
religiously follow all the steps and as expected, to achieve the anticipated result. Some instructors,
may, out of their own accord and experience use a different teaching method(s) in achieving the
same results. Even with such non-conformist, there may be traces of Engelmann’s features as
enumerated above. The researcher therefore to a large extent agrees with the features propounded
by Engelmann and finds it very valuable.
Engelmann and Carnine (1982) were cited by Kinder and Carnine (1990) in a study of
Teacher – controlled instruction that if environmental (community, class, parents etc) variables
are under control then; instructional materials, plus teacher’s delivery on topics would promote
“faultless communication” through clear and unambiguous interaction with learners.
Though controversy was not ruled out by their study, the researchers realized that D1 was a
method that becomes useful to the learner when teaching, practice, evaluation are consistent over
time and across instructional settings.
Therefore, teachers were expected in their duty to churn out effective instruction which will
then achieve expected outcomes.
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The findings in their study further showed that the use of D1, its application of D1 principles in
teaching basic and high – order skills (high school etc) established DI’s effectiveness when
utilized. “Follow Through” Studies that were employed to sustain practice with D1evidently
showed that low–income students taught with the right materials to foster effective information,
made significant gains. In the same manner, where its instructional materials and approaches
were effectively done, it worked marvelously with individual learners with mild to severe
handicaps in language, reading, math and community-living skills. In brief, experiment and
quasi-experiment studies also equally supported D1 use on special education populations. These
populations refer to learners/individual learners who have disabilities in learning.
It is therefore obvious that if effective instructional impart is delivered right, as well as behaviour
of teacher’s approach to teaching being also right, then method of delivery, content of
instruction, teacher or computer, basic skills or high order skills will achieve the expected
goal/outcome.
Stebins et al. (1977) are quoted in another “Follow Through” project report by National
Commission on Reading by Anderson et al. (1985). In that project, Stebins et al concluded that
economically disadvantaged students made significant progress reading comprehension measured
on National Standardized test. They again cited Gersten et al. (1984) indicating that these
students in the project maintained their elementary school gains in comprehension through high
school.
Engelmann, 2007 commended the use of DI, other scholars on the other hand expressed their
inhibitions about its use. When “Follow Through” originated in the late sixties (60’s) Anderson
et al. noted Maccoby and Zellner (1970) articulated that extremely structured teaching would
stifle students learning. Resnick (1981) also noted that the method impedes teachers’ creativity
and ultimate effectiveness in class. Likewise, a group of researchers at the University of
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Oregon, delved into a study to examine the applicability of direct instruction; for teaching
reading comprehension to intermediate and secondary levels. The results after 600 hours of
reading instruction observed in grades 3 to 6, Durkin (1983) allowed the leader of the group to
conclude; comprehension instruction was not employed but comprehension assessment took
place for most part of the lesson through interrogation. His concern in addition was that, the
answers given by children whether wrong or right did not have the due attention. Time was also
much spent, completing and checking assignments consumed large part of the observed periods;
and as a result Durkin thought this was a challenge to the teaching of reading comprehension.
A recent work reported in Jone’s (2001) article done at the Siefert Elementary in Milwaukee
Public School and mentioned in Linsay’s (2014) study, proves that; pupils/students scored better
grades in state’s standardized tests using DI. According to Jones, the percentage of fourth graders
rose from 22% in 1907-’98 to 57% in 1999-2000 in reading; in math the score increased from
11% to 48% over the same period; Social studies score rose from 13% to 61% and he described
it as “amazing gains”. Although, other scholars in the review declare how successful the
technique is; teachers in the basic public schools within the Ghana Education Service, (GES) are
not having the expected or maximum outcomes, as they implement the direct teaching. As
professionals in the public schools, teachers should adhere to the technique effectively, because
Linsay proclaims that the study that ever gave the best of results in DI was the “Project
Follow Through”. To him, it was a true Direct Instruction, meaning teachers implemented the
technique in the study to the letter.
Consequently, direct teaching is effective in other areas like the USA and Europe, they have their
limitations in particular as revealed in the literature, such as; 1) their schools do not apply direct
teaching effectively. 2) Where they do, schools do not receive enough resources to enable them
impart the teaching adequately. Hence, results like the ones we see in our children’s
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BECE are attained. GES teachers therefore, should impart the knowledge, skills and attitudes in
their learners, applying the right attitude to teaching, whilst the GES also provides better
teaching and learning resources.
