U.S. Public Education 1776-1826. Public Education in the United States has been a political creation. Likewise, it has been a social creation, an economic.

U.S. Public EducationU.S. Public Education

1776-18261776-1826

Public Education in the United States has Public Education in the United States has been a political creation. Likewise, it has been a political creation. Likewise, it has been a social creation, an economic been a social creation, an economic creation, and a cultural creation.creation, and a cultural creation.

Public Education in the United States has Public Education in the United States has had a complicated creationhad a complicated creation

Public Education in the United States is Public Education in the United States is attributed to many different sourcesattributed to many different sources

American Education began in the American Education began in the New England ColoniesNew England Colonies

The year was 1607, and the place was The year was 1607, and the place was Jamestown—not in New England, and not Jamestown—not in New England, and not focused on public education.focused on public education.

MA had education laws in 1642 and 1647MA had education laws in 1642 and 1647 MA, Conn., NH each had laws requiring parents MA, Conn., NH each had laws requiring parents

to make sure children could read, knew the laws, to make sure children could read, knew the laws, knew Bible, and were skilled in a trade. Towns knew Bible, and were skilled in a trade. Towns had to hire teachers.had to hire teachers.

Puritans and Congregationalists believed Puritans and Congregationalists believed education necessary to read Bible.education necessary to read Bible.

South was not as focused on public ed.South was not as focused on public ed.

1818thth Century (1700s) Century (1700s)

Trends in education noted that Trends in education noted that schooling should be:schooling should be:

public in purpose, public in purpose, public in access, public in access, public in control, and public in control, and public in support.public in support.

1700s1700s Growing number of immigrants. Religious Growing number of immigrants. Religious

freedoms were important; therefore, there was freedoms were important; therefore, there was fear of a state religion.fear of a state religion.

Some groups wanted schools taught in their Some groups wanted schools taught in their languages (Germans, Dutch, French, Swedes, languages (Germans, Dutch, French, Swedes, Danish)Danish)

Country growing westward. American Country growing westward. American Regionalism, Sectionalism, and Localism was Regionalism, Sectionalism, and Localism was beginning.beginning.

Religious diversity had begun to erode support Religious diversity had begun to erode support for public ed. Could you have both?for public ed. Could you have both?

1700s continued1700s continued

Colonial govts. began to turn educational Colonial govts. began to turn educational issues over to communities.issues over to communities.

Colonial govts. began to give more Colonial govts. began to give more freedoms to alternative private schools freedoms to alternative private schools that supported local interests.that supported local interests.

Commercial interests began to be involved Commercial interests began to be involved in schools. Merchants and landowners in schools. Merchants and landowners established academies for workers’ established academies for workers’ children.children.

1700s continued1700s continued

Commercial interests led to doctrine of Commercial interests led to doctrine of cultural cultural pluralismpluralism—fostering greater religious and —fostering greater religious and cultural freedoms which further weakened cultural freedoms which further weakened government’s influence in education. Cultural government’s influence in education. Cultural Pluralsim spoke more to “anything goes.”Pluralsim spoke more to “anything goes.”

By mid 1700s, schooling more commercially By mid 1700s, schooling more commercially focused, but little quality control. Less public focused, but little quality control. Less public schools; more commercial schools.schools; more commercial schools.

Early 1800s continuedEarly 1800s continued

When American Revolution occurred, When American Revolution occurred, there was a reversal of attitudes.there was a reversal of attitudes.

Revolution redefined the meaning of Revolution redefined the meaning of political communitypolitical community-new republican (representative) political -new republican (representative) political systemsystem-new conception of citizenship-new conception of citizenship-new belief that education should promote -new belief that education should promote citizenship.citizenship.

Revolutionary TimesRevolutionary Times

““Great Awakening” or religious revival swept Great Awakening” or religious revival swept colonies in mid 1700s. colonies in mid 1700s.

Promoted Protestantism over other religions. Promoted Protestantism over other religions. Others frowned upon this support of Others frowned upon this support of Protestantism over other religions.Protestantism over other religions.

At one time, taxes were collected and sent to the At one time, taxes were collected and sent to the citizen’s religious school of choice.citizen’s religious school of choice.

In early times, the US had multiple In early times, the US had multiple establishments of religion.establishments of religion.

