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Urban Planning and Management
Institute for Graduate Studies and Research
Anton de Kom Universiteit van Suriname
Student: Celestine Weidum
Student number: 09UP1001
Promoters: Prof. M. Schalkwijk
Prof. G. de Bruijne
October 2014
Urban Sprawl in Paramaribo
The neglected opportunity to sustain communities in the
fringe
Case study: Kwatta Region between the Derde and Vierde
Rijweg
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Urban Planning and Management
Institute for Graduate Studies and Research
Anton de Kom Universiteit van Suriname
URBAN SPRAWL IN PARAMARIBO THE NEGLETED OPPORTUNITY TO SUSTAIN
COMMUNITIES IN THE FRINGE
CASE STUDY: KWATTA REGION BETWEEN THE DERDE AND VIERDE
RIJWEG
Student: Celestine Weidum Student number: 09UP1001 Promoters:
Pof. M. Schalkwijk Prof. G. de Bruijne October 2014
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We all want economic prosperity and a high quality of
life for our families, regardless of where we live or what
we do for work. People want neighbourhoods with safe
streets and good schools, jobs that are not hours away
from home, housing they can afford and neighbourhood parks
where children can play, get to work without spending hours
in traffic, clean air to breathe and clean water to drink,
live in a place that feels like a community
(Al Gore, 2000)
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Table of contens
Summary 8
1. Introduction 9 1.1 Background 9 1.2 Problem statement 10 1.3
Research question 10 1.4 Relevance of research 10 1.5 Conceptual
framework 11 1.6 Research design 12 1.7 Research methods 13
2. Description of the research area 13 2.1 Physical-geographical
aspects 13 2.2 Social-geographical aspects 14
3. Literature overview 17 3.1 Introduction 17 3.2 Urban Sprawl
17 3.3 Urban Form 19 3.4 Land Use 20 3.5 Community Wellbeing 21
3.5.1 Planning schemes and their impact on community development 22
3.6 Urban Ecology 23 3.7 Smart Growth 24 3.8 Assessment 25
4. The role of government in planning and implementing housing
scheme projects 26 4.1 Assessment 29
5. Results of field research 31 5.1 Characteristics of the
Kwatta neighbourhood 31 5.1.1 Introduction 31 5.1.2 Objectives 33
5.2 Population 34 5.2.1 Assessment 38 5.3 Accessibility 38 5.3.1
Assessment 42 5.4 Living conditions 43 5.4.1 Housing
characteristics 43 5.4.1.1 Assessment 45 5.4.2 Neighbourhood
characteristics 45 5.4.2.1 Assessment 51
6. Conclusion: Advantages and disadvantages of Sprawl in
particular the Kwatta region in Greater Paramaribo
52
6.1 Introduction 52 6.2 Discussion on the theme of Sprawl 56
6.2.1 Reflection on community development and wellbeing 59 6.3
Conclusion on the research question 61
7. General conclusions: Strategies for development of
sustainable living communities in Greater Paramaribo
63
7.1 The KAR- strategy 63 7.2 Values and elements to design
sustainable neighbourhoods 65
8. Recommendations 67 Literature Interviews Annexes
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List of tables
Table Page Title 1 23 Issues and related valuable features for
achieving the wellbeing of a community 2 33 Total of projected
households 3 33 Total of projected housing 4 35 Housing surface and
household size related to per person living space 5 36 Housing size
according to district 6 36 Place of origin of households 7 38
Working members according to households 8 41 Types of vehicles on
the T-junction of the Rijweg naar Kwatta and the Tweede
Rijweg 9 42 Transport mode and total of cars according to
households
10 46 Ownership according to parcel size, price in relation to
quality of neighbourhood and appreciation of neighborhood
lay-out
11 47 Title on the house related to the choice to live in the
Kwatta neighbourhood 12 50 Former residence qualified as low-income
for migrated households 13 51 Priorities to sustain community
wellbeing 14 53 Paramaribo: Resorts according to Area, Population
density and Population 15 63 UN Habitat features for sustainable
communities
List of figures
Figure Page Title 1a 13 Location of study area; geomorphology
elements 1b 14 Location of study area; dense occupation along the
main road 2 15 Rijweg naar Kwatta as part of East-West Connection 3
15 Rijweg naar Kwatta with abandoned agriculture land 4 15 Dead
ending arterial road 5 16 House built on land filled plateau 6 16
Small street without side walk 7 17 Relation scheme of internal and
external features related to community wellbeing 8a 19 Influence of
transport on urban form 8b 19 Influence of transport infrastructure
on spatial structure 8c-d 19 Concentric City (Burgess) and Radial
City (Hoyt) 9 20 Spatial interaction related to transport system
and land use 10 21 Satellite image of main network in Greater
Paramaribo 11 22 Relation scheme of Community Wellbeing and
Community Development 12a 24 Urban Ecology Initiative 2000 12b 25
Relation scheme of the impact of Urban Sprawl 12c 26 A possible
calculation for Smart Growth 13 31 The Kwatta region at the fringe
of the city 14 32 Congestion on the Rijweg naar Kwatta near the
Tweede Rijweg 15 32 Cars on the Rijweg naar Kwatta 16 34 Percentage
dwelling surface per household in m 17 35 Floor area per person by
country ranking and region 18 37 Absolute age composition according
to sexes 19 37 Education according to level 20 38 Total of
breadwinners according to employment position 21 39 Total of
transport mode for students to education institute 22 39 Total of
transport mode for breadwinners to work 23 39 Main road to
work/school in absolute figures
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List of figures
Figure Page Title 24 40 Two momentums of traffic flow; morning
and afternoon peak 25 41 Monthly costs for transportation in Srd
per category 26 43 Conveniences in dwelling commodities in absolute
figures 27 43 Years of residence in the Kwatta region 28 44 Parcels
according to size 29 45 North-eastern part 30 45 South-eastern part
31 45 North-western part 32 45 South-western part 33 46
Appreciation of the lay-out 34 46 Contact with neighbors 35 47
Living advantages in the Kwatta region 36 48 Robberies related to
number of times during residence 37 48 Overall satisfaction; price
related to quality of parcel 38 49 Flooding of parcels 39 49
Maintenance of open drain 40 49 Investment to improve living
quality 41 50 Qualification of former neighbourhood 42 43
53 60
Resorts of the Paramaribo District Community development and
community wellbeing in the Kwatta region
44 65 KAR-Strategy 45 46
65-66 68
Values and elements to design sustainable neighbourhoods Master
Plan for Sustainable Housing Scheme
List of abbreviations ABS: Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek
EBS: Energy Bedrijven Suriname SWM: Suriname Waterleiding
Maatschappij GLO: Gewoon Lager Onderwijs VOJ: Voortgezet Onderwijs
Junioren VOS: Voortgezet Onderwijs Senioren HBO: Hoger
Beroepsgericht Onderwijs PPP: Public Private Partnership SPS:
Stichting Planbureau Suriname RGOB: Ruimtelijke Ordening Grond en
Bosbeheer OW: Openbare Werken SoZaVo: Sociale Zaken en
Volkshuisvesting IOL: Instituut voor de Opleiding van Leraren Srd:
Surinaamse dollar Parbo: Paramaribo GB: Governementsblad SB:
Staatsblad
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Foreword By 2050, 7 in 10 people will live in urban areas. Every
year the world urban population increases by 60 million people and
most of this growth is taking place in Low and Middle income
countries (UN Habitat, 2013). Many families and individuals prefer
to live in or near urban areas, because of the availability of
necessary facilities for comfortable living. As such, urban areas
will continue to grow, either through guided and regulated control
systems or spontaneously, because of weak regulations, thereby
resulting in sprawl. Since its establishment in the 17th century
the City of Paramaribo has continued to evolve and mutate, in such
a manner that was accompanied by unwanted consequences for the
spatial organization of the city. This study has been carried out
to examine and understand the changing processes in land use in the
Kwatta region in relation to planning. Indeed, spatial planning is
broader than traditional land use planning, as it integrates
policies for the development of urban areas and land use planning,
which are both needed to increase liveability in cities. Cities are
where the battle for sustainable development will be won or lost.
(Christine Platt, CUF Conference Barbados 2014). To win this
battle, new approaches for planning sustainable neighbourhoods are
needed, whereby collaboration and partnership should be recognized.
