Upkar Prakashan, AGRA-2 · famous art work of the people. Local music and dance reflects the cultural identity of the state. Apart from the fairs and festivals that are celebrated

Upkar Prakashan, AGRA-2

Shahid Ali

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Code No. 1934

Printed at : UPKAR PRAKASHAN (Printing Unit) Bye-pass, AGRA

Contents

1. Himachal At a Glance ....................................................................................................... 3–5

2. Geography of Himachal Pradesh ...................................................................................... 6–27— Physiographic Divisions ............................................................................................. 6— Drainage System ......................................................................................................... 6— Rivers in Himachal Pradesh ........................................................................................ 7— Soils............................................................................................................................. 8— Climate ........................................................................................................................ 9— Vegetation and Forest ................................................................................................. 11— Mineral Resources....................................................................................................... 14— Highest Mountain Peaks ............................................................................................. 16— Lakes ........................................................................................................................... 16— Famous Valley of Himachal Pradesh .......................................................................... 17— Famous Passes of Himachal Pradesh .......................................................................... 19— Famous Hot Springs .................................................................................................... 19— National Parks & Sanctuaries .................................................................................... 19— Wild Life Sanctuaries.................................................................................................. 20— Demography ................................................................................................................ 22

3. History of Himachal Pradesh .......................................................................................... 28–48— Pre History .............................................................................................................. 30

— Ancient Period......................................................................................................... 30

— Medieval Period ...................................................................................................... 35

— Modern Period......................................................................................................... 41

4. Polity and Administration ............................................................................................... 49–64

5. Economy of Himachal Pradesh ....................................................................................... 65–78— Agriculture .................................................................................................................. 65— Pastures ....................................................................................................................... 70— Industry and Tourism .................................................................................................. 71— Irrigation...................................................................................................................... 74— Power .......................................................................................................................... 74— Transport ..................................................................................................................... 75— Education .................................................................................................................... 76

( iv )

— Health .......................................................................................................................... 76— Welfare Schemes......................................................................................................... 77

6. Art and Culture................................................................................................................ 79–117

— Folk Music .............................................................................................................. 79— Music Instruments ....................................................................................................... 80— Folk Dances................................................................................................................. 80— Folk Theatres............................................................................................................... 81— Painting ....................................................................................................................... 82— Temple Architecture ................................................................................................... 83— Houses ......................................................................................................................... 85— Art and Crafts .............................................................................................................. 85— Culture......................................................................................................................... 86— Society......................................................................................................................... 86— Social Stratification (Castes)....................................................................................... 86— Socio-Economic Structure .......................................................................................... 87— Tribes .......................................................................................................................... 87— Customs and Traditions .............................................................................................. 89— Common Customs....................................................................................................... 94— Language ..................................................................................................................... 96— Religion ....................................................................................................................... 96— Pilgrimages.................................................................................................................. 97— Hindu Pilgrimages....................................................................................................... 97— Buddhist Pilgrimages .................................................................................................. 101— Christian Pilgrimages .................................................................................................. 106— Fairs and Festivals....................................................................................................... 107— Heritage and Tourist Places ........................................................................................ 111

7. Who’s Who of Himachal Pradesh................................................................................ 118–120

8. Current Affairs—Himachal Special ............................................................................. 121–148— H P Budget 2017-18 Main Highlight .......................................................................... 121— Himachal News ........................................................................................................... 124

● Multiple Choice Questions........................................................................................... 149–156

Himachal PradeshGeneral Knowledge

1

Himachal At a Glance

Himachal is famous for its abundant natural beauty. In1950, it was declared a UT; but after the State of HimachalPradesh Act, 1971, it emerged as the 18th state of the India.It has 12 districts with Shimla as the capital.

‘Hima’ means snow in Sanskrit and the literal meaningof the state’s name is ‘in the lap of Himalaya’ or ‘the land ofsnowy mountain’. It was named so by Acharya DiwakarDatt Sharma, one of the great Sanskrit scholars of HimachalPradesh.

Himachal has been ranked in the 4th group in terms ofper capita income among Indian states. The economy ofthe state is highly dependent on the three sources:hydroelectric power, tourism and agriculture.