Revolutionary TimesRevolutionary Times

It took seven years for Jefferson’s Bill for It took seven years for Jefferson’s Bill for Religious Freedom to be passed in Religious Freedom to be passed in Virginia.Virginia.

By 1791, nine of 13 colonies had declared By 1791, nine of 13 colonies had declared religious freedom and separation of church religious freedom and separation of church and state. Four of 13 had freedom, but and state. Four of 13 had freedom, but taxed churches.taxed churches.

Revolutionary TimesRevolutionary Times

Laws in remaining four (MD, CN, NH, and MA) Laws in remaining four (MD, CN, NH, and MA) finally caught up in support of 1finally caught up in support of 1stst Amendment. Amendment.

Protestant beliefs of morality, frugality, self-Protestant beliefs of morality, frugality, self-denial, and benevolence were becoming infused denial, and benevolence were becoming infused in teachings, nonetheless.in teachings, nonetheless.

This was done, in part, in reaction to the This was done, in part, in reaction to the thoughts of profiteering, pride, arrogance, and thoughts of profiteering, pride, arrogance, and infidelity associated with the haughty British.infidelity associated with the haughty British.

Concept of LibertyConcept of Liberty

Original Constitutional framers did not define Original Constitutional framers did not define liberty as we do today.liberty as we do today.

For them, it meant being free from nobility, For them, it meant being free from nobility, privileged monarchy or external control.privileged monarchy or external control.

Liberty, to the revolutionaries, did not mean Liberty, to the revolutionaries, did not mean freedom as we use it. Our definition came about freedom as we use it. Our definition came about some 75 years later in the mid-1800s.some 75 years later in the mid-1800s.

For colonials, the idea of public liberty over-rode For colonials, the idea of public liberty over-rode the concept of private liberty.the concept of private liberty.

Concept of EqualityConcept of Equality

An elusive concept.An elusive concept. It meant political equality.It meant political equality. Did not mean social or economic equality.Did not mean social or economic equality. Equality could be earned through hard Equality could be earned through hard

work; it was not given to them.work; it was not given to them. ““The creed of equality did not give men equality, but invited them to claim it, The creed of equality did not give men equality, but invited them to claim it,

invited them not to know their place and keep it, but to seek and demand a invited them not to know their place and keep it, but to seek and demand a better place. Yet, the conflicts resulting from such demands have generally, better place. Yet, the conflicts resulting from such demands have generally, though not always, stopped short of large-scale violence and have generally though not always, stopped short of large-scale violence and have generally eventuated in a greater degree of actual equality.”—Edmund Morganeventuated in a greater degree of actual equality.”—Edmund Morgan

Concept of the Public GoodConcept of the Public Good

Based on developing public virtue. It was Based on developing public virtue. It was the idea that we were in this together.the idea that we were in this together.

Pleas for devotion to public good. (JFK Pleas for devotion to public good. (JFK spoke of this later in his, “Ask not what spoke of this later in his, “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask…your country can do for you, ask…

Commonwealth meant sacrifice for Commonwealth meant sacrifice for common good. Virginia and MA were common good. Virginia and MA were noted for their commonwealth status.noted for their commonwealth status.

Education in States, 1776-Education in States, 1776-

PA, 1776, first state constitution that required PA, 1776, first state constitution that required every county to build schools.every county to build schools.

Similar in NC (1776), GA (1777), and Vermont Similar in NC (1776), GA (1777), and Vermont (1777)(1777)

Not clear why VA did not include education in its Not clear why VA did not include education in its constitution. Great debate led by Jefferson in constitution. Great debate led by Jefferson in VA. He believed education had to be public, VA. He believed education had to be public, had to be elem, sec., and state university. had to be elem, sec., and state university. Jefferson wanted all remnants from English Jefferson wanted all remnants from English aristocracy removed.aristocracy removed.

Articles of Confederation Articles of Confederation 1776-17831776-1783

Power to the states—federal govt could Power to the states—federal govt could only deal with foreign relations, war, only deal with foreign relations, war, peace, discipline among states, trade with peace, discipline among states, trade with Indians, money and communication.Indians, money and communication.

Distrust of anything centralized.Distrust of anything centralized. Fear that fed govt. would become like Fear that fed govt. would become like

England.England. Regionalism was strong.Regionalism was strong.