Planning is not one dimensional, but requires the involvement of
all stakeholders, including the people and their livelihoods
(housing, economic activities and recreational facilities) to
create more liveable and sustainable communities. Spatial planning
should strengthen the living advantages of neighbourhoods and
minimize the negative impact on natural ecosystems. Future cities
should combine optimal use of available natural resources and the
location of necessary economic activities and services in order to
achieve higher density, proximity and accessibility, which in turn
should increase the attractiveness and liveability of the city.
Paramaribo, September 2014 Celestine Weidum
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Summary
Within urban and rural communities, geography plays a critical
role in the development of the built environment. Planning has to
rely on knowledge of geographic space when deciding how best to
manage the growth of cities. The physical expansion of an urban
area, caused by uncontrolled and uncoordinated urban planning and
management, is typified as urban sprawl. Because of the lack of
adequate urban planning in Greater Paramaribo, where more than 50%
of the Surinamese population is living (ABS, 2013), the growing
need for housing, jobs and services has often caused the
development of more or less isolated neighbourhoods. Two
contrasting types of urban sprawl along main roads, the so called
fish-bone pattern, can be distinguished in the fringe of the
city.
1. Informal patterns of land use in peri-urban areas, where
especially poor migrants from rural areas and the hinterland have
occupied available land in mainly exit roads such as Rahimal
Project and Devisbuiten to live with their families in a situation
where basic services such as water and electricity are not in
place. The living conditions are characterized by uncertainty and
hopelessness, as well as by huge dependence on public
transportation.
2. Formal patterns of land use in sub-urban areas, mostly
initiated by private investors, where people from the middle and
high income classes have settled to meet their desired living
environment, but became car captives. The Kwatta region and
Leidingen as well can be mentioned as two well visible
examples.
According to UN-Habitat State of the World Cities (2010/2011),
urban sprawl increases an urban divide when social segregation
along economic lines results in spatial differences in wealth and
quality of life. Moreover, the not flexible nor pro-active
organization of housing schemes to meet the growing need for
housing has resulted in the explosive outward expansion of Greater
Paramaribo over a large geographical area, which consecutively
increased the pressure on the natural resources. As sprawl
advances, over the years the new urban areas will become part of
the major metropolitan area, which in comparison to better
organized urban expansion will increase the demand for
transportation, water and energy supply and other essential
services. Impropriate spatial information and measurement
indicators limit a broader vision to support sustainable urban
planning. People searching for a shelter have deliberately chosen
to settle down on abandoned agricultural land in the Kwatta region,
which is under private ownership and for a significant part
developed for housing purposes by private investors. Due to its
fish-bone structure the sprawled area between the Derde and Vierde
Rijweg of the Kwatta region was chosen to explore to what extent
this sprawl development has influenced the living satisfaction and
living quality of the people. The research comes to the conclusion
that optimal land use planning, combined with active and proper
development management is the key instrument for effectively
dealing with urban sprawl in Greater Paramaribo. The involvement of
all stakeholders, combined with adequate regulation and monitoring,
providing necessary feedback and data, should result in efficiency
of the development process for the benefit of all. Thus, in the
present context of the visible problem of urban sprawl, the
challenges for future planning of the city of Paramaribo are to
arrive at an integrated spatial planning support system to
effectively plan, review and evaluate policy options. Correct
implementation of master and/or development plans is a critical
aspect to regulate the development of urban areas. The findings of
this study can be a support for inter-department coordination,
policy development and action at a national and local level, as
well as a starting point for further research on the physical
expansion of Paramaribo.
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1. Introduction
The topic of this research is to investigate, from a
comprehensive perspective, the urban expansion of Paramaribo, in
particular the Kwatta region between Derde and Vierde Rijweg.
Within this research several critical issues will be explored that
are relevant for regulations on urban planning and which hopefully
should create awareness among stakeholders of how living conditions
in neighborhoods in the sprawled areas of Greater Paramaribo can be
sustained. The main objective is to learn more about the phenomenon
of urban sprawl and to examine whether existing government spatial
planning strategies satisfy basic living needs and how the living
conditions in the different communities can be improved.
Supported by a survey of the residing communities in the Kwatta
Region about their living conditions and current needs, new forms
of spatial planning and land use can be identified for moving
towards more coordinated procedures. The importance is to bring
relevant stakeholders together and to create awareness of how
living communities in urban Paramaribo can be improved to guarantee
a healthy living environment by adapting some international
standards. The research concludes with a number of strategic
proposals for guiding a master plan for environmental and urban
planning in Greater Paramaribo.
1.1 Background Since centuries Paramaribo has a crucial role in
the national organization of Suriname. Due to political and
economic developments as well as natural population growth the city
has expanded substantially, in particular during the last decades.
Governments, national organizations as well as
scientists/researchers have to be aware of this continuing
development, which also leads to important geomorphologic changes.
At present, urban expansion is evident in Paramaribo, being a very
important force in the transformation of natural ecosystems towards
a built social environment. This development can also be
characterized as sprawl, a concept that refers to a certain kind of
leapfrog development in the urban fringe, which causes a
disproportioned growth of the urban area (EEA;2006). Sprawl refers
to the functioning of the city as a whole (natural ecosystem,
buildings, traffic, water and energy) related to the possibilities
and desires of people in the fringe, as well as to the related
costs. The proper functioning of small communities at the fringe
not only refers to the required level of daily goods and services,
but should also guarantee an easy movement of people.
Since its founding, the lay-out of Paramaribo has been wide and
spacious; an attractive place for residential housing of all ethnic
origins and economic classes. Remarkable is that during the midst
of the last century the spatial attractiveness of living in the
city center of Paramaribo has changed. On the one hand there is a
desire of living in a more quiet part of the city, in suburbs,
somewhat closer to a nature-like environment. On the other hand,
the extremely low price for former agriculture land, compared to
already urbanized land, is also an important factor underlying the
sprawl of Paramaribo. Also can be mentioned the depreciated living
conditions in poor urban neighborhoods for example Frimangron and
the deplorable houses in the backyards of mansions in the inner
city. Migration of these people to areas outside the urban area,
where more space per person was available was an option to improve
their living conditions. These observations call for the
development of urban planning strategies for housing schemes to
maintain and advance the quality of the neighborhoods. In addition,
this should strengthen a mixed
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land use that can attract small-sized enterprises and bring
about a change in transport possibilities as well. The political
and socio-economic predominance of Paramaribo within the country is
the main force that will continue to contribute to the growth and
expansion of the city over the coming decades. This growth will
have important and significant implications with regard to:
the development of sustainable livelihoods for the
population
the land needed for housing, enterprises and public services
the development of economic, social as well as transport
infrastructure
the preservation of agriculture land to ensure food production
for the growing population
1.2 Problem statement In the urban fringe of Paramaribo land use
with regard to housing is extensive and not always organized in a
professional way. Without well-considered planning allotment,
housing projects are developed, in which houses, built on parcels
that should be at least 350 m, and stand apart from each other.
Adequate services and infrastructure are often absent, while the
needs of the population are hardly taken into account. In practice,
urban development and planning is mainly effectuated by private
project developers and the existing legal framework is insufficient
to support adequate urban development. Therefore the urban
expansion is an urban sprawl, not organized, visible along dead
ending arterial roads, often of bad quality and which does not
generate adequate connection with the older built up areas. An
important problem with regard to actual spatial planning policy in
Suriname is the lack of constructive dialogue between policy
makers, scholars/scientists and other parties opting for new
houses. These stakeholders should be much more involved in
translating research results in feasible policy goals. Intensified
dialogue between policy makers and researchers on policy issues, to
sharpen and underline priorities, is needed. 1.3 Research question
Which are the advantages and disadvantages of the urban sprawl that
have manifested itself in Greater Paramaribo in the Kwatta region
between Derde and Vierde Rijweg and how can lessons learned in that
area be used to formulate strategies for developing sustainable
living communities in Paramaribo as a whole? Sub-questions
What are the characteristics of the phenomenon of urban
sprawl?
What are the driving forces that have determined the urban
pattern of Paramaribo?
What effects do the relatively small housing scheme projects,
organized by private project developers, have on the fulfillment of
people in need for a better quality of live?
To what extent have communities been developed in those small
neighborhoods?
To what extent are decision makers, private and public, aware of
their role in the development of sustainable communities?
How can relevant research data be used to promote sustainable
neighborhoods at the fringe of Paramaribo?
