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M E L I S S A A U W E R T E R
A N D R E W B E N O I T
A N D R E W B O U G H A N
N O E L L E B R I T T
A POST 9/11 PERSPECTIVE ONSEGREGATION, ENCLAVES AND
GHETTOS
Urban Spatial Theory Spring 2013
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Americas Ghettos
There is a significant body of work on the problems ofAmericas ghettos Continuing high levels of racial and income segregation, and the
concentration of the poor in a small number of high-poverty
areas
Roots causes of residential segregationracial discrimination inhousing and employment, and the loss of manufacturing jobs
Adverse effects ghettos have on individuals (poor public services,
lack of access to good jobs, lack of positive role models), and oncities (high-crime areas outward from city centers)
Difficulties associated with poverty and minority deconcentration(suburban resistance to affordable housing developments)
Varady. Desegregating the City, Preface.
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The Ghetto-Enclave Paradigm
There is much less focus on the ethnic enclave
The events of September 11, 2011 call for a reevaluationof these two terms and their connotations
The ghetto-enclave paradigm Ghettos are badnegative forms of residential segregation;
people forced to live there; arising social tensions
Enclaves are goodpositive forms of residential segregation;
voluntary; assets to urban vitality This paradigm is no longer valid because crime and
disorder exist in both these forms of segregation
Varady. Desegregating the City, Preface.
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Spatial Clustering
Spatial clustering is an inevitable part of urban life Ghettos
Gated communities
Ethnic enclaves
Religious communities
Senior citizen communities
Involuntary and hierarchical clustering (derived from aranking systems that reflects superiority based onwealth, status, power, etc.) is undesirable and shouldpublic policy measures should address its flaws
Voluntary, nonhierarchical clustering is more desirable
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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What is Segregation? Formal Definitions
Clustering: concentration of a population group in space Formation of any area of spatial concentration
Segregation: process by which a population group,treated as inferior, is involuntarily forced to cluster in a
defined spatial area Process of the formation and maintenance of a ghetto
Racial Segregation: segregation based on race
Racial ghettos
Market Segregation: process that operates through thereal estate market which segregates lower income peopleinto class ghettos
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Formal Definitions (contd)
Exclusion: can be spatial or socioeconomic Spatial exclusion is segregation
Socioeconomic exclusion with segregation leads to the formationof an excluded ghetto
Quartering: division of urban space into quarters, basedon the income or wealth of households
Can create or reinforce segregation
Congregating: voluntary coming together of a population
group for self-protection and advancement of its owninterests, other than through domination or exclusion
Process of the formation of an enclave
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Formal Definitions (contd)
Withdrawal: voluntary and deliberate separation of asocially and economically dominant population group
Reinforces segregation
Process that leads to the in the formation of an exclusionary
enclave Walling out: extreme physical form of withdrawal
Involved in the formation ofcitadel
May be involved in the formation of an exclusionary enclave
Fortification: voluntary coming together of a populationfor protecting, strengthening, and symbolizing dominance
Process of forming a citadel
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Formal Definitions (contd)
Confinement: deliberate, intentional separating of asocially and economically subordinate group and itsrestrictions to a specific location
Extreme social, economic, and/or legal form ofsegregation
May be involved in the formation of a ghetto
Walling in: extreme physical form of confinement May be involved in the formation of a ghetto
Desegregation: elimination of barriers to freemobility for residents of a ghetto
Integration: intermixing of population groups
Ongoing, positive, nonhierarchical relationships
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Formal Definitions (contd)
Enclave: an area of spatial concentration in whichmembers of a particular group congregate to protectand enhance their economic, social, political, and/orcultural development
Exclusionary enclave: one whose members occupypositions of superior power, and excludes others fromunauthorized entry
Citadel: an area of spatial concentration in whichmembers of particular population group, defined by itsposition of superior power, cluster to protect, display,and enhance that position
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Formal Definitions (contd)
Cluster: an area of spatial concentration of apopulation group
Quarter: an area of spatial concentration based on
the income or wealth of households Ghetto: an area of spatial concentration used by
forced within the dominant society to separate andto limit a particular population group, defined as
racial or ethnic or foreign, and held to be, andtreated as, inferior by the dominant society
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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The Origins of Clustering and Segregation
Cities are and have beendivided along a numberof lines that formdifferent patterns of
clustering Many of these divisions
reflect the conscious actsof those clustered or
clustering, and those inpower over of amongthem
These dividing lines arebased on:
Nationality
Class
Income Wealth
Occupation
Religion
Race Color
Ethnicity
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
o Coloro Ethnicity
o Languageo Ageo Household
compositiono Personal
culturalpreferences
o Lifestyle
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Lines of Division
Three important lines of division:
1) Culture
2) Functional economic role
3) Position in the hierarchy of power
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Cultural Divisions
Easily discernibledifferences in language, clothing,architecture style, etc.
