User:Guy vandegrift/sandbox - upload.wikimedia.org · mechanics, quantum field theories and quantum chemistry.[1][2] Contents 119th century ... 1926 – Enrico Fermi discovers the

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Condensing Wikipedia's Quantum mechanicstimeline

See also v:How things work college course/Quantum mechanics timeline

This "timeline of quantum mechancis" shows some of the key steps in the development of quantummechanics, quantum field theories and quantum chemistry.[1][2]

Contents

1 19th century

2 20th century

2.1 1900–1909

2.2 1910–1919

2.3 1920–1929

2.4 1930–1939

2.5 1940–1949

2.6 1950–1959

2.7 1960–1969

2.8 1971–1979

2.9 1980–1999

3 21st century

4 References

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Image of Becquerel's photographicplate which has been fogged byexposure to radiation from a uraniumsalt. The shadow of a metal MalteseCross placed between the plate andthe uranium salt is clearly visible.

19th century

1859 – Kirchhoff introduces the concept of a blackbodyand proves that its emission spectrum depends only onits temperature.[1]1860–1900 – Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann, James ClerkMaxwell and others develop the theory of statisticalmechanics. Boltzmann argues that entropy is a measureof disorder.[1] Boltzmann suggests that the energy levelsof a physical system could be discrete based onstatistical mechanics and mathematical arguments; alsoproduces a primitive diagram of a model of an iodinemolecule that resembles the orbital diagram.18871888 – Heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectriceffect, and also demonstrates experimentally thatelectromagnetic waves exist, as predicted by Maxwell.[1]1888 – Johannes Rydberg modifies the Balmer formulato include all spectral series of lines for the hydrogenatom, producing the Rydberg formula.1895 – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers X­rays inexperiments with electron beams in plasma.[1]1896 – Antoine Henri Becquerel accidentally discovers radioactivity while investigating thework of Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen; he finds that uranium salts emit radiation that resembledRöntgen's X­rays in their penetrating power, and accidentally discovers that the phosphorescentsubstance potassium uranyl sulfate exposes photographic plates.[1][3]1896 – Pieter Zeeman observes the Zeeman splitting effect by passing the light emitted byhydrogen through a magnetic field.1896–1897 Marie Curie investigates uranium salt samples using a very sensitive electrometerdevice that was invented 15 years before by her husband and his brother Jacques Curie tomeasure electrical charge. She discovers that the emitted rays make the surrounding airelectrically conductive. Through a systematic search of substances, she finds that thoriumcompounds, like those of uranium, emitted "Becquerel rays", thus preceding the work ofFrederick Soddy and Ernest Rutherford on the nuclear decay of thorium to radium by threeyears.[4]1897 – Ivan Borgman demonstrates that X­rays and radioactive materials inducethermoluminescence.1899 to 1903 – Ernest Rutherford investigates radioactivity and coins the terms alpha and betarays in 1899 to describe the two distinct types of radiation emitted by thorium and uraniumsalts. With Frederick Soddy he discovers nuclear transmutation as radioactive thorium isconvertd itself into radium through a process of nuclear decay and a gas (later found to be 42He).

[5] He also invents the nuclear atom model and becomes known as the "father of nuclearphysics"[6]

20th century

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Einstein, in 1905, when he wrote theAnnus Mirabilis papers