1.4 Relevance of research
The Kwatta region between Derde and Vierde Rijweg is one of the
most remarkable examples of the recent physical expansion of
Paramaribo. Former agricultural land and natural landscapes are
transformed, slowly but certainly, into residential areas located
in connection with exit roads of the Rijweg naar Kwatta. Land use
here is one-sided, while the lack of adequate basic population
facilities
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and services, as well as employment opportunities and cause an
ever-increasing relative distance to the urban core, because people
have to spend more time in the traffic to bridge distances.
Summarized, it can be stated that the answers to the research
question and sub questions should give a clear impression of what
effects urban sprawl has on the quality of living in the small
communities in the Kwatta region between the Derde and Vierde
Rijweg.
Different actors and institutes are involved in the urban
development of Paramaribo. In order to come to an adequate
analysis, answers to the several other questions derived from the
main question and sub questions will need to be found, such as: Who
controls and monitors the urban planning of Paramaribo? How is the
licensing for developing housing projects organized? What role do
private developers have in urban development? What is the role of
the residents in urban development?
Those answers should give a picture of how the reality of the
urban sprawl of Paramaribo manifests itself in the region between
the Derde and Vierde Rijweg and which relevant starting points for
urban planners and managers are needed to make strategic choices
for the allocation and design of new urban residential areas.
The research results intend to provide some useful ideas for a
future master plan for Paramaribo that should deliver potentials
for guiding the allocation and design of housing schemes in the
growing urban region in a way that will generate balanced and
healthy communities. Regulating the use of private and public land
for housing projects should intend to ensure the following:
Community wellbeing
Environmental protection and preservation
Economic development
Transportation infrastructure
Recreational and green spaces 1.5 Conceptual framework
resultimpact researchpoint of
view
urban ecology
urban sprawl
smart growth
human preferences and
opportunities
quality of living
residential locationland use
government policy
urban form
Useful
potentials for
Master Plan
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The point of view of this research is Urban Sprawl in the fringe
of Greater Paramaribo where land use patterns are dominated and/or
characterized by low density and single family housing. The Urban
Ecology Approach and Smart Growth Approaches have been used to
understand the impact of human activities on natural ecological
systems, on the one hand, and to explore possibilities to achieve a
higher variety in land use and sustainable communities, on the
other hand. This research focuses on the extent to which human
preferences and opportunities have determined land use in the
fringe of Greater Paramaribo. Human preferences and opportunities,
which are influenced by own socio-cultural and socio-economic
factors, as well as by government spatial policy, are inextricably
bound up with (urban) land use, and combined ultimately result in a
certain urban form e.g. urban sprawl. The ultimate choice people
have made to settle down in a certain neighbourhood is reflected
both in the residential location as well as the quality of living.
Finally, the research should result in some useful potentials to
design a Master Plan for Sustainable Housing Schemes.
1.6 Research design
Design and Development of Survey instruments Data collection
Data processing Analysis Results Internet source: Adapted from L.
Siragusa [Curtin University of Technology] The primary data source
is based on questionnaires (see Annex3) and interviews (survey
instruments). In addition, relevant literature, articles and
reports will provide adequate data to allow a qualitative as well
as a quantitative initial analysis. Finally, the initial analysis
will form the basis for the assessment/discussion of a selection of
relevant topics in order to deliver potentials for planning
sustainable communities.
Questionnaire
development
Survey
design
Data analysis
Quantitative Qualitative
Schedule for
interviews
Initial
analysis
Random selection
of 100 households
Discussion and potentials
for planning sustainable
communities
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1.7 Research methods
This study is empirical and based upon qualitative and
quantitative research methods. In Greater Paramaribo West, as a
result of sprawl, a more or less contiguous territory with specific
characteristics has developed. Based on a holistic approach,
studies done on human preferences combined with opportunities that
households can afford to meet a certain quality of living in a
specific residential area have been explored. Also land use models
have been studied to understand the dynamic and scattered character
of the Kwatta region, which in turn has affected the urban form and
its strong connection to the city core. The Urban Ecology and Smart
Growth concepts will support this holistic approach to result in
useful elements for designing sustainable neighbourhoods as is
detailed in Figure 44. The research makes use of interviews of a
random selection of one hundred households living in 16 exit roads
in the southern as well as the northern part of the Rijweg naar
Kwatta. Selected stakeholders involved in the development and
functioning of the different communities have also been included.
The households were randomly selected on the basis of the following
criteria: (i) at least one year constantly living in that area,
(ii) must be the owner/renter of the house and (iii) having a main
job outside the living area. Individual households have been
informed about the purpose of the study and asked to participate in
the questionnaire. Almost every one of the selected respondents was
willing to participate. Those willing to join the research have
completed the questionnaire in a face to face meeting. Interviews
have also been held with key persons in the different communities
of the Kwatta Region, with representatives of different
organizations related to urban issues, including key persons of
ministries involved in housing projects, and with project
developers and firms/people involved in the construction. The
results are presented in tables and graphs and where possible
correlations between the variables have been made. These data
should contribute to formulation of a feasible strategic plan for
housing schemes and project development.
2. Description of the research area
2.1 Physical-geographical aspects
Figure 1a: Location of study area; geomorphology elements
(Noordam D.)
The Kwatta Region between the 3rd and 4th Rijweg is located
westward from the city centre. The Garnizoenspad also known as
Rijweg naar Kwatta, is the main road and part of the East-West
Connection (see Figure 1a and 1b). This road was built on the
highest points of ridges, which are part of the Commowine sediments
in the coastal zone. Those ridges have an east-west direction, are
well drained and often vary in width between 10 and 400 meters,
while the length ranges from less than a hundred to several ten
kilometres. The District of Coronie can be mentioned as an example
where some ridges have a length for about 40 kilometres. (Noordam
D. 2013)
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Geology Physiography Elevation (m+NSP)
Unit soil map
Soil
Moleson Phase
Clay flats and inter-ridge depressions
1-2m 11 Poorly and very poorly drained Nearly riped clay
Moleson Phase
Ridges 2-3m 2 Well drained Medium and fine sand to sandy loam
Locally shells and shell grit
Wanica Phase Ridges 2m 8 Moderately well drained Medium and fine
sand
Wanica Phase Abandoned rice fields
1-2m 18 Imperfectly to poorly drained Nearly riped clay
Legend Figure 1a Regarding the sedimentation pattern, the Kwatta
Region shows a large diversity. Van der Eijk (1957) describes the
Kwatta landscape soils, as part of the Young Coastal Plain with
many ridges. The landscape evolution show a more or less uniform
pattern. Also the ridges exhibit a significant diversity due to
differences in their relief. The high ridges are dryer, while on
the lower parts wetlands are developed. The Kwatta landscape has,
with regard to the natural ecosystem, a typical biodiversity that
can be characterized as not homogeneous in view of the many
detailed differences.
2.2 Social-geographical aspects Especially the longer ridges
have been important for opening up the coastal plain of Suriname.
Already pre- Columbian indigenous people had made use of the ridges
to cross large areas and to build their settlements. The nature of
the ridge sediments (shells, coarse sand, fine sand) and the
structure of the ridges (height, width, single, compiled, bundled),
together with the width of the tide ways, should allow some form of
development. The upper parts are mainly used for habitation and
initially for agriculture/livestock. Further, expansion took place
from the ridges by reclamation/rising of the tide ways. Figure 1a
and 1b show clearly that especially the ridge numbered by 2 (see
Legend figure 1 and 1a) is densely populated.
Figure 1b: Location of study area; dense occupation along the
main road
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The mangrove zone is located about 6 kilometres north of the
study area and is already seriously affected by human activities.
As figure 1a and 1b show, the study area is located in a fresh
water area, outside the influence of the sea. The vegetation that
is still present is mainly swamp vegetation, which because of the
poor drainage has not been favourable for the effort of human
activities. Still, it is locally visible that people have entered
the swamp from the Roadway to Kwatta to develop agriculture and
residential activities.
Figure 2: Rijweg naar Kwatta as part of the East-West Connection
In the past the Kwatta Region could be characterized as a highly
productive agriculture area with many small fields for rice and
vegetable harvesting. Nowadays, large parts in the study area are
fallow lands and more or less abandoned as agricultural area, and
it is hard to predict how the future use will be. Great parts have
been re-organised and parcelled out for residential purposes. Also
extensive cattle breeding farms are utilizing abandoned agriculture
land. Only on some small sand ridges some vegetables are harvested,
especially for the local market. The 70s and 80s show a visible
expansion of the urban space towards the Kwatta Region where land
was relatively less expensive. This made it profitable for
residential developments with single dwellings. The overall price
for a parcel to build a house about ten to fifteen years ago was
10-20 euro /m (Intervast, 2013), which was significantly lower
compared to many sub-division housing schemes in Paramaribo
North.