Result in divisions by: Ethnicity
Country or nationality
Tribe of origin, parentage, or descent
Religion or belief Lifestyle
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Cultural Divisions (contd)
Cultural differencesinclude: Worship
Music
Parenting
Language
History
Holidays
Clothing
Family relations
Are not dependent ontheir economicproductivity for theirhold on people, nor do
they require arelationship ofsuperiority orinferiority for their
strength
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Functional Divisions
Divisions based on functional economic roles are theresult of either physical or organizational economiclogic E.g. Divisions between factories and residential areas
Some industries and occupations may require thoseinvolved in them to live close to their jobs Can lead to residential division (e.g. company-sponsored housing
developments) Functional divisions are independent of cultural
differences and express relationships of superiority orinferiority to other functions
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Functional Divisions and Zoning
Zoning: division of a town or county into districts in whichcertain activities are prohibited and others are permitted
The accepted legal embodiment of functional divisions
Zoning defined in terms of economic use isnt always
apparent Performance zoningdefines permitted land uses by their
environmental impact (e.g. traffic generated, shadows cast, aircirculation impeded, green space occupied, etc.)
While use may separate manufacturing from retail fromresidential, it is not clear why residential use for one familyshould be different from the use by two or three families
Separation by function is still viewed as the acceptable way to
divide city spacesVarady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
OFlaherty, Brendan. 2005. City Economics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Zoning definition)
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Hierarchical Status Divisions
Differences in hierarchical status reflect and reinforcerelationships of power, domination, exploitation, stateservice, etc.
Imperial enclave in a colonial town; black townships of South
Africa Class is the major dividing line
Gated communities reflect and support power relationshipsjust as much as slums or working-class quarters
Power can exist in multiple dimensions Military power, political power, economic power, social power,
legal power (slavery)
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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How Cultural, Functional, and HierarchicalDivisions Interact
Cultural, functional, and hierarchical divisionsintertwine, overlap, and contradict each other
Cultural divisions can reinforce status differences,sometimes making it hard to distinguish betweenstatus and culture
Divisions of status and culture interfere with functionaldivision: groups differentiated by culture and statusunited by economic links need to work and live neareach other for efficient production
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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How Cultural, Functional, and HierarchicalDivisions Interact (contd)
Relations between status and function conflict in spatialimpact: employers wanting workers to live close to work,but not close to them
Differences in culture and status
within culturalgroups, there can be major differences in class andeconomic function
Because the role of space is not constant and is socially
created, it complicates these divisions Social relations determine spatial relations, but spatial
patterns do not always reinforce social relations
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Conclusion
Clustering that reinforces hierarchical power relationshipsis unacceptable, while social or cultural clustering is moreacceptable
Although cultural or functional divisions may be voluntary,
they may not always be desirable
The role of public policy in residential segregation shouldbe: To lessen the impact of the three divisions and reduce segregation
To facilitate economic integration
To increase opportunities
To enrich culture
To promote intercultural understanding
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State and Federal Governments
Role in Regards to Segregation
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The States Role on Imposing Segregation
Divisions of function and culture are generallyvoluntary
-No group desires low status; it is imposed on them
Those of higher status maintain their separationvoluntarily; they need the means to impose lowstatus on others (against their wills).
-divisions by status require the use of force. (In a civilized society, this
is considered as a monopoly of the state)
Government action may (or may not) be involved inregulating these cultural divisions
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Ghettoization Fostered by the U.S.
The Urban Renewal Program,adopted under Title 1 of the housingAct of 1949 was the basis for slumclearance and redevelopment in theUnited States
The federal highway constructionprogram massively subsidized withfederal funds after 1954 was a sign ofdeveloping white suburbs of thepostwar years (whites saw moving tothe suburbs as a motivation to escape
the growing black population indowntowns)
Whites with cars used highways toseparate themselves from blacks
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
Zoning ordinances enacted by localgovernments, explicitly allowing forcertain areas to be occupiedexclusively by whites.-These were finally ruled unconstitutional inBuchanan v. Warley
Federal courts provided judicialenforcement for restrictive covenants-this was a major device that excluded blacks from largeparts of cities and confines them to areas with highpercentages of blacks
-Violated Civil Rights Act of 1866, and ruledunconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in
Shelley v. Kramer, U.S. I (1948)
Redlining- denial of mortgage financingto owners of property in certaindesignated areas.
-termed redlined and selected primarily because of the
race of the residents
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Measures Towards Combating Segregation
Expanded provision for public housing in differenturban areas (not just the ones with already a
substantial subsidized rentals) Ex. In newdevelopments, 30% of those new developments areprovided as affordable units (managed by housingassociations)
Use of tax incentives to promote local economicdevelopment and job creation within a broadintegrative framework.