1900–1909

1900 – To explain black­body radiation (1862), MaxPlanck suggests that electromagnetic energy is emittedin quantized form, in multiples of the elementary unit E= hν, where h is Planck's constant and ν is frequency.1902 – To explain the octet rule (1893), Gilbert N.Lewis develops the "cubical atom" theory in whichelectrons in the form of dots are positioned at the cornerof a cube. Predicts that single, double, or triple "bonds"result when two atoms are held together by multiplepairs of electrons between the atoms.1903 – Antoine Becquerel, Pierre Curie and Marie Curieshare the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work onspontaneous radioactivity.1904 – Richard Abegg notes the pattern that thenumerical difference between the maximum positivevalence, such as +6 for H2SO4, and the maximumnegative valence, such as −2 for H2S, of an elementtends to be eight (Abegg's rule).1905 – Albert Einstein explains the photoelectric effect.He postulates that light itself consists of individualquantum particles (photons).1905 – Einstein explains the effects of Brownian motion as caused by the kinetic energy (i.e.,movement) of atoms, which was subsequently, experimentally verified by Jean Baptiste Perrin,thereby settling the century­long dispute about the validity of John Dalton's atomic theory.1905 – Einstein publishes his Special Theory of Relativity.1905 – Einstein theoretically derives the equivalence of matter and energy.1907 to 1917 – To test his planetary model of 1904 [7] he sent a beam of positively chargedalpha particles onto a gold foil and noticed that some bounced back, thus showing that an atomhas a small­sized positively charged atomic nucleus at its center. However, he received in 1908the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his investigations into the chemistry of radioactivesubstances",[8] which followed on the work of Marie Curie, not for his planetary model of theatom; he is also widely credited with first "splitting the atom" in 1917. In 1911 ErnestRutherford explained the Geiger–Marsden experiment by invoking a nuclear atom model andderived the Rutherford cross section.1909 – Geoffrey Ingram Taylor demonstrates that interference patterns of light were generatedeven when the light energy introduced consisted of only one photon. This discovery of thewave–particle duality of matter and energy is fundamental to the later development of quantumfield theory.1909 and 1916 – Einstein shows that, if Planck's law of black­body radiation is accepted, theenergy quanta must also carry momentum p = h / λ, making them full­fledged particles.

1910–1919

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A schematic diagram of the apparatusfor Millikan's refined oil dropexperiment.

1911 – Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn perform anexperiment that shows that the energies of electronsemitted by beta decay had a continuous rather thandiscrete spectrum, in apparent contradiction to the lawof conservation of energy. A second problem is that thespin of the Nitrogen­14 atom was 1, in contradiction tothe Rutherford prediction of ½. These anomalies arelater explained by the discoveries of the neutrino and theneutron.1911 – Ștefan Procopiu performs experiments in whichhe determines the correct value of electron's magneticdipole moment. In 1913 he is also calculated atheoretical value of the Bohr magneton based onPlanck's quantum theory.1912 – Victor Hess discovers the existence of cosmicradiation.1913 – Robert Andrews Millikan publishes the results of his "oil drop" experiment thatmeasures the charge of the electron. This makes it possible to calculate the Avogadro constantand the atomic weight of the atoms.1913 – Ștefan Procopiu publishes a theoretical paper with the correct value of the electron'smagnetic dipole moment.B.[9]

1913 – Niels Bohr theoretically obtains the value of the electron's magnetic dipole moment.1913 – Johannes Stark and Antonino Lo Surdo independently discover the shifting and splittingof the spectral lines of atoms and molecules due to an external static electric field.1913 – To explain the Rydberg formula (1888), which calculates the emission spectra of atomichydrogen, Bohr hypothesizes that electrons revolve around a positively charged nucleus atcertain fixed "quantum" distances, with specific energies such that transition between orbitsrequires "quantum" emissions or absorptions of energy.1914 – James Franck and Gustav Hertz conduct an experiment on electron collisions withmercury atoms, that provides new verification of Bohr's model of quantized atomic energylevels.[10]1915 – Einstein presents what are now known as the Einstein field equations. They specify howthe geometry of space and time is influenced by matter, and form the core of Einstein's GeneralTheory of Relativity.1916 – Paul Epstein[11] and Karl Schwarzschild,[12] working independently, derive equationsfor the linear and quadratic Stark effect in hydrogen.1916 – To account for the Zeeman effect, Arnold Sommerfeld suggests electrons in an atommight be "elliptical orbits" in addition to "spherical orbits".1918 – Sir Ernest Rutherford notices that, when alpha particles are shot into nitrogen gas, hisscintillation detectors shows the signatures of hydrogen nuclei. Rutherford determines that theonly place this hydrogen could have come from was the nitrogen, and therefore nitrogen mustcontain hydrogen nuclei. He thus suggests that the hydrogen nucleus, which is known to havean atomic number of 1, is an elementary particle, which he decides must be the protonshypothesized by Eugen Goldstein.1919 – Building on the work of Lewis (1916), Irving Langmuir coins the term "covalence" andpostulates that coordinate covalent bonds occur when two electrons of a pair of atoms come

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A plaque at the University ofFrankfurt commemorating the Stern–Gerlach experiment.

from both atoms and are equally shared by them, thus explaining the fundamental nature ofchemical bonding and molecular chemistry.