Figure 3: Rijweg naar Kwatta with Figure 4: Dead ending arterial
road abandoned agriculture land
The Roadway to Kwatta is built on small ridges, which have
poorly drained clay flats or inter-ridge depressions on both sides.
The outstanding structure of the ridges makes them favourable for
different kinds of construction. On the flanks of the ridges
buildings and facilities for water and electricity are raised close
to this narrow two direction-road. Space for widening is therefore
limited.
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Many dead ending arterial roads have been constructed along the
main road (see Annex 1 and 2), where available land was parcelled
out in lots with sizes varying from 180 to 1400 m (see Figure 3 and
4). The parcels are located on the flanks and on the inter-ridge
depressions and thereby highly vulnerable to flooding in the rainy
seasons. Substantial landfill and good drainage are needed before
building activities can be started. First of all, often a small
plateau is built to create a stable foundation on which the
building can be constructed. (see Figure 5). Most of the trenches
in front of the parcels along the road are not well functioning, as
they are not maintained in a proper manner. The connection with the
main drainage system, which is most of the time in a deplorable
state and even missing in some neighbourhoods. Some owners have
replaced the open drainage by pipes, but have not always taken into
account the standards of the Ministry of Public Works. The roads
have no sidewalks and are also not well linked to each other, which
constrains an easy movement of people between the different
neighbourhoods. (see Figure 6).
Figure 5: House built on a land filled plateau Figure 6: Small
street without sidewalk
The unrestricted ability to move to this new sub-urban landscape
has led to a situation in which the parcel price became more
important than the characteristics of the location. Commuting
became the new lifestyle and people have become car captured. Due
to this scattered residential design with single family houses, the
installation of potable water and electricity became very
expensive, because of the significantly increased distance to the
main feeder. The infrastructure network has been extended over the
years and power houses of different capacities and transformers
were built to support the head production station in the centre of
Paramaribo to guarantee a continuous current power. Finally, the
lay-out of these residential areas has become much disintegrated,
which in turn was strengthened by the policies of the different
developers, who are not communicating with each other, because they
follow their own agenda.
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3. Literature overview
3.1 Introduction Urban and regional planning should always focus
on community wellbeing issues. Social engagement and bottom up
methods can result in a successful integration of community
wellbeing issues in planning housing schemes. However, in general,
housing schemes are poorly supported by social needs.
According to UN-Habitat (2009), the future planning of cities
should focus on those factors that are the driving force and give
shape to cities of the 21st century. The surface of all the cities
of the world is 2.8% of the total world's surface and is home to
approximately 50% of the world population. This situation differs
by some means from Paramaribo, where about 50% of the national
population lives on merely 0.1 % of the land surface (ABS; 2013).
With an area of 182 km Paramaribo is, compared with other (large)
cities of the world, very spacious with mainly horizontal built
areas.
Urban developments are currently being tested on how to improve
and preserve the social and natural quality of the residential
areas. As portrayed in Figure 7, I have constructed a relation
scheme, to show that both external factors (urban sprawl, urban
form, urban population and urban land use) as well as internal
factors (lifestyle, social bounds, participation and awareness) are
involved in the wellbeing of a community. The internal or local
factors have to do with the characteristics of households living in
the different communities of the Kwatta Region between the Derde
and Vierde Rijweg, while the external or national factors are
influenced by urban planning.
Figure 7: Relation scheme of internal and external features
related to community wellbeing
3.2 Urban Sprawl Urban sprawl, the often hardly controlled
fragmented urban expansion, is characteristic of specific urban
forms, which are often developed at the outskirts of a city.
Frelich (2003) is very critical about urban sprawl. He typifies
urban sprawl as a bad performance of urban planning with regard to
the peripheral areas of a city. It creates residential areas of
poor natural and social quality, disintegration with the existing
cultivated area, a low residential density as a result of the high
land
urban population
urban land use
urban form urban sprawl
lifestyle social bounds
participationawareness
Community
wellbeing
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consumption per person and a great dependence on the car.
Callies (1999) speaks of the lack of a clear continuum, which has
implications for mobility and accessibility, the sprinkle and
viability of the residential area, and the supply of public
services and landscaping.
Holcombe (1999) is more nuanced. He has identified three kinds
of urban sprawl. The first one is a leapfrog development where the
newly developed residential areas are located outside the urban
city. Project developers choose for arable land that is relatively
cheap which should make housing therefore affordable. The
disadvantage is that the per person travel time is longer and the
costs for road infrastructure, water and electricity are high.
However, there is still one main advantage: the jumped-over areas
are the potential land for future development of economic
activities. Secondly, the strip or ribbon development is
characterized by an enormous development of commercial activities
in a linear pattern along main roads with a disadvantage of traffic
congestion, but with the concentration of commercial activities and
residential streets with less traffic as advantages. The third one
is a low density single dimensional development that has pros and
contras in the development of human activities. Houses are built on
a relatively large parcel that causes high land consumption and the
need for car use. On the other hand there is more green and
therefore a healthier living area. An analysis of the urban form
gives insight into the spatial pattern of an urban area as a result
of land use with respect to the historic center, the street pattern
and the residential and commercial locations. In view of the future
it is about how an urban zoning plan can be designed to exploit the
current and future land use more efficiently. This certainly
applies to urban transport i.e. transfer stations for public
transportation, bus lanes, walking streets, public spaces and
parking can play a more active role in reshaping the streets during
many hours of the day. In turn this would increase the potential of
the current usage and also could be an incentive for more mixed
land use and a denser built up area that contributes to the
wellbeing of the community. Song and Knaap (1998), in their study
in Metropolitan Portland (USA), have used different measuring
indicators of an attractive urban form that seem relevant to this
research, in particular points 2, 3 and 5. 1. Street design and
circulation systems
Indicators used to measure accessibility within and between
residential areas, the distance between access points in the
residential area as well as the number and length of the
residential blocks.
2. Density Urban development is dominated by single family
dwellings, which has caused a low building density and high car
dependency, absorb much agricultural land and have increased the
costs of public utilities. Three measurement indicators have been
used: lot size, population density and the built up area.
3. Land use mix A larger variation in usage facilities promotes
walking and cycling , resulting in less travel time per person,
which combined appear to guarantee the air quality and the
aesthetic appearance of the city.
4. Accessibility Urban development is generally characterized by
inefficient land use patterns. For this they have adopted three
measurement indicators: the distance to the commercial services,
the bus stops and public parks. Footpaths would encourage walking,
thereby reducing the usage of cars and consequently would have a
positive impact on peoples health.
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5. Mixed land use Land use is a mixture of physical and
biological systems and processes on the one hand and human
behaviour on the other. Mixed land use commonly refers to the
characteristics of the built environment. Well planned
neighbourhoods with a balanced mix of land uses (e.g. residential
and commercial uses, schools, recreation, offices) give people the
option to walk, bike or take public transportation to the nearby
destination. Low density and segregated land use combined with
disconnected streets have a negative correlation with private and
public transport. According to Inbakaran/Howes (2011), the
mixed-use-factor looks at the number of different uses within the
specified sizes of residential and non-residential zoning as well
as to their relative sizes.
3.3 Urban Form The structure of the city includes the built
environment and its influence on the natural
environment(Velibeyoglu, 1999). Urban Form is primarily affected by
land use and transport policy, whereby planners and architects play
an important role. Their direct involvement in the spatial
organization of the city also makes them responsible for the
quality of the built and natural environment.
Figure 8a: Influence of transportation on urban form Figure 8b:
Influence of transportation infrastructure on the spatial structure
(Source: Geography of Transport Systems, 2013)
Figure 8c-d: Concentric City (Burgess) and Radial City
(Hoyt)
Urban form may be defined as the spatial configuration of fixed
elements within a metropolitan region
(Urban Studies Journal, 1966 33:7). This description also refers
to the spatial pattern of land uses and
their densities as well as the spatial design of transport and
communication infrastructure.