Evolution of Himachal PradeshAfter India became free in 1947, there was a demand in

some quarters for the merger of Hill States with the eastPunjab, but it was met with vehement opposition from therulers and people. In what is Himachal Pradesh today, thePraja Mandal workers and the rulers had different opinionsabout the future of these hilly states. After a brief spell ofhectic negotiation, the rulers and the Praja Mandal workersdecided to inform Government of India to form a union ofthese small hill states with the name of Himachal Pradesh.In view of these events, the Central Government decidedto integrate all these principalities into a single unit to beadministered by Govt. of India through a Chief Commi-ssioner.

General ProfileHimachal Pradesh is a hilly state in Northern India. It covers 55,673 km2 of area.

4 | Himachal Pradesh G.K.

As a result, Himachal Pradesh came into being as apart ‘C’ State of the Indian Union on 15th April, 1948 byintegration of 31 big and small hill states. These stateswere Baghat, Bhajji, Baghal, Bija, Balsen, Bushehar, Chamba,Darkoti, Deloth-Dhadi, Dhami, Ghund, Jubbal, Khaneti,Kyarkoti, Kumarsain, Kunihar, Kuthar, Mandi, Madhan,Mahlog, Mangal, Kot (Ratesh), Keonthal, Rawinigarh,Sangri, Sirmaur, Suket, Tharoch & Theog. All these areasat that time constituted four districts namely: Chamba,Mahasu, Mandi and Sirmour with an area of 27,169 squarekilometers. In 1954, the neighboring State of Bilaspur wasintegrated with Himachal Pradesh there by adding one moredistrict having 1167 square kilometers. HP remained part ‘C’State of the Indian Union till 1956. In 1956, StatesReorganisation Commission recommended to abolish thecategorization of States as Part A, B, C etc. and thus, H.P.’sstatus as Union Territory continued till the conferment ofStatehood on Himachal dated 25th January, 1971.

In 1960, the bordering Chini tehsil of Mahasu districtwas carved out as a separate administrative unit and districtKinnaur was formed, raising the total number of districts tosix. On 1st November, 1966, the then Pubjab State wasreorganized with the formation of Haryana as a separateState and Kullu, Kangra, Shimla and some hilly areas ofHoshiarpur district and Dalhousie of Gurdaspur districtmerged into HP constituting four new districts viz. Kullu,Lahaul-Spiti, Kangra and Shimla. With this addition at thattime, HP comprised of ten districts, an area of 55,673 squarekilometres and a population of 28.12 lakh (according to1961 census).

On 1st September, 1972, two more districts viz. Hamirpurand Una were created by trifurcation of Kangra district.Also Mahasu and Shimla districts were reorganised asShimla and Solan districts on 1st September, 1972. In thisreorganization, Shimla town was reorganized with erstwhileMahasu district to form Shimla district.

Since 1st September, 1972, there had been no changein the administrative structure of HP. Presently, there are 12districts, 52 Sub-divisions, 75 tehsils and 34 Sub-tehsils inHimachal Pradesh. Himachal has 49 cities and towns. Thesmallest town is Naina Devi and the largest is Shimla witha total state population of 7,22,502. Urban population isonly 7.5% of the total state population. Most of thepopulation resides in rural areas.

Physical FeaturesHimachal Pradesh is almost wholly mountainous with

altitudes, ranging between 350 meters to over 7000 meters,above the mean sea level. It is located between Latitude30º22'40" N to 33º12'20" N and Longitude 75º45'55" E to79º04'20" E. It has a deeply dissected topography, complexgeological structure and a rich temperate flora in the sub-tropical latitudes.

Physiographically, the State can be divided into fivezones – viz. (i) Wet Sub-temperate zone, (ii) Humid Sub-temperate zone, (iii) Dry temperate-alpine High lands, (iv)

Humid Sub-tropical zone, and (v) Sub-Humid Sub-tropicalzone.

(i) Wet Sub-temperate zone comprises Palampur andDharamsala of Kangra District, Jogindernagar area of Mandidistrict and Dalhousie area of Chamba district,

(ii) Humid Sub-temperate zone comprises the districtsof Kullu, Shimla, parts of Mandi, Solan, chamba, Kangraand Sirmour,

(iii) Dry Temperate-Alpine High lands include majorparts of Lahaul-Spiti, Pangi and Kinnaur,

(iv) Humid Sub-tropical zone consists district Sirmaur,Bhattiyat valley of district Chamba, Nalagarh area of districtSolan, Dehragopipur and Nurpur areas of district Kangra,

(v) Sub-humid tropical zone Sirmour and Indora areaof district Kangra.