1920–1929

1922 – Arthur Compton finds that X­ray wavelengthsincrease due to scattering of the radiant energy by freeelectrons. This discovery, known as the Compton effect,demonstrates the particle concept of electromagneticradiation.1922 – Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach perform theStern–Gerlach experiment, which detects discrete valuesof angular momentum for atoms in the ground statepassing through an inhomogeneous magnetic fieldleading to the discovery of the spin of the electron.1922 – Bohr updates his model of the atom to betterexplain the properties of the periodic table by assumingthat certain numbers of electrons (for example 2, 8 and18) corresponded to stable "closed shells", presagingorbital theory.1923 – Pierre Auger discovers the Auger effect, where filling the inner­shell vacancy of anatom is accompanied by the emission of an electron from the same atom.1923 – Louis de Broglie extends wave–particle duality to particles, postulating that electrons inmotion are associated with waves. He predicts that the wavelengths are given by Planck'sconstant h divided by the momentum of the mv = p of the electron: λ = h / mv = h / p.[1]1923 – Gilbert N. Lewis creates the theory of Lewis acids and bases based on the properties ofelectrons in molecules, defining an acid as accepting an electron lone pair from a base.1924 – Satyendra Nath Bose explains Planck's law using a new statistical law that governsbosons, and Einstein generalizes it to predict Bose–Einstein condensate. The theory becomesknown as Bose–Einstein statistics.[1]1924 – Wolfgang Pauli outlines the "Pauli exclusion principle" which states that no twoidentical fermions may occupy the same quantum state simultaneously, a fact that explainsmany features of the periodic table.[1]

1925 – George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit postulate the existence of electron spin.[1]1925 – Friedrich Hund outlines Hund's rule of Maximum Multiplicity which states that whenelectrons are added successively to an atom as many levels or orbits are singly occupied aspossible before any pairing of electrons with opposite spin occurs and made the distinction thatthe inner electrons in molecules remained in atomic orbitals and only the valence electronsneeded to be in molecular orbitals involving both nuclei.1925 – Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan develops the matrix mechanicsformulation of Quantum Mechanics.[1]1926 – Oskar Klein and Walter Gordon put forth a relativistic quantum wave equation no calledthe Klein–Gordon equation.1926 – Enrico Fermi discovers the spin­statistics theorem connection.1926 – Paul Dirac introduces Fermi–Dirac statistics.

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1926 – Erwin Schrödinger uses De Broglie's electron wave postulate (1924) to develop a "waveequation" that represents mathematically the distribution of electron charge density throughoutspace, and also introduces the Hamiltonian operator in quantum mechanics.1926 – Paul Epstein reconsiders the linear and quadratic Stark effect using Schrödinger'sequation. The derived equations for the line intensities are a decided improvement overprevious results obtained by Hans Kramers.[13]1926 to 1932 – John von Neumann lays the mathematical foundations of Quantum Mechanicsin terms of Hermitian operators on Hilbert spaces.[1][14]

1927 – Werner Heisenberg formulates the quantum uncertainty principle.[1]1927 – Max Born develops the Copenhagen interpretation of the probabilistic nature ofwavefunctions.1927 – Born and J. Robert Oppenheimer introduce the Born–Oppenheimer approximation,which allows the quick approximation of the energy and wavefunctions of smaller molecules.1927 – Walter Heitler and Fritz London introduce the concepts of valence bond theory andapply it to the hydrogen molecule.1927 – Thomas and Fermi develop the Thomas–Fermi model for a Gas in a box.1927 – Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman studies optical photon scattering by electrons.1927 – Dirac states his relativistic electron quantum wave equation, the Dirac equation, in thesame year Charles G. Darwin and Walter Gordon solve it for a Coulomb potential.1927 – Charles Drummond Ellis (along with James Chadwick and colleagues) finally establishclearly that the beta decay spectrum is in fact continuous and not discrete, posing a problem thatwill later be solved by theorizing (and later discovering) the existence of the neutrino.1927 – Walter Heitler uses Schrödinger's wave equation to show how two hydrogen atomwavefunctions join together, with plus, minus, and exchange terms, to form a covalent bond.1927 – Robert Mulliken works, in coordination with Hund, to develop a molecular orbitaltheory where electrons are assigned to states that extend over an entire molecule and, in 1932,introduces many new molecular orbital terminologies, such as σ bond, π bond, and δ bond.1927 – Eugene Wigner relates degeneracies of quantum states to irreducible representations ofsymmetry groups.1927 – Hermann Klaus Hugo Weyl proves in collaboration with his student Fritz Peter afundamental theorem in harmonic analysis—the Peter–Weyl theorem—relevant to grouprepresentations in quantum theory (including the complete reducibility of unitaryrepresentations of a compact topological group);[15] introduces the Weyl quantization, andearlier, in 1918, introduces the concept of gauge and a gauge theory; later in 1935 he introducesand characterizes with Richard Bauer the concept of spinor in n­dimensions.[16]1928 – Linus Pauling outlines the nature of the chemical bond: uses Heitler's quantummechanical covalent bond model to outline the quantum mechanical basis for all types ofmolecular structure and bonding and suggests that different types of bonds in molecules canbecome equalized by rapid shifting of electrons, a process called "resonance" (1931), such thatresonance hybrids contain contributions from the different possible electronic configurations.1928 – Friedrich Hund and Robert S. Mulliken introduce the concept of molecular orbitals.1928 – Born and Vladimir Fock formulate and prove the adiabatic theorem, which states that aphysical system shall remain in its instantaneous eigenstate if a given perturbation is acting on itslowly enough and if there is a gap between the eigenvalue and the rest of the Hamiltonian'sspectrum.1929 – Oskar Klein discovers the Klein paradox, which can be resolved using particle/anti­