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During the 20th century the form of cities has rapidly changed
as a result of changes in human settlement patterns. The Concentric
City of Burgess (1926) is a zoning theory (urban land use model)
that simply indicates the transformation from an agrarian to an
urban economy in which people and their activities are spatially
more clustered (see Figure 8c-d). The implication on Paramaribo is
that the outward growth of the city is at the expense of the
adjacent zone. Former residential and agriculture land has given
way, in particular, to commercial activities. On the other hand the
Radial City of Hoyt (1939) adopted the Central Business District of
Burgess, but advocated that the outward expansion of the city
centre was along railroads, highways and other transportation
lines. This theory commonly refers to a certain grade of Urban
Sprawl that is characterized by an outward expansion of the urban
body to rural land. Segregation in land use was typical and visible
in the fringe. In contrast to the Central Business District a
general decline in land use in relation with population density
took place, while the existing transport network connects the
peripheral points to the city centre. This theory underlies the way
the expansion of Paramaribo has taken place in the past decades.
The Rijweg naar Kwatta is not only the main transportation line
that connects the Kwatta Region to the city centre, but has
contributed to the expansion of the city in westward direction as
well. 3.4 Land Use
Figure 9: Spatial interaction related to transport system and
land use
Source: Geography of Transport Systems, 2013
Spatial interaction is the inter-link between land use and
transportation systems as well as with the different elements that
underline the coherence of their spatial manifestation. To a large
extent land use and transport systems define peoples mobility and
accessibility. Mobility can be described as the capability of
people to move from one to another destination, based on the
transportation mode, including their walkability, while
accessibility depends on the technological condition of the
available transport infrastructure, which result in a certain urban
dynamic system (Lauwers in UPM 512; 2012). Mobility and
accessibility influence peoples (daily) activity patterns. Within
the hierarchy of Central Places transportation is the main source
for their connection (Christaller, 1933). Streets are the
connections between people and places, besides being spaces by
themselves. Many researchers have the same opinion about upgrading
the walkability, while minimizing the dominance of the private
automobile, when it comes to improving the functioning of a city.
Transport systems, which connect the different parts of cities,
enable peoples movement throughout the city. A network of roads,
bicycle and pedestrian lanes together forms the total movement
system of a city.
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Figure 10: Satellite image of main road network in Greater
Paramaribo 3.5 Community Wellbeing A community has different
backgrounds, but summarized, it is the neighbourhood where people
live with their families, make friendship, do their daily shopping,
can recreate and often go to school and sometimes also to work.
Knowing people to develop and maintain connections is important to
create a healthy community. One of the most fundamental aspects to
reach the level of community wellbeing is community engagement. The
wellbeing of people is a vital component of developing a liveable
community. A liveable community is more than knowing your
neighbours in the direct surrounding, but a place with a balance in
land use for housing, green spaces, services and commercial
activities. A mix of age, incomes and ethnicity are also
indispensable ingredients, which help foster a broader spirit of
community (Community Services, 2007).
The layout of the Inner City of Paramaribo consists of two main
axes stretching east-west and north-south with streets crossing at
right angles. This radial pattern of the street network is part of
the city that makes it unique. The streets can be ranged from a
high interconnectivity such as the Indira Ghandhiweg and Rijweg
naar Kwatta to small unpaved dead ending roads. The balance of
these various transport infrastructure systems helps to define the
quality and character of Paramaribo, i.e. to what extent they are
either friendly or unsympathetic to pedestrians.
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Figure 11: Relation scheme of Community Wellbeing and Community
Development
I have constructed Figure 11 to show the different components of
community well-being and their interactions, and how this whole
process should lead to community development in a broader
perspective. Although this is an optimistic approach, it may
unfortunately also be in conflict with the creation of a pleasant
surrounding where people feel safe and enjoy the benefits of
prosperity. 3.5.1 Planning schemes and their impact on community
development
Many studies have been done on community wellbeing on different
scale levels. According to the Royal Australian Planning Institute,
RAPI (2001) planning schemes influence communities by:
- guiding the use of community sources (land, people,
infrastructure, natural environment, public investments)
- guiding the effects of development on peoples way of life,
their culture and their community - providing opportunities for
communities to participate and be represented in planning
processes
Depending on the scale, housing planning schemes should also be
supported by a wide variety of issues needed to achieve the
well-being of a community. Table 1 shows a selection of some
valuable social features and their related issues, adjusted and
expanded to support community development, when planning housing
schemes in the Kwatta region.
Urban Sprawl
Quality of living
Income
Household structure
Infrastructure
Housing
Services
Recreation facilities
Community wellbeing
Residents satisfaction
Location influences
Accessibility
Security
Community relations
Healthy environment
Neighbourhood
perception
Ethnicity
Awareness
Involvement
Participa tion
Life style
Behavior
Protection
Preservation
COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
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Table 1: Issues and related valuable features for achieving the
wellbeing of a community (Adapted from RAPI, 2001)
Issues Valuable features
Economic development employment and income home based business
skilled laborers
Housing cost and affordability household size government and
private housing provision housing accessibility
Health medical services recreation facilities life styles
Built environment mixed land use traffic infrastructure public
transportation and hub stations building density
Natural environment biodiversity and conservation waste
management energy use potable water air quality
Safety perception of feeling safe traffic safety crime level
Social connectedness diversity and identity community
strength
3.6 Urban Ecology First applied in sociology and planning, urban
ecology is a constantly evolving discipline that integrates diverse
professions concerned with the urban phenomenon and its social and
ecological dynamics (Vega, 2011). Presently, urban ecology is a sub
discipline of ecology, emerged in the 1970s, in response to growing
awareness of human impact on the natural environment and the role
of cities in this regard (Ecology and Society 1 (4): 23 (online).
Different scholars do agree that urban ecology is an
interdisciplinary field of ecological systems that aims to
understand how human activities coexist with ecological processes,
which in turn should help societies to become sustainable.
Urban ecological systems are positioned in the functioning of
society with respect to the significance of people both as
ecosystem drivers as well as integral parts of ecological systems
(Marzluff et al, 2008 in Ecology and Society 1 (4): 23 (online).
Cities are the result of human activities over many years in a
heterogeneous landscape and spatial diversity. In the urban ecology
approach there is a growing awareness that the qualities of human
practices and cultures are fundamental for sustainable management
of ecosystems. Moreover, in urban planning it is becoming an
essential
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need for managing at an ecosystem scale that is beyond
traditional boundaries of a city, both with respect to biophysical
and social aspects (Elmqvist et al, 2008, Rees 1997 in Ecology and
Society 1 (4): 23 (online). According to Niemal, maintenance of the
biodiversity is an inherent property of well-functioning ecological
systems at various spatial and temporal scales. The importance is
protecting green areas as a vital part of nature conservation.
Maintenance of diverse green environments is essential for the
well-being of humans as well. (Vandruff et al, 1995 in Biodiversity
and Conservation 8: 119-131, 1999. Evans (in Transaction of the
Institute of British Geographers, Vol. 36, Issue 2, 2011) even
suggested that solutions for current city problems are linked to
the high diversity and density of the population living in the city
with its unique ecological environment. Therefore, the city can
function as practical knowledge center and as such hand decision
makers and other integrated disciplines in urban planning new
concepts, tools and institutions, which should help to establish a
sustainable environment at the core of public interest.
Figure 12a: Urban Ecology Initiative 2000, Fact Sheet #12 3.7
Smart Growth In 1977, Governor Glendening of the State of Maryland
(USA), launched the Smart Growth and Neighborhood Conservation
Initiative; a progressive land use program built on the pillars of
economic growth, resource protection and the Planning Act (NCSG
University of Maryland, 2013). The primary goal was to limit the
sprawling patterns of low density residential development and
ribbon commercial development along main roads at the fringe of the
city. A smart growth improvement would create efficient and high
density mixed land-use patterns (Maryland Department of Planning,
1977).
Segregated land use as a result of urban sprawl has increased
distances between destinations, which has led to car dependent
communities that affect traffic safety, the quality of the air and
the physical well-being of people. Currently public health and
public safety have become important issues in urban planning. The
smart growth approach emphasizes the concentration of people in
Socio economic drivers
(demographics, political institutions,
technology, and organizations) and
human preferences affect urban
patterns, which in turn are in charge
of ecological processes, which cause
ecological change that could
influence our social goals. New
research should address ecological
and social knowledge, which is
relevant to urban planners to make
strategic choices and address
priorities as well as their location.
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manageable bounded areas with mixed land use development and a
wide range of public transit links and options. Within these areas
zoning and civic engagement are the basis for developing healthy
and livable communities in the cities.