Five perennial rivers Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab andYamuna flow through its territory. The utility of these rivers,though, restricted considerably by the rugged and undu-lating terrain of the State, nevertheless, these rivers possessimmense potential for the generation of hydro-electricity.

The soils of Himachal Pradesh can be divided intonine groups on the basis of their development and physio-chemical properties. These groups are Alluvial soils, Brownhill soils, Brown earths, Brown forests soils, Grey woodedor Podozolic soils, Grey brown podzolic soils, Plansolicsoils, Humus and iron Podzols and Alpine humus mountainskeletal soils.

Climatically, Himachal Pradesh can be divided into threezones (i) The Outer Himalayas, (ii) The Inner Himalayasand (iii) Alpine zone. The first zone gets annual rainfallbetween 150 cms and 175 cms. In second it varies between75 cms to 100 cms and the Alpine zone remains under snowfor about five to six months. The average annual rainfall inthe State is about 160 cms. The climate varies between hotand humid in the valley areas to freezing cold in the homeof perpetual snow.

Economy of Himachal PradeshAgriculture contributes nearly about 45% to the net

state domestic product. It is the main source of income aswell as employment in Himachal. About 93% of the statepopulation depends directly upon agriculture. Fruitcultivation has also proved to be an economic boon to thestate. There are huge tracts of land suitable only for growingfruits. Fruit growing in the state is fetching over ̀ 3 billionannually. Special efforts are being made to promotecultivation of crops like olives, figs, hops, mushrooms,flowers, pistachio nuts, sarda melon and saffron. The statehas also earned the name of the Apple State of India.

Himachal is facing a number of difficulties in theadvancement of industries. Lack of means of dependabletransport and poor accessibility has been one of the majordrawbacks. Other problems faced by the state are the poor

Himachal Pradesh G.K. | 5

mineral resources, non-availability of infrastructure andcommunication facilities, shortage of capital and lack ofmodern skills. The only plus point of the state is the ampleavailability of electricity.

CultureHimachal Pradesh is a multireligional, multicultural as

well as multilingual state like other Indian states. Some ofthe most commonly spoken languages are Hindi, Punjabi,Pahari, Dogri, Mandiali, Kangri and Kinnauri. The Hinducommunities residing in Himachal include Brahmins,Rajputs, Kanaits, Rathis and Kolis. There are also tribalpopulation in the state which mainly comprises Gaddis,Kinnars, Gujjars, Pangwals and Lahulis.

Himachal is well known for its handicrafts. The carpets,leather works, shawls, paintings, metalware, woodwork andpaintings are worth appreciating. Pashmina shawl is one ofthe products, which is highly in demand not only inHimachal, but all over the country. Himachali caps are alsofamous art work of the people.

Local music and dance reflects the cultural identity ofthe state. Apart from the fairs and festivals that arecelebrated all over India, there are number of other fairsand festivals specific to Himachal Pradesh.

Himachal Pradesh FactsArea 55673 km2

Total population 6,864,602

Males 3,481,873

Females 3,382,729

Population density 123

Sex ratio 972

Rural population 6,176,050

Urban population 688,552

Scheduled Caste population 1,729,252

Scheduled Tribe population 392,126

Literacy rate 83.78%

Male literacy 90.83%

Female literacy 76.60%

Districts 12

Sub-divisions 55

Tehsils/ Sub-tehsils 145

Developmental blocks 78

Towns & Cities 59

Panchayats 3,226

Panchayat smities 77

Zila parishad 12

Urban local bodies 49

Nagar nigams 2

Nagar parishads 25

Nagar panchayats 23

Census villages 20,690

Inhabited villages 17,495

Health institutions 3,866

Educational institutions 17,000

Motorable roads 33,722 km

National highways 8

Identified hydroelectric 23,000.43 MW in five

potential rivers basins i.e. (Yamuna,Satluj, Beas, Ravi andChenab)

Potential harnessed 9,000 MW (approximate)

Food grain production 16.97 Lac M.T

Vegetable production 900,000 tonnes

Fruit production 8.19 Lac M.T

Per capita income 1,30,067 (2015-16)

State Symbols

Title Symbol

Animal Snowleopard,(Uncia uncia)

Bird JujuranaWesterntragopan(Tragopanmelanocephalus)

Flower PinkRhododendron

Tree Deodar &(Cedrus deodara)

• •

6 | Himachal Pradesh G.K.

2

Geography of Himachal PradeshThe state took its name Himachal from the Himalayas.