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Electron microscopeconstructed by Ernst Ruskain 1933.

particle pair production in the context of quantum field theory. In the same Oskar Klein andYoshio Nishina derive the Klein–Nishina cross section for high energy photon scattering byelectrons, and Nevill Mott derives the Mott cross section for the Coulomb scattering ofrelativistic electrons.1929 – Fritz Houtermans and Robert d'Escourt Atkinson propose that stars release energy bynuclear fusion.[1]

1930–1939

1930 – Dirac hypothesizes the existence of the positron.[1]1930 – Fritz London explains van der Waals forces as due to theinteracting fluctuating dipole moments between molecules1930 – Pauli suggests that, in addition to electrons and protons,atoms also contain an extremely light neutral particle which islater called the neutrino.[1]1931 – John Lennard­Jones proposes the Lennard­Jonesinteratomic potential1931 – Walther Bothe and Herbert Becker find that if the veryenergetic alpha particles emitted from polonium fall on certainlight elements, specifically beryllium, boron, or lithium, anunusually penetrating radiation is produced. At first thisradiation is thought to be gamma radiation, although it is morepenetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details ofexperimental results are very difficult to interpret on this basis.Some scientists begin to hypothesize the possible existence ofanother fundamental particle.1931 – Ernst Ruska creates the first electron microscope.[1]1931 – Ernest Lawrence creates the first cyclotron and foundsthe Radiation Laboratory, later the Lawrence Berkeley NationalLaboratory; in 1939 he awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics forhis work on the cyclotron.1932 – James Chadwick establishes that the radiation emitted when Beryllium is bombarded byalpha particles the resulting radiation consists of the neutrons that were hypothesized byFermi.[1]1932 – Mark Oliphant: Building upon the nuclear transmutation experiments of ErnestRutherford done a few years earlier, observes fusion of light nuclei (hydrogen isotopes). Thesteps of the main cycle of nuclear fusion in stars are subsequently worked out by Hans Betheover the next decade.1932 – Carl D. Anderson experimentally proves the existence of the positron.[1]1933 – Leó Szilárd first theorizes the concept of a nuclear chain reaction. He files a patent forhis idea of a simple nuclear reactor the following year.1934 – Fermi studies the effects of bombarding uranium isotopes with neutrons.1935 – Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen describe the EPR paradox which challengesthe completeness of quantum mechanics as it was theorized up to that time. Assuming that localrealism is valid, they demonstrated that there would need to be hidden parameters to explain

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A Feynman diagram showing theradiation of a gluon when an electronand positron are annihilated.