The promotion of Smart Growth is a public-private approach to
accommodate a variety of income groups in compact mixed-use
settlements in such a manner that people can profit from economic
growth, environmental protection, a healthy physical condition and
public transportation (Daniels,2001). These principles contribute
directly to the development of sustainable communities, which are
good places to live, to do business, to work and to raise a family
(Harris, 2013). According to Reeds (2013) urban areas work best
when they are compact, with higher densities, lay-outs that
prioritizes walking, cycling and public transport so that they
become the norm to improve deplorable communities.
3.8 Assessment
Figure 12b: Relation scheme of the impact of Urban Sprawl
Urban sprawl is a phenomenon that is visually present in the
landscape of the Kwatta region. Low building density and monotonous
residential development - compared with the urban core is
manifested especially along the Rijweg naar Kwatta and the exit
roads. The exit roads are separated by open spaces that vary in
size. This so called leapfrog development has created an urban form
that can be typified as a fishbone structure. According to
Holcombes classification of sprawl, the Kwatta region between the
Derde and Vierde Rijweg can be classified both as a leapfrog and
strip or ribbon development. Yet it can be stated that the degree
of sprawl in the Kwatta region appears to be different in a linear
pattern when calculating all buildings (not their size and quality)
within equal surfaces in the total size of the research area.
Although the mechanisms that cause the sprawl of Paramaribo are not
yet well understood, it can be stated that land use patterns are
not comprehensively. There is little variation in land use patterns
that also underlies the concentration of a large service employment
sector in the core of the city of Paramaribo.
urban sprawl
community wellbeing
urban ecology
land use
urban form
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I have constructed Figure 12b to demonstrate the impact of urban
sprawl, which is commonly related to an uncoordinated urban growth
with a number of adverse effects on the wellbeing of a community.
Poor quality of public facilities and services are very often
offered to people on parceled out natural land or land that was
formally used for agricultural purposes. Expanding human
requirements and economic activities over the years put an ever
increasing pressure on the carrying capacity of the natural
landscape, which in return create an unsustainable urban form. Land
use change is the major drive behind the loss of urban ecological
systems, which consequently impacts human health and the quality of
living in a community.
Figure 12c: A possible calculation for Smart Growth
The development of human preferences and needs has created an
urban lifestyle that asks for more space to accommodate human
activities, and as such has an impact on the natural ecological
processes of the urban environment. I have constructed Figure 12c
in order to show how a smart growth effect can be achieved. Proper
urban planning and management is needed to limit sprawl through
higher building density, and simultaneously boost economic growth,
while seriously taking into account the protection of the natural
environment.
4. The role of government in planning and implementing housing
scheme projects
The current Government role with respect to the location for the
development of housing projects is very important, because the
Government acts on different scales and in different ways, which
ultimately influence locations for housing projects. There are
several theories with respect to the location of settlements, in
particular in predicting and understanding their development.
The location theory addresses the questions which economic
activities are located where and why. The location of economic
activities can be determined on different levels. In a broader
approach such as a region or metropolitan area or on a narrow one
such as a zone, neighborhood, city block, or an individual site
(Encyclopedia Britannica).
Walter Christaller, a German geographer, has developed the
Central Place Theory in 1933, based on studies in South Germany.
His central question was: 'are there rules that determine the size,
number and distributions of settlements? A Central Place is a
settlement or a node that serves the area around it with goods and
services of different orders (Center for Spatially Integrated
Services). Christaller's model is a hierarchical organization of
settlements, where the population size is not
Limitted sprawl creates
Higher building density
Economic growth and protection of
ecological systems
Smart Growth
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the determining factor for the economic power of the settlement,
but the location of the settlement. The market principle of
Christaller assumes that a minimum market is needed to accommodate
new businesses and services, whereby people can make a median
minimum distance to meet their needs. In his transportation model,
he supposes that transport costs can be minimized when maximizing
the connectivity of centers to be served. This theory is also
relevant for sub urban housing and neighborhood development.
Many factors in housing development, such as the accessibility,
the design, the location of the site in relation to the built-up
core are directly related to public authorities. In Suriname, the
Government has, in particular, influence on the site(s) through its
regional planning policy.
In the State Decree of 10 October 1991 on the establishment and
terms of reference of Departments and General Board (SB 1991 No.
58), modified in September 2005 (SB 2005 No. 94), the tasks of the
Ministry of Public Works are described. For this research the
following points are relevant: a. policy, planning and development
of general structural engineering, civil engineering and
other infrastructure facilities in the public interest f. water
management and drainage g. urban planning and urban development,
some in collaboration with the relevant ministries i. the provision
of research for the building industry and the monitoring of
compliance with
the building Law j. technical reserves relating to the traffic
on land and for public transport, as well as
supervision l. the garbage disposal and processing in
Paramaribo
The Ministry of Spatial Planning, Land and Forest Management,
mentioned in SB 2005 no 91 Article 7, paragraph 1, is responsible
for the following: Sub l. Conservation of a balanced relationship
between man and the surrounding nature and
achieving and protecting a durable, optimal living environment
Sub m. Setting up and maintaining the necessary structures and
organisations, in order to give
substance to the policy objectives for optimal living and work
environment Sub n. Construction of parks and gardens Some special
tasks of the Ministry of Spatial Planning, Land and Forest
Management (ROGB), regarding this research, are selected for better
understanding of the subject: a. a sound regional planning, in
consultation with the ministries of Regional Development,
Planning and Development Cooperation 1, Public Works and Trade
and Industry c. land use, where necessary interdepartmental f.
control of legitimate and effective use of assigned land, where
necessary
interdepartmental i. responsible nature management and nature
protection The Ministry of Public Works has the most direct contact
with the project developers, while the housing market is currently
supervised by the Directorate of Construction Works and Services of
this ministry. The latter also has the task to monitor compliance
with the rules as laid down in the Building Law April 6th 1956 (GB
1956 No. 30), amended and supplemented by GB 1957 No. 30 and GB
1972 No. 96. Article 1a clearly indicates that building is only
allowed if there is a permit issued
1 The Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation does not
exist anymore, but the Planning Division is nowadays accommodated
at the Ministry of Trade and Industry
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by the Director of the Ministry of Public Works. Article 3.1
states that a petition shall be filed in the request for
development consent. According to article 4, a construction plan
and building design are required when submitting the application.
Finally, article 8 concludes that a penalty or a fine should be
implemented when the conditions are not fulfilled.
The Ministry of Public Works coordinates building procedures for
Suriname. At the moment authorization of allotment is required for
Greater Paramaribo till the boundary with the district of
Saramacca, measured up to 500 meters from the axis of the road on
either side of the road. However, the Planning Division has limited
competences and is not fully equipped for future sight oriented
spatial planning. The consequence is that project developers and
investment groups very often cause an inefficient land use. In
addition, their projects not only lack information, but also the
availability of needed energy and water resources, alternative
housing concepts as well as measures to be taken to strengthen and
expand existing infrastructure. Increasing demand of land for
housing projects and the service sector has made the Kwatta region
one of the most attractive areas to be developed. The existing
pattern of the housing development in the Kwatta region has not
only seriously reduced the available land for agriculture, but has
weakened the living quality as well. Energy related problems and
environmental degradation are already visible. Furthermore, as new
settlements are not planned in a sustainable way, they put a huge
stress on fuel consumption, traffic flow, maintenance costs for
infrastructure and construction costs for water, electricity and
communication. The physical-geographical structure of the
inter-ridge depressions is seriously disturbed, whereby the natural
drainage hardly functions, which in turn leads to flooding in the
rainy season. In February 2012 the Ministry of Public Works started
a pilot project for project developers. An investigation of the
Planning Department showed that more than 90 % of the projects of
project developers do not comply with the required conditions. The
new authorization conditions are identical to the previous ones,
but have an important clause that transfer in the name of the buyer
is only possible if all the conditions, as set out in the permit,
have been met. According to the acting under Director of the
Planning Department of the Ministry of Public Works, the Urban
Planning Law (1972) is clear on which measurements have to be taken
when planning new housing projects. The problem, however, is that
there are too few trained staff to monitor the implementation of
projects. Often, monitoring is carried out by staff without any
civilian technical background. There are two control moments:
1. Road profiles: a minimum of 15 meters road width is required,
of which 5.5 meter
for the road, 2 x 2.5 meters for drainage on both sides of the
road and 4.5 meters
for sidewalks on both sides of the road. Actually these figures
can differ, depending
on the character and location of the housing project.