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
d b i i
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Measures Towards Combating Segregation(Continued)
Intermunicipal agreements with respect to housinglow income housing (could be especially useful whendealing)
Such agreements might be useful among cities andsuburbs (lower income housing in the center of thecities while suburban environments house upperincome populations towards the suburbs)
Zoning and land use controls can be used to prohibitdiscrimination in loaning and to steer newconstruction and development to more stable areas.
Control of Politian towards environmental advocatesVarady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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The National Role in Imposing Segregation
The range of policies that might reduce segregationshould in fact include a wide variety of measures, inaddition to the following listed would reduceinequality (the underlying cause of partitioning)
In the long run, measures such as steeply progressiveincome taxes, protection of the rights of women aresteeply progressive income taxes
Ownership and control of economic activity, andenvironmental protection measures that take intoaccount and just the distribution of burdens and
benefits, would just reduce segregation.Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
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Muslim Residential Clustering
and Political Radicalism
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Introduction
Levels of Muslim segregation in many Europeancities remain high
Segregation is primarily voluntary, which makes
government intervention difficult Muslim residential clustering seems to be hindering
cultural integration due to the absence of socialnetworks
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Introduction
The increasing Muslim population in Europe livephysically and culturally separate from their hostcountry
With the rise of Islamic terrorism, Muslimcommunities continue to live in fear andnervousness
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Level of Segregation among EuropeanMuslim Immigrants
In the European cities of Birmingham and Bradford,schools tend to be more segregated than residentialneighborhoods
Schools reach tipping point, white parents withdraw theirchildren and move away, other white families choose not tomove into the neighborhood
Residential neighborhoods change more slowly
Singles, young couples without kids, and empty-nesters areless affected by what happens in the local public schools
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Causes of Muslim Segregation
Muslims often self-segregate in a voluntary manner Strong religious ties among Muslim immigrants leads to a
desire to self-segregate
Muslim neighborhoods are comprised of mosques,Muslim-oriented stores, and other ethno-culturalinstitutions
In addition, these Muslim communities in Britain
have shown a lower level of household income Women are not allowed in the job market
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Causes of Muslim Segregation
Discriminatory practices also account for Muslimself-segregation
Many other sub-continent Indians are more dispersed
Muslim cluster neighborhoods are easy to distinguish
High vacancy rates account for neighborhood ethnicpopulation change Whites move out as they feel uncomfortable around foreigners,
surrounding area has acquired poor reputation, and quality ofschools decrease
Area becomes even more desirable to new immigrants
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Consequences of Muslim Ethnic Clustering
Ethnic enclaves have typically been beneficial toimmigrants
Provide greater access to churches, social welfare groups, andstores
Obtain political influence, although continued clusteringprevents societal cohesion
Enclave-based firms provide better opportunities than thegeneral labor market
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Socio-Economic Outcomes
Neighborhoods influence individuals in positive andnegative ways
Low income residents can have middle-class role models andmiddle-class social networks
Spatial separation can hinder residents socio-economicprogress
Some theorists believe that the negative aspects ofethnic enclaves outweigh the positive ones Poorly educated, non-working, welfare dependent
neighborhoods hinder the educational, professional, andemployment prospects of immigrants in the neighborhood
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Cultural Integration
Chicago School of Sociologist Ethnic concentrations of undesirable
Supports identity retention and stunt assimilation
Census Report for 1930-1950 Segregated groups less likely to become citizen or to speak
English and have low intermarriage rates
Segregation for Other Races
Orthodox Jews self-segregate in order to remain within walkingdistance of a synagogue
Black segregation is largely a product of racial discrimination byrealtors, landlords, and financial institutions
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Cultural Integration Cont.
Richard Descoing-Director of Paris Institute of PoliticalScience
Second generation immigrants often live in an environment thatis outside the French culture
They are not in the proper social networks.
French High School Graduates
Have opportunity to apply to premier school as a citizen
Few people from the working class are even aware that the
opportunity exists.
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Cultural Integration Resistance
Conservative Muslims Parents Perceive Sweden as immoral and atheistic
Send their children to intercultural school to stop their daughtersfrom going to dances
Living in high-density ethnic clusters promotes themaintenance ethnic traditions
Can sometimes be inconsistent with the values of larger society
Social Pressures
Might lead residents of an ethnic enclave to support thepractice ofhonor killing
Where the father approves the murder of his daughter because shehas dated or married a man considered unacceptable to the family
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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London Bombing
After Bombing
News reports focused onimmigrant enclaves as oneof the possible causes
Theodore Dalrymple
Many fundamentalist
Muslims in GB and EU aregoing through identitycrisis
Racial Rioting
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Identity Crisis
Reasoning One hand they are drawn
to Western Culture, but atthe same time they try toexpunge everything that is
non-Muslim fromthemselves
Suicide bombing istherefore the way suicide
bombers overcome thereligious doubts withthemselves.