how measuring the quantum state of one particle could influence the quantum state of anotherparticle without apparent contact between them.[17]1935 ­ Schrödinger develops the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment. It illustrates what hesaw as the problems of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics if subatomicparticles can be in two contradictory quantum states at once.1935 – Hideki Yukawa formulates his hypothesis of the Yukawa potential and predicts theexistence of the pion, stating that such a potential arises from the exchange of a massive scalarfield, as it would be found in the field of the pion. Prior to Yukawa's paper, it was believed thatthe scalar fields of the fundamental forces necessitated massless particles.1936 – Alexandru Proca publishes prior to Hideki Yukawa his relativistic quantum fieldequations for a massive vector meson of spin­1 as a basis for nuclear forces.1937 – Carl Anderson experimentally proves the existence of the pion.1938 – Charles Coulson makes the first accurate calculation of a molecular orbitalwavefunction with the hydrogen molecule.1938 – Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann send a manuscript to Naturwissenschaftenreporting they have detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons. Hahncalls this new phenomenon a 'bursting' of the uranium nucleus. Simultaneously, Hahncommunicate these results to Lise Meitner. Meitner, and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch,correctly interpret these results as being a nuclear fission. Frisch confirms this experimentallyon 13 January 1939.1939 – Leó Szilárd and Fermi discover neutron multiplication in uranium, proving that a chainreaction is indeed possible.

1940–1949

1942 – A team led by Enrico Fermi creates the firstartificial self­sustaining nuclear chain reaction, calledChicago Pile­1, in a racquets court below the bleachersof Stagg Field at the University of Chicago onDecember 2, 1942.1942 to 1946 – J. Robert Oppenheimer successfullyleads the Manhattan Project, predicts quantum tunnelingand proposes the Oppenheimer–Phillips process innuclear fusion The first nuclear fission explosion wasproduced on July 16, 1945 in the Trinity test in NewMexico.1946 – Theodor V. Ionescu and Vasile Mihu report theconstruction of the first hydrogen maser by stimulatedemission of radiation in molecular hydrogen.1947 – Willis Lamb and Robert Retherford measure a small difference in energy between theenergy levels 2S1/2 and 2P1/2 of the hydrogen atom, known as the Lamb shift.1947 – George Rochester and Clifford Charles Butler publishes two cloud chamber photographsof cosmic ray­induced events, one showing what appears to be a neutral particle decaying intotwo charged pions, and one that appears to be a charged particle decaying into a charged pionand something neutral. The estimated mass of the new particles is very rough, about half aproton's mass. More examples of these "V­particles" were slow in coming, and they are soon

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given the name kaons.1948 – Sin­Itiro Tomonaga and Julian Schwinger Independently introduce perturbativerenormalization as a method of correcting the original Lagrangian of a quantum field theory soas to eliminate a series of infinite terms that would otherwise result.1948 – Richard Feynman states the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics.1949 – Freeman Dyson determines the equivalence of two formulations of quantumelectrodynamics: Feynman's diagrammatic path integral formulation and the operator methoddeveloped by Julian Schwinger and Tomonaga. A by­product of that demonstration is theinvention of the Dyson series.[18]

1950–1959

1951 – Clemens C. J. Roothaan and George G. Hall derive the Roothaan­Hall equations, puttingrigorous molecular orbital methods on a firm basis.1951 – 1952 Edward Teller, physicist and "father of the hydrogen bomb", and Stanislaw Ulam,mathematician, are reported to have written jointly in March 1951 a classified report on"Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors" that results in the next step in the ManhattanProject.[19] The first planned fusion thermonuclear reaction experiment is carried outsuccessfully in the Spring of 1951 based on the work Hans A. Bethe and others.[20] InNovember 1952 full­scale test of the Hydrogen bomb is apparently carried out.1951 – Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell receive a shared Nobel Prize in Physics for theirfirst observations of the quantum phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance previouslyreported in 1949.[21][22][23] Purcell reports his contribution as Research in Nuclear Magnetism,and gives credit to his coworkers such as Herbert S. Gutowsky for their NMRcontributions,[24][25] as well as theoretical researchers of nuclear magnetism such as JohnHasbrouck Van Vleck.1952 – Donald A. Glaser creates the bubble chamber, which allows detection of electricallycharged particles by surrounding them by a bubble. Properties of the particles such asmomentum can be determined by studying of their helical paths. Glaser receives a Nobel prizein 1960 for his invention.1953 – Charles H. Townes, collaborating with James P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger, builds thefirst ammonia maser; receives a Nobel prize in 1964 for his experimental success in producingcoherent radiation by atoms and molecules.1954 – Chen Ning Yang and Robert Mills derive a gauge theory for nonabelian groups, leadingto the successful formulation of both electroweak unification and quantum chromodynamics.1955 and 1956 – Murray Gell­Mann and Kazuhiko Nishijima independently derive the Gell­Mann–Nishijima formula, which relates the baryon number, the strangeness, and the isospin ofhadrons to the charge, eventually leading to the systematic categorization of hadrons and,ultimately, the Quark Model of hadron composition.1956 – Chien­Shiung Wu carries out the Wu Experiment, which observes parity violation incobalt­60 decay, showing that parity violation is present in the weak interaction.1956 – Clyde L. Cowan and Frederick Reines experimentally prove the existence of theneutrino.1957 – John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer propose their quantum BCStheory of low temperature superconductivity, for which their receive a Nobel prize in 1972. The