Articles of ConfederationArticles of Confederation

Articles of Confederation govt. dealt well with Articles of Confederation govt. dealt well with western lands.western lands. Land Ordinance of 1785: Townships 6 miles square, Land Ordinance of 1785: Townships 6 miles square,

36 sections, 640 acres each. 1636 sections, 640 acres each. 16thth section required for section required for school.school.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787Northwest Ordinance of 1787• Detailed admission of new states when pop 60,000. Equal Detailed admission of new states when pop 60,000. Equal

with others.with others.• School encouraged, p.17School encouraged, p.17• Two townships for universityTwo townships for university• Education left to statesEducation left to states• Prohibited slavery in these new statesProhibited slavery in these new states

Articles of ConfederationArticles of Confederation

Decade after 1776, the United States was Decade after 1776, the United States was dealing with monumental problemsdealing with monumental problems

A confederation was not working.A confederation was not working. More central structure was needed.More central structure was needed. Central structure meant federalism, which Central structure meant federalism, which

is the opposite of confederalism.is the opposite of confederalism.

The US ConstitutionThe US Constitution Written in reaction of Articles of Confederation.Written in reaction of Articles of Confederation. Debated, written, ratified with almost no mention of Debated, written, ratified with almost no mention of

education.education. Education viewed as a state function or for private or Education viewed as a state function or for private or

religious groups.religious groups. The clash between federalists and anti-federalists (states The clash between federalists and anti-federalists (states

rights) kept education from becoming a national debate. rights) kept education from becoming a national debate. Education would have further complicated the debate.Education would have further complicated the debate.

Our constitution says anything not mentioned as federal Our constitution says anything not mentioned as federal is left to states.is left to states.

Federalists (usually aristocrats) didn’t want the poor Federalists (usually aristocrats) didn’t want the poor educated. Anti-federalists didn’t want education educated. Anti-federalists didn’t want education controlled by federalists.controlled by federalists.

The One Dream for Education—The One Dream for Education—Chapter 2Chapter 2

Fears of immigrants settling together and not Fears of immigrants settling together and not learning English.learning English.

New Americans rejected England through a New Americans rejected England through a revolution, but were attracted to, promoted, and revolution, but were attracted to, promoted, and catered to anything English.catered to anything English.

Dominant American Revolutionary mood was to Dominant American Revolutionary mood was to achieve American republicanism (representative achieve American republicanism (representative democracy) drawn from various English and democracy) drawn from various English and non-English sources.non-English sources.

One Educational DreamOne Educational Dream

Belief that role of education was to stress Belief that role of education was to stress common good, common values for all common good, common values for all people, including many new immigrants, people, including many new immigrants, for a representative govt and democratic for a representative govt and democratic society.society.

Education has always been a battle Education has always been a battle between pluribus (what’s best for all) and between pluribus (what’s best for all) and unum (the rights of individuals.)unum (the rights of individuals.)

Early Educational ProposalsEarly Educational Proposals

Jefferson’s VA Plan, 1779 (public Jefferson’s VA Plan, 1779 (public education with elementary, secondary education with elementary, secondary schools)schools)

Bill in VA General Assembly called a “Bill Bill in VA General Assembly called a “Bill for the More General Diffusion of for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge”Knowledge”

Its goal was to prevent tyrannyIts goal was to prevent tyranny Counties were to control education Counties were to control education

through 3 alderman (board members)through 3 alderman (board members)

Jefferson’s VA Plan cont.Jefferson’s VA Plan cont.

Counties were divided into districts called Counties were divided into districts called “hundreds” or “wards”“hundreds” or “wards”

Each ward had one elementary schoolEach ward had one elementary school Aldermen to appoint superintendent Aldermen to appoint superintendent Salaries, board, lodging paid by taxesSalaries, board, lodging paid by taxes All free children to attend three years, and could All free children to attend three years, and could

go longer if parents paid.go longer if parents paid. Curriculum—reading, writing, arithmetic, history Curriculum—reading, writing, arithmetic, history

of Greece, Rome, England, US. No mention of of Greece, Rome, England, US. No mention of Bible.Bible.

Jefferson’s VA Plan cont.Jefferson’s VA Plan cont.

Grammar Schools (secondary schools)—details that Grammar Schools (secondary schools)—details that states were to be divided into regions composed of states were to be divided into regions composed of several counties. Each region had one grammar school. several counties. Each region had one grammar school. Board of Visitors controlled.Board of Visitors controlled.