2. It is required that the road surface is hardened, but this
does not apply to the
footpaths. Parceling out according to the construction plan, the
infrastructure for
water and electricity and drainage
Parcelling out, according to the Urban Planning Law of 1972, is
more than just dividing the terrain into sections. A subdivision
plan is needed for the transformation of an open or natural land
into a residential location: an attractive residential environment
with room for different living forms. A subdivision plan should
include all technical requirements, which are indicated by the
Ministry of Public Works. According to the parcel license Article
II. 1 lots also should be reserved for shops
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and social facilities. Basically, a subdivision plan is also a
zoning plan, which clearly indicates how the area will be
organized. The current regulations insufficiently take into account
the creation of an integrated living area, where the future
residents are assured of a safe and pleasant home-work area, which
is in balance with the ecological carrying capacity of that area.
According to modern urban planning views it is recommended to
include the following aspects in the authorization
documentation:
the condition of the roads and maintenance strips to be
transferred to the State the correct ratio of the lots for houses,
shops and social security conditions for the ground preparation
systems for drainage and sewerage the street naming
4.1 Assessment In general, the project developer does not comply
with the submitted plan, but is able to avoid sanctions, because
the mechanisms to monitor the implementation of development plans
are not working properly. The flaws in the permit condition offer
opportunities for speculation, which is not only to the detriment
of the buyers, but also obstructs a sustainable developed
residential area. Deficits in the development and implementation of
spatial development plans and the lack of relevant competences,
when it comes to new forms of spatial planning, have led to poorly
developed neighbourhoods in the research area. Based on the above
discussions and findings, I have constructed a planning framework
(see page 25), which can be helpful to set out strategies for land
use and housing in Greater Paramaribo. The framework shows the
current situation and deficits within the different categories that
are related to urban planning. The main objective is to reorganize
existing settlement patterns, which should contribute to
sustainable neighbourhoods through an integrated spatial planning
framework.
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FRAMEWORK FOR LAND USE AND HOUSING IN THE KWATTA REGION
SUBJECT POLICY LAWS PLANS TOOLS AND MECHANISMS STANDARDS URBAN
SPRAWL
Urban form and structure Built and natural
environment Leapfrog and
ribbon development
Land-use segregation
Street lay-out
Roadway to Kwatta main transportation line
Exit roads; hardly interconnected
Buildings
Single housing Commercial Services
Morphology
Abandoned and transformed agricultural land
Primary and secondary natural vegetation
Ridges and inter-depressions with swamp vegetation
Mangrove along coast line
Existing Investment in social housing to
address squatting and housing shortage
Allocation of public land for housing schemes
Eased regulations on applying for government land
Attractive bank loans for construction of housing
Financial support for low and middle incomes to build or
rehabilitate their house
Upgrading agriculture productivity by stimulating
horticulture
Rehabilitation of traffic infrastructure
Existing Urban Planning
Law Planning Law Building Law Monumental Law Expropriation Law
Tax Law on
Vehicles
Existing National Development
Program 2012-2016 Housing Plan 2012-2017 Upgrading electricity
network
in Greater Paramaribo Expanding local power
stations Expanding power capacity of
Staatsolie n.v. Feasibility study on non-fossil
fuel Local systems for efficient
distribution of potable water Expanding
telecommunication networks Building of VOJ and VOS
education facilities Expanding of existing ring-
road Guide for Subdivision Plans
(OW)
Existing Energy Company Suriname Water Distribution Company
Research Department of the
University of Suriname Geographical Land
Information System (GLIS) Department of Spatial
Organization (ROGB) Planning Department (OW) Housing
Department
(SoZaVo) Directorship Green Providing Land allocation
department
(ROGB) Stichting Plan Bureau Stichting Volkshuisvesting Project
developers Building materials
companys Road Authority Organization of Bus Drivers
for Public Transport Community programmers
and organizations
Existing Electricity installation
prescriptions Minimum size of parcels and
roads Distance to the building line Progressive electricity
tariff
system for households and commercials
Quality management of potable water
Waste collection system
Not existing
Maintaining and management of urban expansion
Protection of vulnerable land Time framework to manage the
ongoing process and goals PPP- coordination Admittance to
develop private
land for public benefits Coordination between private
land developers and government Coordination between key
persons on ministries regarding the urban planning
Classification of roads for mapping interconnections to battle
traffic congestion
Adequate financial plan to exploit international funding
Not existing
Zoning Law Law on building
regulations in the coastal zone of Paramaribo
Law on developing residential areas
Law on apartments
Realization and implementation of many of the approved laws on
building procedures
Not existing
Multiple level buildings with mixed use in the inner-city to
encourage walking and biking
Apartments for housing to accommodate multiple household
compositions and to lower infrastructure costs
Green planting in communities to absorb and reflect sunrays
Studies on rehabilitation of abandoned agriculture land
Modern mass public transportation and transits
Community Based Organizations
Not existing
City Management Authority Land use and urban planning
authority Energy and potable water
authority Awareness programs to
reduce energy consumption
Not existing
Prescriptions for the lay-out of residential communities
House rent regulations Advanced standards for road
designing Standards for public space and
recreation Urban grid model to plan energy
and potable water provision and distribution
Separated garbage disposal and waste treatment plant Regulations
to protect vulnerable natural land
Standards for mixed land use and compact building
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5. Results of field research 5.1 Characteristics of the Kwatta
Neighbourhood 5.1.1 Introduction According to Oudschans Dentz
(1944), historically the Kwatta Region was first settled as a
plantation in 1770 and takes its name from the Kwatta monkey living
in that area. One year after the abolition of slavery, in 1864,
this region became a private cacao plantation that belonged to the
family Van Emden. In 1919 the Middenpad naar Kwatta was bought by
H.J. Fernandes, who also played a major role in the construction of
Weg naar Zee. By resolution of December the 1st 1921 no. 4049 the
Government obtained the Middenpad, adjacent trenches and
construction works from the Tweede Rijweg till the Garnizoenspad.
This road was meant to function as a public road (Article in
Newspaper after 1960; date unknown). Until the 1920s this region
was to some extent isolated from the city center, but during the
last century it became one of the most well-known settlements where
contract laborers, the Hindustanis, who had left the plantation
agriculture, and afterwards their descendants, have worked for more
than 100 years in the food supply of a large part of the city
population. The Kwatta Region became a food stock of the City of
Paramaribo and still plays that important role. Farmers are
organized in a cooperation and supported in the use of the
horticulture technology and awareness by the Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and Fishery.
Figure 13: The Kwatta Region at the fringe of the city center
During the fifties of the last century, the city population of
Paramaribo started growing very fast through a natural increase and
the in-migration of people from rural areas in search of better
work and secondary education. The rural lifestyle at the outskirt
of the city, based on agriculture and cattle breeding, came
increasingly under pressure over the years. Paramaribo started to
expand beyond its borders and this resulted in the shift of
agricultural and natural lands into the
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development of urban land. This expansion of Paramaribo started
as a ribbon development along roads connected to the city center
such as Grote and Kleine Combweg, Anton Dragtenweg, Tourtonnelaan
and Anamoestraat (North), van t Hogerhuysstraat and Pad van Wanica
(South) and Commissaris Weythingweg and the Rijweg naar Kwatta
(West). Since the fifties of the last century, the government took
it as its responsibility, at least to some extent, to provide
housing for low-income and middle income households. During that
time, according to the Planning Law of 1972, the Planning
Department of the Ministry of Public Affairs played a great role in
the urban development of Paramaribo. However, since the end of the
20th century Paramaribo has been influenced in particular by growth
patterns led by private property developers. Their ideas about
allotment of wasteland were exclusively focused on single family
housing and hardly on a well thought out plan, in which a
living-core also provides enough space for accommodation of
businesses and services. This outdated way of parceling out land,
risen along newly built roads of the Kwattaweg, has significantly
increased the traffic pressure on this road. The Kwattaweg
nowadays, during many hours of the day, is a congested road, which
has radically increased the per person travelling time (see Picture
2 and 3)
Figure 14: Congestion on de Rijweg naar Kwatta Figure 15: Cars
on the Rijweg naar Kwatta near the Tweede Rijweg Based on the data
of the 7th public and housing census carried out in 2004, the ABS
made projections for the number of households and housing in
Suriname for the years 2009, 2014, 2019 and 2024 with both a low
and high variant. (see Table 2 and 3). The census also investigated
the size of the households. In total 123.463 households were
counted with a national average size of 4 persons per household.
