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Urban Green Space, Public Health, and Environmental Justice: The Challenge of Making Cities 1 'Just Green Enough' 2
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Jennifer Wolch1* Jason Byrne2; Joshua Newell3 5 6
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Abstract: Urban green spaces, such as parks, forests, green roofs, streams, and community gardens, 8 provide critical ecosystem services. Green spaces also promote physical activity, psychological well -‐ 9 being, and the general public health of urban residents. This paper reviews the Anglo-‐American 10 literature on urban green spaces, especially parks, and compares efforts to green U.S. and Chinese 11 cities. Most studies reveal that the distribution of such spaces often disproportionately benefits 12 predominantly White and more affluent communities. Access to green space is therefore increasingly 13 recognized as an environmental justice issue. Many U.S. cities have implemented strategies to increase 14 the supply of urban green space, especially in park-‐poor neighborhoods. Strategies include greening of 15 remnant urban land and reuse of obsolete or underutilized transportation infrastructure. Similar 16 strategies are being employed in Chinese cities where there is more state control of land supply but 17 similar market incentives for urban greening. In both contexts, however, urban green space strategies 18 may be paradoxical: while the creation of new green space to address environmental justice problems 19 can make neighborhoods healthier and more aesthetically attractive, it also can increase housing costs 20 and property values. Ultimately, this can lead to gentrification and a displacement of the very residents 21 the green space strategies were designed to benefit. Urban planners, designers, and ecologists, 22 therefore, need to focus on urban green space strategies that are 'just green enough' and that explicitly 23 protect social as well as ecological sustainability. 24
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Keywords: urban green spaces, ecosystem services, human health, environmental justice, planning 27
strategies, gentrification 28 29
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1. Correspondence author: University of California, Berkeley, 230 Wurster Hall #1820, Berkeley, CA 31 94720-‐1820, USA, [email protected] 32
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2. School of Environment, Griffith University, Australia 34
3. School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, USA 35
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Urban Green Space, Public Health, and Environmental Justice: The Challenge of Making Cities 36 'Just Green Enough' 37
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1. Introduction 40
The world’s cities are becoming increasingly congested and polluted (Blanco et al., 2009). Urban 41
green spaces provide a wide range of ecosystem services that could help combat many urban ills 42
and improve life for city dwellers—especially their health. Such green spaces are diverse: they 43
vary in size, vegetation cover, species richness, environmental quality, proximity to public 44
Being ‘just green enough’ demands a careful balancing act. It involves collaborations between 524
local government and disparate community groups, and a willingness of local stakeholders to 525
contest powerful real estate interests and mainstream environmental advocates. But the active 526
involvement of urban planners, designers, and ecologists is also essential, to articulate strategies 527
for urban green space that explicitly advance public health, environmental equity, and social 528
justice in urban communities. 529
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