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Dalrymple Three Characteristics
Why its Difficult for Islam to Integrate intoMainstream UK
Refusal to educate women in society that requires two sourcesof income to achieve prosperity
The idea that one is already in possession of the final revealedtruth, leading to an inherently superior way of life, inhibitsadaptation to a more technically advanced society
The hatred of Western society because it is decadent,
materialistic and democratic, rather than theocratic
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Solutions to Segregation
Two European Approaches to Ending Segregation Policies seek to cure segregation
Reduce the incidence of segregation
Aims to mitigate the effects of segregation
The Cure for Segregation
Ethnic mixing through housing allocation
Renting housing through positive marking to live in the housing,through benign quotas, and dispersing minorities across renting
stock These policies would not work in the US
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Solutions to Segregation Cont.
Income Mixing Through Public HousingRestructuring
Strongly endorsed in Europe
To produce an income mix at the neighborhood level
HOPE VI Practice in the United States
Involves the demolition of high-rise buildings and theirreplacement with townhomes and single family homes
Busing to Reduce School Segregation Questions whether the resulting demographic mixing would
led to reduction in the social isolation of Muslim Children
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Mitigating the Effects of Segregation
Community Development Improving existing social and physical conditions
As an alternative to public housing restructuring
If a community development results in a higher socio-
economic standard Households probably relocate to other neighborhoods, thereby
reproducing segregation
Anti-Crime Strategies
Moraccan FathersWalk the streets to develop personal contact with high school
dropouts
Has been effective in reducing crime
Varady.Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
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Mitigating the Effects of Segregation
Community Cohesion Decker & Rowland
Unrealistic to anticipatecreating an overall senseof unity on ethnically
diverse European housingestates
Realistic goal would be tocreate a sense of mutualtrust between differentethnic communities
Primary obstacle is thelanguage barrier
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Sikhs and Muslims vs. New York MTA
Prior to 9/11, Muslim and Sikh transit workers were allowed to wearheaddresses with no regulations.
MTA established a brand or segregate policy due to security concerns
Muslim transit workers were required to brand the MTA logo on theirheaddresses, or face segregation
This new policy forced Muslims and Sikhs to work out of the public view ifthey chose not to brand their turban
In 2005, Sikh Coalition filed charges of discrimination with the EqualEmployment Opportunity Commission(EEOC).
After seven long years, Sikhs and Muslims settled this historic federal
lawsuit on May 30, 2012 As a result, Sikh and Muslim workers may now wear their religious
headdresses freely.
The Sikh Coalition
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Sikhs and Muslims vs. New York MTA
The Sikh Coalition
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Muslim Discrimination Post 9/11
U.S. Government increased security measures andimmigration policies
Results of these policies destroyed the relationship between Muslimsand U.S. Government
In addition to these legislative violations, Muslims havefaced physical abuse and social discrimination
In 2007, CAIR reported 1,900 complaints of abuse and violentcrimes against Muslims increased by 52 percent between 2003 and2004
With recent hate crimes, it is difficult for Muslims not to besegregated due to fear
Even ten years after 9/11, there are large debatesconcerning the construction of mosques around the nation
Ashley Moore.American Muslim Minorities: The New Human Rights Struggle
Sikh Community Target of Violence Ten
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Sikh Community Target of Violence TenYears Later
http://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_years_after_9_11_little
http://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_years_after_9_11_littlehttp://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_years_after_9_11_littlehttp://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_years_after_9_11_littlehttp://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_years_after_9_11_little7/28/2019 Urban Spatial Presentation Post 911 Perspective
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The New Public Spirit
Many important events have reshaped the fabric ofAmerican life
Although Muslim segregation has increased in theU.S., a new sense of community has emerged.
Recent trends have pointed toward a new vision ofcommunity which is secular, public spirited, andoriented toward social responsibility
Bruce J. Schulman. The New Public Spirit
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The New Public Spirit
Before 9/11, Americans spoke about the U.S.Government in a negative manner, calling for an endto the big government era.
Since 9/11, public employees in Congress, thePentagon, and the Post Office have emerged asheroes
Despite concerns over security, Americans are
seeking areas for informal social interaction anddemocratic exchange.
Bruce J. Schulman. The New Public Spirit
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The New Public Spirit
Americans realize they need to build civiccommunities outside of the home and themarketplace
They also realized that physical contact betweendifferent ethnicities and races had diminished
An overwhelming sense of togetherness and nationalidentity had swept through the nations after 9/11
As the desire for public space and social interactionincreases, our nation continues to desegregate and
become more diverse
Bruce J. Schulman. The New Public Spirit
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