Incidental and Explicit teaching are strategies which have been seen to have achieved very good
results in learning outcomes as compared to when teachers apply each strategy in isolation. It is
therefore prudent for instructors to apply other creative techniques of teaching and learning so as
to achieve excellent outcome. As previously noted, Sonbul and Schmitt (2009) advocated that
when the instructors used both techniques in the teaching and learning of vocabulary it achieved
better results. Therefore, no one method should be satisfactory in the teaching and learning
programmes of learners by their instructors.
With the above information, the researcher perceives that using direct instruction is useful and so
should not be totally written off as some scholars advocate. To strengthen the teachers and
learners capacity, other equally good methods should be added to or made available to the GES
teacher; so that when the teacher evaluates the teaching situation and realizes it is best to use an
alternate technique to augment, he/she will have the skills to utilize for excellent outcome. The
above discretion by the researcher is supported by Freeman and Richard (1993) along with
Sonbul and Schmitt (2009) as previously noted in the review.
Therefore, Creative dramatics, that is; enacting the lessons as an alternative technique should
enable pupils to learn by ‘doing’ lessons creatively. This method will aid pupils/students to learn
through the application of the five senses; hearing, seeing, smelling, touching and tasting when
acting the scenarios of the play. If the above technique is channeled to the classrooms, the
learners’ involvement will result into permanent education as posited by Way (1967). He also
advocates that, when the play technique is utilized, the use of the five major senses is boosted
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during the process through the activities of (hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and touching).
Also, imagination at the various stages of the strategy strengthens creativity in the learner.
Hence, this method should be promoted within the GES public schools to provide the learner
critical thinking abilities and aid the effective teaching and learning processes for good
examination outcome.
2.4.2 Creative Dramatics
Courtney (1965:6) once said “Drama is a most effective method for improving the clarity and
fluency of children’s speech.” Subsequently, Chenfield (1978:195) acknowledged that “creative
drama includes all forms of improvised drama created by all children, such as story
dramatization, dramatic play, puppetry, and pantomime.” She continues to reveal that the
technique’s activities stimulate planning, discussion, the give-and-take of ideas, and cooperation.
Therefore, as children use language, their bodies, imagination, intellects and emotions to play the
stories out; they become more fluent in their personal expression and communication and as well
enjoy the learning.
Clipson-Boyles (1998:4) expresses that “drama assists the learning process by enabling children
to engage actively with their subject matter.” She explains, for instance; in the ‘home corner’,
children play out adult roles and encounter situations from new perspectives; and they interact
and develop new thoughts and responses encountered in the process.
In addition, Schickendanz, et al (1990) cited by Gelfer and Perkins, avers that creative drama is a
process of perceiving and communicating thoughts and ideas. It is a thoughtful, as well as a
facilitator/teacher directed effort to aid pupils/students retell a story in a dramatic form.
Finally, Winifred Ward (1957), states that creative dramatics is an expression used
interchangeably with playmaking, and since it is a general term meaning the activity in which
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informal drama is created by the players it is not conventional. That is, its dialogue and
action are extemporized rather than written and memorized.
To this end, creative dramatics, the researcher suggests, can be likened to what children in
the Ghanaian society informally engage in and call it ‘Maame ne Paapa’ thus ‘Let’s play Mother
and Father!’ The action employed by the children comes to them spontaneously because they
have been going through the experiences with mother, father and siblings at home.
From the definitions on the technique, it is realised that creative drama depends on the
participants’ ability to interact; and interacting in a second language (L2) situation, one needs to
sharpen the oral nature of the L2 before learning to read and to write. It is also observed by the
researcher that in our kindergartens where beginners of the basic school start school, good
articulation and good fluency depends on how the child learns the spoken medium first.
As Clipson-Boyles (1998:4) explains above, during the ‘home corner’ session the child engages
with the subject matter by playing adult roles through interaction first; in so doing the learner
encounters new perspectives and learns new thoughts from creative drama. The beginner in
the public school should be spared the agony of either writing or reading to learn the language
(L2), if even it sometimes works.