Grammar schools building maintenance paid through Grammar schools building maintenance paid through private tuition.private tuition.

Best elementary students selected to go to Grammar Best elementary students selected to go to Grammar school at public expense.school at public expense.

Best grammar students to go to William and Mary.Best grammar students to go to William and Mary. Grammar schools focused on Latin, Greek, English, Grammar schools focused on Latin, Greek, English,

geography, higher math, but no Bible.geography, higher math, but no Bible.

Jefferson’s VA Plan cont.Jefferson’s VA Plan cont.

Jefferson wanted William and Mary to Jefferson wanted William and Mary to become more public focused; he believed become more public focused; he believed it had not fulfilled its mission.it had not fulfilled its mission.

Jefferson’s Bill failed in the Virginia Jefferson’s Bill failed in the Virginia General Assembly.General Assembly.

Benjamin Rush’s PA PlanBenjamin Rush’s PA Plan He was a patriot, educator, physician and liberal He was a patriot, educator, physician and liberal

reformer. Educated at Princeton and Univ. of reformer. Educated at Princeton and Univ. of Edinburgh (Scotland). Teacher at Univ. of PA. Edinburgh (Scotland). Teacher at Univ. of PA. Signer of Declaration of Independence.Signer of Declaration of Independence.

1786 proposed Plan of Public Ed. For PA1786 proposed Plan of Public Ed. For PA Modeled after Scottish schools—free/publicModeled after Scottish schools—free/public Looked like Jefferson’s plan.Looked like Jefferson’s plan. Unlike Jefferson, Rush’s Plan had a German Unlike Jefferson, Rush’s Plan had a German

and Bible-oriented curriculum.and Bible-oriented curriculum. Believed children of same religion and/or Believed children of same religion and/or

nationality should go to school together.nationality should go to school together.

Rush’s PA PlanRush’s PA Plan Free schools in every township for teaching reading and writing (in Free schools in every township for teaching reading and writing (in

English and German) and arithmetic.English and German) and arithmetic. Academies to be in every county to prepare for collegeAcademies to be in every county to prepare for college Proposed four state colleges in PAProposed four state colleges in PA One state university to focus on German education focusing on One state university to focus on German education focusing on

liberal arts/sciences. A State University at the capital to be focused liberal arts/sciences. A State University at the capital to be focused on law, medicine, divinity, and advanced studies. Plus two more.on law, medicine, divinity, and advanced studies. Plus two more.

People to be taxed to support all of these.People to be taxed to support all of these. Believed that schools would tie the state togetherBelieved that schools would tie the state together No national proposal from Rush.No national proposal from Rush. Advocated education for women (curriculum focused on the Advocated education for women (curriculum focused on the

practical, household, child rearing with English, writing, accounting, practical, household, child rearing with English, writing, accounting, bookkeeping, geography, history, biographies, travel, and bookkeeping, geography, history, biographies, travel, and Christianity)Christianity)

Noah Webster’s Education Noah Webster’s Education ProposalProposal

Wrote essays on public virtueWrote essays on public virtue Read Rousseau and Thomas PaineRead Rousseau and Thomas Paine TeacherTeacher Wanted an Americanized EnglishWanted an Americanized English Believed that cultural and literary nationalism Believed that cultural and literary nationalism

went hand in hand.went hand in hand. Wrote Speller (1783), Grammar (1784), and Wrote Speller (1783), Grammar (1784), and

Reader (1785)Reader (1785) Americanized reading in elementary schoolsAmericanized reading in elementary schools Wrote lots of articles for newspapers on ed.Wrote lots of articles for newspapers on ed.

Webster’s PlanWebster’s Plan

Believed that education should mold Believed that education should mold patriotism.patriotism.

Lectured on education for last 40 years of Lectured on education for last 40 years of his life.his life.

Focused on morals, virtue, generosity, Focused on morals, virtue, generosity, truth, and charity.truth, and charity.

Webster agreed with Rush to downplay Webster agreed with Rush to downplay the classics.the classics.

Coram’s Proposals for EducationCoram’s Proposals for Education

Robert Coram (Delaware) proposed a plan Robert Coram (Delaware) proposed a plan for American schools—opposite of for American schools—opposite of Webster’s Plan.Webster’s Plan.