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The baryon decuplet of the EightfoldWay proposed by Murray Gell­Mann

in 1962. The Ω− particle at thebottom had not yet been observed atthe time, but a particle closelymatching these predictions wasdiscovered[26] by a particleaccelerator group at Brookhaven,proving Gell­Mann's theory.

theory represents superconductivity as a macroscopic quantum coherence phenomenoninvolving phonon coupled electron pairs with opposite spin1957 – William Alfred Fowler, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, and Fred Hoyle, in their1957 paper Synthesis of the Elements in Stars, show that the abundances of essentially all butthe lightest chemical elements can be explained by the process of nucleosynthesis in stars.

1960–1969

1961 – Clauss Jönsson performs Young's double­slitexperiment (1909) for the first time with particles otherthan photons by using electrons and with similar results,confirming that massive particles also behavedaccording to the wave–particle duality that is afundamental principle of quantum field theory.1961 – Sheldon Lee Glashow extends the electroweakinteraction modelss developed by Julian Schwinger byincluding a short range neutral current, the Z_o. Theresulting symmetry structure that Glashow proposes,SU(2) X U(1), forms the basis of the accepted theory ofthe electroweak interactions.1962 – Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and JackSteinberger show that more than one type of neutrinoexists by detecting interactions of the muon neutrino(already hypothesised with the name "neutretto")1962 – Murray Gell­Mann and Yuval Ne'emanindependently classify the hadrons according to asystem that Gell­Mann called the Eightfold Way, andwhich ultimately led to the quark model (1964) ofhadron composition.1962 to 1973 – Brian David Josephson, predicts correctly the quantum tunneling effectinvolving superconducting currents while he is a PhD student under the supervision ofProfessor Brian Pippard at the Royal Society Mond Laboratory in Cambridge, UK;subsequently, in 1964, he applies his theory to coupled superconductors. The effect is laterdemonstrated experimentally at Bell Labs in the USA. For his important quantum discovery heis awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973.[27]1963 – Nicola Cabibbo develops the mathematical matrix by which the first two (and ultimatelythree) generations of quarks can be predicted.1964 – Murray Gell­Mann and George Zweig independently propose the quark model ofhadrons, predicting the arbitrarily named up, down, and strange quarks. Gell­Mann is creditedwith coining the term quark, which he found in James Joyce's book Finnegans Wake.1964 – François Englert, Robert Brout, Peter Higgs, Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and TomKibble postulate that a fundamental quantum field, now called the Higgs field, permeates spaceand, by way of the Higgs mechanism, provides mass to all the elementary subatomic particlesthat interact with it. While the Higgs field is postulated to confer mass on quarks and leptons, itrepresents only a tiny portion of the masses of other subatomic particles, such as protons andneutrons. In these, gluons that bind quarks together confer most of the particle mass. The result

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is obtained independently by three groups: François Englert and Robert Brout; Peter Higgs,working from the ideas of Philip Anderson; and Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and TomKibble.[28][29][30][31][32][33][34]1964 – Sheldon Lee Glashow and James Bjorken predict the existence of the charm quark. Theaddition is proposed because it allows for a better description of the weak interaction (themechanism that allows quarks and other particles to decay), equalizes the number of knownquarks with the number of known leptons, and implies a mass formula that correctly reproducedthe masses of the known mesons.1964 – John Stewart Bell puts forth Bell's theorem, which used testable inequality relations toshow the flaws in the earlier Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox and prove that no physicaltheory of local hidden variables can ever reproduce all of the predictions of quantummechanics. This inaugurated the study of quantum entanglement, the phenomenon in whichseparate particles share the same quantum state despite being at a distance from each other.1968 – Stanford University: Deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford LinearAccelerator Center (SLAC) show that the proton contains much smaller, point­like objects andis therefore not an elementary particle. Physicists at the time are reluctant to identify theseobjects with quarks, instead calling them partons — a term coined by Richard Feynman. Theobjects that are observed at SLAC will later be identified as up and down quarks. Nevertheless,"parton" remains in use as a collective term for the constituents of hadrons (quarks, antiquarks,and gluons). The existence of the strange quark is indirectly validated by the SLAC's scatteringexperiments: not only is it a necessary component of Gell­Mann and Zweig's three­quarkmodel, but it provides an explanation for the kaon (K) and pion (π) hadrons discovered incosmic rays in 1947.1969 to 1977 – Sir Nevill Mott and Philip Warren Anderson publish quantum theories forelectrons in non­crystalline solids, such as glasses and amorphous semiconductors; receive in1977 a Nobel prize in Physics for their investigations into the electronic structure of magneticand disordered systems, which allow for the development of electronic switching and memorydevices in computers. The prize is shared with John Hasbrouck Van Vleck for his contributionsto the understanding of the behavior of electrons in magnetic solids; he established thefundamentals of the quantum mechanical theory of magnetism and the crystal field theory(chemical bonding in metal complexes) and is regarded as the Father of modern Magnetism.