Rivers (1964) an audio linguist, states that language is primarily speech, for that reason, the
learner’s activity is first confined to its gestural and visual expression of language behaviour. The
underlying principle advocated by Rivers pronounces that language skills taught in the target
language is to be done in the spoken form before the written. The researcher believes that it will
be in the interest of authorities in GES to promote the spoken language in any language study the
children get involved, even the foreign languages, such as French, Spanish, Chinese and others in
our educational institutions.
According to the Children's Theatre Association of America, one can look at all Dramatic
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Activity as existing on a continuum with Drama in its Natural State (the kind of dramatic play all
children and indeed all humans engage in) at one extreme and formal Theatre at the other.
Between the extremes, there is Creative Drama and Participation Theatre. These forms do not
exist as discreet/reserved disciplines, but rather as flexible points on a continuum, (Drama in its
natural state --- Creative Dramatics --- Participation theatre --- Theatre).
Continuum
Drama in its natural state will be the inborn ability of a person/child to mimic actions by people
around and begin to play with, for instance, ‘Let’s play house!’ … ‘Let’s play boats!’ … ‘Let’s
play cowboys!’ … and others. Lease and Siks (1952). As mentioned earlier, Ghanaian children
also engage in a similar type of play called ‘Maame ne Paapa’.
It can be interpreted to mean “Let’s play family!” where roles are assigned by a self-
imposed/voluntary leader amongst them. As indicated previously, these children go through these
experiences at home. Therefore, it now becomes a demonstrational skill being portrayed
creatively through role play.
This natural ability mentioned is applied both in creative dramatics (child drama/drama) as well
as in participatory theatre (child theatre/theatre). The major contrast is that if the group
implementing it is itself the participating audience then it is creative dramatics. Nevertheless, if
the group using the technique is a professional/or amateur group who are not themselves
audience to their own show then it is theatre. Therefore, the type of drama promoted in the
classrooms is spontaneous and it is called creative dramatics. The peculiar characteristics
between creative drama and participatory theatre are discussed subsequently in the review.
Creative Drama is an improvisational, non-exhibition, process-centred forms of drama in
which part icipants are guided by a facilitator/leader to imagine, enact, and reflect upon
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human experiences (Buchanan, 2006). The consequent statement is a suitable reference to child
drama. Basically, the more the focus of the Drama activity is on the PROCESS, the closer
it is to achieve Creative Drama, whilst the more the focus is placed on the PRODUCT, (the
performed work and its impact on an audience) the closer it is to formal theatre/child theatre. In
the application of these two techniques these various differences occur in creative drama, which
is (also known as child drama within Drama in Education) and participatory theatre (also known
as child theatre within theatre in education).
Tatar (2002), draws the attention to the fact that, although several terms have been used to refer
to “classroom drama” such as creative dramatics, educational drama, theatre games, socio
dramatic play, role drama, and role playing, the terms “creative drama” and “drama in
education,” they are umbrella concepts which embrace all the various types of improvised and
informal drama used in classrooms.
According to Lease and Siks (1952:2) the broad field of drama for children disclose two
distinct divisions namely; drama for the child audience and drama for the child participant. They
continue with the explanation that Children’s theatre depict drama purposed for child audience. It
is a play carefully staged by competent actors for the child audience and this affects the child in a
sensational manner with breadth taking moments. In this play, a qualified director engages these
talented actors, who learn the lines of a play written by a playwright, where actions and
interpretations are influenced by the director. Since the end product is a major value to theatre
for children, staging and costuming are vital concerns of a play to be theatrically staged for
children audience.
In contrast to children’s theatre, Lease and Siks (1952) state that Creative dramatics is the term
given to the type of drama for the benefit of the child participant. They claim it is “playing with
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purposeful group planning and significant evaluation and it affects each individual who actively
participates in this art experience.” Words are formulated by the children and used in the play but
not memorized as in the children’s theatre. The process rather than the product is vital and as
well, an end in itself from the standpoint of child growth and child development; nevertheless to
the children creating the play, it is significantly important. Due to the description above staging
and costuming are of little concern. Meanwhile, the teacher, who is taken as the facilitator guides
rather than teach the children through the process of creative playing/drama.