From all the households:
20% consisted of 6 and more persons, and were living in
Paramaribo and the Wanica District most of the one-person
households lived in Paramaribo 81% were connected to the
electricity network of EBS and 56% to the water supply system
of SWM
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Table 2: Total of projected households
Year
Total of projected households
Low High Average
2009 134,284 144,595 139,440
2014 145,301 166,263 155,782
2019 157,016 188,661 172,839
2024 168,900 211,125 190,013
Table 3: Total of projected housing
Year Total of projected housing
Low High Average
2009 130,688 140,723 135,706
2014 141,410 161,811 151,611
2019 152,811 183,610 168,211
2024 164,377 205,472 184,925
Source: ABS 2008/2010 Geographically, the Kwatta Region is a
uniformity based on the landscape evolution, sediments and
bio-diversity. Like most of the new residential areas of the last
decades, the Kwatta Region has been developed in the fringe with a
very low building density, a mono-functional housing character, by
which the inhabitants of those projects were increasingly dependent
on the city centre. The neighbourhoods along the exit roads on the
north and south side of the Rijweg naar Kwatta are more or less
independent from each other, and also differ in size from each
other: the largest neighbourhoods have more than 80 households,
while the smallest ones less than 10. In fact, the size and design
of the neighbourhoods, consisting of a mix of parcels and building
sizes, is determined by the street pattern. The spatial
organization does differ from other comparable neighbourhoods, for
example compared to the southern part of the city centre, where
main services such as water, electricity and front door waste
collection are lacking in many small projects and dwellings are
often poorly maintained. 5.1.2. Objectives The research area is
very spacious. The road length between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg
extends for a distance of about 3 km, while the maximum length of
an exit road to the North is about 0.8 km and that in the southern
direction comes on the Sophias Lustweg with a length of 0.9 km. The
surface of the research area brings us to a total of 3 km x (0.8 +
0.9) km = 5.1 km. The research activities, in which two students of
the geography department of the Advanced Teachers Training
Institute (IOL) have given their unconditional cooperation, has
gone smoothly. The purpose of the study was discussed at length
with the individual residents, who were all willing to cooperate in
the research. In total 100 households have completed the
questionnaire in a face to face conversation. In addition extensive
discussions were held with six people about their knowledge and
findings of their residential area.
The report Housing plan 2012-2017 made an extrapolation of the
ABS data and concluded that by the year 2024, an average of 184.925
accommodations will be needed. To meet this need, some 2,200-4,400
houses will need to be built on an annual basis. This figure does
not include the overpopulated houses and existing shortage of 2004.
The report emphasizes the reduction in demand, although the housing
production, due to the low implementation capacity, runs far behind
the need. Of the total housing stock 48% is located in Paramaribo
and only 17% in the Wanica District. With respect to maintenance,
15-20% of the houses were in poor condition, while 40-50% were well
maintained. Overdue maintenance of older homes leads to a steady
deterioration and dilapidation, which occurs more frequently in
certain older residential areas in Paramaribo, such as Abra Broki,
Frimangron and Comb.
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This research has focused on some specific features
characterizing the neighbourhoods of the Kwatta Region between the
Third and Fourth Roadway, whereby three main subjects: population,
accessibility and living conditions have been distinguished. Those
three features will be considered only when drawing conclusions at
the end of the discussion of the results derived from the survey.
5.2 Population The research findings indicate that people from
different incomes, age, ethnic groups, professions and ways of life
meet in the different parts of the Kwatta Region, along the exit
roads, where open land has been parceled out by different project
developers. People who bought a parcel were free to build a house
as a safe harbor and to fulfill their family desires. People have
made a conscious choice to migrate to the Kwatta region to build a
better living. The choice for migration was mainly based on the
desire for independent living (37%) and moving from house renting
(33%), which underpin the need for having an own house. Other
reasons which were mentioned are marriage, family gift and family
support, close to work and family relations. As to future living in
this area, 25% of the respondents are not convinced that this area
is their final destination. This is linked to uncertainty for those
who are not the owner of the house and desire to have an own parcel
and house. Buildings of different ages, conditions, construction
materials and sizes typify the neighborhoods in the Kwatta Region.
Based on the differentiation in housing characteristics, it is
clear that the Kwatta Region does not show significant signs of
decay. Most of the houses are built in concrete and have one floor.
It is clear that land use in the exit roads is mainly used for
residential purposes as people work and shop in other areas. Living
Space
Figure 16: Percentage dwelling surface per household in m It is
calculated that the overall total average per dwelling surface is
about 103m. However 67% of the houses have a dwelling surface of
100m. This average may be compared with the minimum size of 100m
that is standard for the affluent neighborhoods such as de
Morgenstond. So, the largest part (67%) of the dwellings has a
surface that is less than the minimum that is applied in the
> 80 80- 100 101-150 < 150
32 35
24
9
percentage of dwelling surface in m per
household
150
An analysis of the data of the dwelling surface as presented in
figure 16 and table 4 gives a view of the average space that is
available for one person to live. The so called living space or
floor area per person is defined as the median floor area (in m) of
a shelter divided by the household size (UN (1996) Indicators of
Sustainable Development: Framework and Mythologies). Hence, the
smaller the dwelling combined with a bigger household, the lower
the per person living space.
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affluent neighborhoods. With an average household size of 3.7
persons, the average floor area per person is 27.8 m (see Table 4).
Table 4: Housing surface and household size related to per person
living space In the Kwatta Region the average household size does
not differ for the categories 80 m, 81-100 m and 101-150 m, but is
higher for the category >150 m, where it is 4.1. Still it can be
concluded that these dwellings have by far more living space per
person (67.8m). Hence, the smaller the size of the dwelling
combined with a large household size, the lower the living space
per person. Worldwide, the differences between the More Developed
Regions with those of regions in Asia /Oceania and Africa are
obviously huge (see Figure 17). The figures of the Kwatta Region
indicate that the average living space per person clearly matches
with an overall average of the More Developed Regions (see Figure
17).
Figure 17: Floor area per person by country ranking and region
Source:UNCHS/World Bank (1996) In an article in the New York Times
Living with less (March 2013) Graham Hill has suggested a needed
average of 39 m living space per person, based upon his life
experience to manage a space in an effective way. The cost for
living should be significantly lower and people can be encouraged
to live with less to lower their footprint on the available natural
resources. According to the view of Graham Hill the average of
27.81 m living space per person in the Kwatta region would be a
sign of
Household size 80 m 81-100 m 101-150 m
>150 m
Sum Average
Total of households 41 26 25 8 100
Total of housing surface in m
2605 2463 2984 2236 10288 102.88
Total of household members
150 96 90 33 370 3.70
Living space per person in m
17.37 25.66 33.16 67.76 27.81
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overpopulated houses. For the houses with a dwelling surface of
80 m the situation is clearly worse (see Table 4) Table 5:
Household size according to district
District Average household size
Paramaribo 4.01 Wanica 4.08 Nickerie 3.81 Coronie 3.08 Saramacca
3.70 Commewijne 3.84 Marowijne 4.16 Para Brokopondo Sipaliwini
Average
4.24 3.79 3.44 3.94
Source: ABS 2013 Table 6: Place of origin of households
Region Total
Parbo Center 21 Parbo North 1 Parbo South 11 Parbo West 3 Kwatta
35 Saramacca 14 Nickerie Wanica
2 4
Commewijne Para Marowijne Permanent Living Foreign country
Overall total
2 1 1 1 4 100
People have come from different neighbourhoods to start a living
in the Kwatta Region. Most of the households have migrated over a
relatively short distance, coming from the Kwatta Region itself.
Besides the price in relation to the quality, the choice was also
based on the familiarity with the neighbourhood. 32% of the
respondents have migrated from Paramaribo Centre and South, which
can be considered that people have seized the opportunity for
having an own house and living independently. There is also a
distinctive rural-urban migration from the adjacent district of
Saramacca.
The question is how much living space does a person need? Ideas
and guidelines strongly differ from country to country. There are
all sorts of reasons for these differences, for example: land
access, wealth level and climate. Fact is that modern life styles
have significantly increased the needed living space per person
over the years, while the average household size is decreasing.
This also applies to Suriname where the average household size is 4
persons (see Table 5)
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Age, Education and Occupation
Figure 18: Absolute age composition according