1971–1979

1973 – Peter Mansfield formulates the physical theory of Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging(NMRI)[36][37][38][39]1974 – Pier Giorgio Merli performs Young's double­slit experiment (1909) using a singleelectron with similar results, confirming the existence of quantum fields for massive particles.

1980–1999

1980 to 1982 – Alain Aspect verify experimentally the quantum entanglement hypothesis; hisBell test experiments provide strong evidence that a quantum event at one location can affect anevent at another location without any obvious mechanism for communication between the twolocations.[40][41]

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A 1974 photograph of an event in abubble chamber at BrookhavenNational Laboratory. Each track isleft by a charged particle, one ofwhich is a baryon containing thecharm quark.[35]

Graphene is a planar atomic­scalehoneycomb lattice made of carbonatoms which exhibits unusual andinteresting quantum properties.

1986 – Johannes Georg Bednorz and Karl AlexanderMüller produce unambiguous experimental proof ofhigh temperature superconductivity involving Jahn­Teller polarons in orthorhombic La2CuO4, YBCO andother perovskite­type oxides; promptly receive a Nobelprize in 1987 and deliver their Nobel lecture onDecember 8, 1987.[42]1977 to 1995 – The top quark is finally observed by ateam at Fermilab after an 18­year search. It has a massmuch greater than had been previously expected —almost as great as a gold atom.1995 – Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman and WolfgangKetterle and co­workers at JILA create the first "pure"Bose–Einstein condensate. They do this by cooling adilute vapor consisting of approximately two thousandrubidium­87 atoms to below 170 nK using acombination of laser cooling and magnetic evaporativecooling. About four months later, an independent effort led by Wolfgang Ketterle at MITcreates a condensate made of sodium­23. Ketterle's condensate has about a hundred times moreatoms, allowing him to obtain several important results such as the observation of quantummechanical interference between two different condensates.1998 – The Super­Kamiokande (Japan) detector facility reports experimental evidence forneutrino oscillations, implying that at least one neutrino has mass.

21st century

2001 – the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (Canada)confirm the existence of neutrino oscillations. Lene Haustops a beam of light completely in a Bose–Einsteincondensate.[43]2009 ­ Aaron D. O'Connell invents the first quantummachine, applying quantum mechanics to a macroscopicobject just large enough to be seen by the naked eye,which is able to vibrate a small amount and largeamount simultaneously.2014 – Scientists transfer data by quantum teleportationover a distance of 10 feet with zero percent error rate, avital step towards a quantum internet.[44][45]

References

This document was extracted from Wikipedia's Timeline of quantum mechanics and represents the first step inestablishing a peer reviewed Journal on Wikiversity. This work was not refereed, however, and represents a 2.5 houreffort by User:Guy vandegrift to prepare a sample of what might be a contribution created by editing a Wikipedia article.

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This edited version is 70% as long as the original Wikipedia article.

1. Peacock 2008, pp. 175–1832. Ben­Menahem 20093. Becquerel, Henri (1896). "Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122: 420–421.4. Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity: Research Breakthroughs (1897–1904)

(http://www.aip.org/history/curie/resbr1.htm). Aip.org. Retrieved on 2012­05­17.5. Frederick Soddy (December 12, 1922). "The origins of the conceptions of isotopes" (PDF). Nobel Lecturein Chemistry. Retrieved April 2012.

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