Besides, Buchanan, Lease and Siks (1952) and other scholars of creative drama believe strongly
“It is aimed toward the development of the whole child, socially, emotionally, intellectually,
physically, and spiritually.” In that vein, the technique is teaching pupils holistically. Neither
concerned with training children to become actors, nor in creating plays as in Theatre in
education, which is for ‘show’. He finally indicates that, Creative Dramatics makes use of the
participant’s experience as the goal because it discovers learning in different contexts. In theatre,
the intention or aim is to present to an audience a show, and showing is the goal. Creative
Dramatics, usually reserved for children, can include dramatic play, story enactment, miming,
puppetry, theatre games, music, and dance. “Let's pretend”, is the norm in creative drama class,
not just a child's game (Buchanan, 1952).
Furthermore, Courtney (1968) also expresses that Rousseau (1762), spoke against the rigid way
of imparting knowledge to children in schools... that is (In the teaching and learning of
arithmetic, reading and writing; children were almost inflexibly forced to learn.) This led
Rousseau, to encourage play in schools. He advocated that “a child’s early education should be
almost entirely, play” (p.20). He believes that running, skipping and playing are of value at such
ages since natural instincts should be motivated to grow instead of being repressed.
Rousseau equally promoted that “Nature desires children to be children before being men, and
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that in case we prevent the order, we shall produce precocious fruits which will have neither
ripeness nor taste and will soon go bad…” (p.20) He also reckons that childhood has its own
ways of seeing, thinking, feeling, which are suitable to it, and that it is best and reasonable for a
teacher to substitute his/hers at the appropriate time.
Therefore, Courtney’s expressions go without saying that the child’s concentration during any
play learning environment can be channeled by the teacher into a class teaching environment.
This will become the basis of real, holistic and permanent education, propagated by some
educational scholars. It is observed that when a person concentrates on a thought or activity it is
difficult to call the one’s mind off the activity. Dramatic Education is not stage training but a
child playing dramatically.
The researcher finds that as pupils/students role play in creative dramatics, they engage in
various kinds/registers of language expressions which help them through the learning processes.
This improves their language fluency as well as competency in the English Language
expressions. To conclude this section, Aristotle confirmed the Chinese proverb by saying, “Tell
me and I will forget. Show me and I will remember. Involve me and I will understand” cited by
Devishaj (2014), suggests that when children learn through enactments they understand the
topic and improve better.
2.5 Direct teaching methods and vocabulary in English Language
Rosenshine’s (2008) study reveals that some state departments of education in the U.S.A use two
other synonyms for the term direct instruction; they are: direct teaching or explicit instruction. He
throws more light on Direct 1nstruction (DI), indicating that the strategy is a teacher directed,
with a definite structure and specific steps guiding learners to achieve defined learning
outcomes. Throughout the teaching process, maintaining pupils attention, the teaching itself,
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the management of the entire learning environment are all in the control of the teacher. Due to
the structure, delivery of large volumes of information is possible within shorter reasonable
periods and it has been seen to be developmentally, suitable to pupils’ ages and stages and the
model is teacher directed.
For second language (L2) learners, Richards (1976) states that unlike syntax and semantics less
attention is given to vocabulary development these days. In his work, he tried to look at various
approaches through which a teacher may attempt vocabulary teaching. Preparatory measures
towards vocabulary teaching he says shall be addressed from a point of view of making the
lesson begin with a rich concept of vocabulary. That is; knowing that words entail close
associations with other words either in contrast, pronoun, verbs, synonyms, adjectives, meanings
and many more. A teacher therefore has the option to choose interesting variations of words in
such groups to teach. A few set of the responses that he had in his study to the following words are
below taken from Slobin (1971) cited in (Sonbul and Schmitt, 2009).
Stimulus Typical response Word links
Born die By contrast/antonym
Apple peach By coordinate classification
Animal Dog By subordinate classification
Blossom
Flower
By similarity/synonym
The various methods Richards (1976) made available to teachers through the assumptions in the
study, is to encourage teachers to make their word development goals to go beyond covering a
number of words on a word list.
Another study by two lexical researchers, Sonbul and Schmitt (2009) ELT Journal, employed
direct teaching using vocabulary after reading. The two approaches of learning vocabulary that
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was used were, ‘Incidental learning’ and ‘explicit learning’. The former denotes learning
vocabulary as a by-product of any language vocabulary learning activity, such as reading, whilst
the latter is, learning vocabulary when the focus is on the words to be learnt.