Major concern for poor; believed that Major concern for poor; believed that education should equalize.education should equalize.

Coram was an anti-federalist, but wanted Coram was an anti-federalist, but wanted a national education system run by the a national education system run by the states and districts.states and districts.

George Washington’s Education George Washington’s Education ProposalsProposals

Spoke little about elementary and Spoke little about elementary and grammar schools.grammar schools.

Reluctant to use the word “school” in Reluctant to use the word “school” in speeches. Very general—no specifics!speeches. Very general—no specifics!

Proposed a National Institute to promote Proposed a National Institute to promote the science of government. This national the science of government. This national university was to focus on sciences and university was to focus on sciences and literature for future leaders.literature for future leaders.

Movements Toward A National Movements Toward A National Education SystemEducation System

American Philosophical Society. President American Philosophical Society. President Thomas Jefferson. Essay on education contest.Thomas Jefferson. Essay on education contest.

Two winners: Samuel Harrison Smith, age 25. Two winners: Samuel Harrison Smith, age 25. Proposed a very specific national plan. Proposed a very specific national plan. Educate ages 5-18Educate ages 5-18 Educate all males, no exceptionsEducate all males, no exceptions Parents to be punished in they did not cooperate.Parents to be punished in they did not cooperate. Funded by property taxesFunded by property taxes It was a k-16 plan.It was a k-16 plan.

Samuel Harrison Smith knew plan was too expensive.Samuel Harrison Smith knew plan was too expensive.

Second Second Philosophical Society winnerPhilosophical Society winner

Samuel Knox, Presbyterian minister from Scotland.Samuel Knox, Presbyterian minister from Scotland. Modeled his plan after Scotland’s schoolsModeled his plan after Scotland’s schools Wanted religion separated from public ed.Wanted religion separated from public ed. Focused on disciplineFocused on discipline Wanted complete national education planWanted complete national education plan Curriculum goals to be liberty, equality, and public good.Curriculum goals to be liberty, equality, and public good. Elem school from ages 8-12Elem school from ages 8-12 County academics from 12-15.County academics from 12-15. State colleges (one in each state) focused on liberal arts.State colleges (one in each state) focused on liberal arts. One national university curriculum in all fields except theologyOne national university curriculum in all fields except theology Was a uniform plan which promoted harmony, unity of taste and Was a uniform plan which promoted harmony, unity of taste and

manners, patriotism, and federalism.manners, patriotism, and federalism.

Educational Reality--PluribusEducational Reality--Pluribus

Jefferson died in 1826. Education was barely Jefferson died in 1826. Education was barely accepted in states. No national planaccepted in states. No national plan

By mid-1800s, public support for education By mid-1800s, public support for education winning widespread support in New England and winning widespread support in New England and New York. Was to spread over next 100 years.New York. Was to spread over next 100 years.

People realized education’s impact on a new People realized education’s impact on a new democracydemocracy

History books written to play up American History books written to play up American greatness; exaggerated nationalism.greatness; exaggerated nationalism.

Summary—Chapter 1Summary—Chapter 1

Focused on education in colonial America.Focused on education in colonial America. Focused on religion and educationFocused on religion and education Focused on American ideals—liberty, equality, Focused on American ideals—liberty, equality,

and the public good (but those words’ meanings and the public good (but those words’ meanings were different from today)were different from today)

Focused on early education efforts in New Focused on early education efforts in New EnglandEngland

Focused on the Articles of ConfederationFocused on the Articles of Confederation Focused on the Northwest OrdinanceFocused on the Northwest Ordinance

Summary—Chapter 2Summary—Chapter 2

The Educational Dream—UnumThe Educational Dream—Unum Early Education Proposals: Jefferson, Early Education Proposals: Jefferson,

Rush, N. Webster, Coram, & Washington.Rush, N. Webster, Coram, & Washington. Advocates for a National Education Advocates for a National Education

System—the American Philosophical System—the American Philosophical SocietySociety Samuel Harrison Smith’s proposalSamuel Harrison Smith’s proposal Samuel Knox’s proposalSamuel Knox’s proposal

Leads us to…Leads us to…

The Educational Reality---The Educational Reality--- Pluribus, rather than UnumPluribus, rather than Unum