They cited suggestions from the following scholars, (Nagy 1997,) saying that first language (L1)
learners benefit extensively from incidental learning. Though this method reflects in second
language (L2) instruction, it comes with relative small gains and after repeated exposure. However,
Waring and Takaki (2003) state that with extensive and sustained reading, the cumulative learning
can be substantial. Nation (2001) hinted that learning activities focusing on the word itself (explicit
learning) are vital for vocabulary acquisition for L2 learners because he warns that in an incidental
learning scenario, many of the L2 learners do not experience the conditions that are needed for
this kind of learning to occur. Therefore, the study by the two scholars reveal that when L2
learners are taught both constantly with the incidental and explicit learning method, pupils are able
to recall the word forms, their meanings and find recognition of word items also easier.
Whereas Rosenshine (2008) also advocates that direct instruction (DI) method has been tested
and research proves it works, the following scholars in his study believe the contrast. Rosenshine
states their disapproval by noting that McKeen et al (1972) do not appreciate the technique the
least, they describe the method as “authoritarian”. He remarks that Borko & Wildman (1986)
claim the strategy is too “regimented”, he also mentions that Edwards (1981) perceives the
technique is “fact accumulation at the expense of thinking skill development”, whilst Nicholls
(1989) detest its “focusing upon tests”. Becher (1980) as well, portrays it as a “passive” mode of
teaching, and finally Brown and Campione (1990) suggest it is the pouring of information from
one container ‘the teacher’s head’ to another container, ‘the student’s head’.
Although, the above scholars dislike the direct teaching for the various reasons given, the
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researcher also thinks it is noteworthy that, the teacher considers the following when
disseminating knowledge, for instance, “the teacher who imparts knowledge should acquire; (the
right skills, high content level, improved teaching attitudes), usage of appropriate teaching and
learning materials, engaging child-centred teaching techniques, to acquire best results. These
mentioned would endeavour a teacher to achieve results that are appreciable using the (DI)
method (Perrott 1990).
The critics cited above concluded by proposing in the study that, teachers should use techniques
that are “student centered” or activity-based instruction in place of direct instruction; or in
addition to it. The suggested methods advocate role playing strategies, which by definition is
creative drama, a form of learner centered and activity based technique. (Sonbul and Schmitt;
2009, Waring and Takaki; 2003, Nation; 2001 and Nagy 1997). The suggested methods falls
within role playing strategies, which by definition can be in the domain of creative drama, a form
of learner centered and activity based technique.
The Educational Teacher Training institutions in Ghana impart this lecture type of teaching
method to its trainees. These practitioners therefore; profoundly use the method in the public
schools. Although, Engelmann declares the direct teaching method as the most popularly used
and other scholars in the review also think it is effective; for our public schools BECE results are
not encouraging as indicated in the first chapter by the Education Minister, Naana Jane Opoku -
Agyeman in the Ghanaian Times. ( Amankwah, 2013). Therefore, Ghana Education Service
(GES) being the highest employer of these professional trainees who complete training in the
various educational institutions, should adequately consider the teaching method.
In spite of the benefits of using direct teaching method shown by some experts, its use in our
classrooms for all these years now shows a nose dive in results of school leavers in the Junior
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High school. Also difficulty in the expression of the oral and written English Language could be
the parameter promoting the fallen standards in their performances. Pupils/students need teaching
processes that encourage more practical/active and interactive strategies of teaching to improve
class and examination performances.
2.6 Creative Dramatics Method and Teaching of Vocabulary in English Language
Drama for education or as a technique for learning was previously perceived by purists a dilution
of the art form and an erosion of its status. They sought to maintain it as ritual and as
entertainment sources than educational means to impart knowledge. (Clipson-Boyle, 1998). The
resistance of movements in that era finally gave way to schools having the go ahead to
implement educational drama, (creative drama). According to Connors (1984), Creative drama in
second language, (L2) learning provides drama of society’s lives. It gives meaning and
motivates the teaching and learning of English as a second language (L2). She also views it
as a technique used as a small part of a regular class lesson plan.
Clipson - Boyles (1998:11) says educational drama; “ is an interactive, living art form which
reflects a variety of styles, genres and approaches…There are as many ways of teaching drama
as there are teachers teaching…”. Hence Connors teaching design was employed in this format.
She made sure that during the course of the children’s enactments, trust, sensitivity and
awareness, physical exercises, games, combine with actor training strategies such as role play
and improvisation are featured in the behaviour of the planning and execution of the educational
drama. The activity begins with physical warm-ups which culminate into group improvisation or