It is spread over an area 55,673 km² (ranks 18th in India)with a population of 68,64,602 (ranks 21st in India) and isbordered by Jammu and Kashmir on the north, Punjab onthe southwest, Haryana on the south, Uttarakhand andUttar Pradesh on the southeast and Tibet on the east. Itextends from 30º22' and 30º12' North latitude and 75º45' and79º4' East longitude.

The elevation of the state ranges from 350 metres toaround 7,000 metres above mean sea level. The regionextends from the Shivalik range of the mountains. There isa noticeable increase in elevation from west to east andfrom south to north. At an elevation of 6,816 m Reo Phurgyalis the highest mountain peak in the state of HimachalPradesh.

Physiographic DivisionsThe general physiographic divisions from south to

north are :

1. The Outer Himalayas (Shivaliks)2. The Lesser Himalayas (Central zone)

3. The Great Himalayas (Northern zone)

The Shivalik range consists of lower hills (600 mabove sea level). The hills of this region are composed of

highly unconsolidated deposits which results in a highrate of erosion and deforestation. It constitutes Hamirpur,Una, Bilaspur, the lower hilly areas of Kangra, and the lowerparts of Mandi, Solan & Sirmaur districts.

The lesser Himalayas are spotted by a gradualelevation towards the Dhauladhar and the Pir Panjal ranges.The rise is more rapid in the Shimla hills, to the south ofwhich lies the high peak of Chur-Chandni (3647 m) and toNorth of the river Sutlej, the rise is steady. It constitutessome parts of Sirmaur, Mandi and Chamba.

The Kangra valley is a longitudinal trough which is atthe foot of the Dhauladhar range. Dhauladhar (‘The WhitePeak’) has a mean elevation of nearly 4,550 metres. It has arapid rise of 3,600 m above the Kangra valley. The largestof the lesser Himalayan ranges, the Pir Panjal, branches offfrom the Greater Himalayan range near the bank of the Sutlej.A number of glaciers exist here and several passes lieacross the Pir Panjal. The Rohtang Pass (3,978 m) is one ofthese.

The Great Himalayan range (5,000 to 6,000 metres)runs along the eastern boundary and is slashed across bythe Sutlej. Some of the famous passes in this range areKangla (5,248 m), Bara Lacha (4,512 m), Parang (5,548 m)and Pin Parbati (4,802 m). It constitutes upper hilly areas ofKinnaur, Chamba and Lahaul-Spiti.

The Zanskar Range, the easternmost range, separatesKinnaur and Spiti from Tibet. It has peaks upto 6,500 mhigh. Some of the well-known peaks are Shilla (6132 m) andRiwo Phargyal (6816 m); these are among the highest peaksin this range. There are many glaciers over the Zaskar andthe Great Himalayan ranges.

Drainage SystemThe Himachal region has the unique distinction of

providing water to both the Indus and the Ganga basins.The water from Himachal Pradesh thus passes into theArabian Sea as well as into the Bay of Bengal. The maindrainage system of State of Himachal Pradesh consists of

Himachal Pradesh G.K. | 7

the Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, and Yamuna. These riversare perennial and are fed by snow and rainfall. They areprotected by an extensive cover of natural vegetation.

Rivers in Himachal PradeshThe Beas (Vedic-Arjikiya, Sanskrit-Vipasa) rises in the

Pir-Panjal range near Rohtang Pass of the Kullu Hills, at anelevation of about 4,000 metres and flows for 256 km inHimachal Pradesh before debouching into the plains ofMirtha1. The river is joined by a number of tributaries, theimportant being the Parbati, the Hurla, the Sainj, the Tirthan,the Uhl, the Suketi, the Luni, the Awa, the Banganga, theManuni, The Gaj and the Chaki; northern and easternaffluents are perennial and snowfed while the southerntributaries are seasonal. The Beas pierces the Dhauladharrange at Larji. After Larji the gradient becomes gentler. Southof Larji, the Beas crosses through a steep defile belowMandi and then passes on to undulating tract of SouthKangra.The maximum mean monthly discharge at Mandiduring August is 129,574 cusecs and minimum meanmonthly discharge during January is 3,266 cusecs. Floodsoccur in the Beas usually in late August or September.However, the measure of a river’s efficiency lies in itsaverage flow which for the Beas is 61,302 cusecs in Augustand 4,641 cusecs in January. The average slope gradient is1 in 40 for the first 120 km from its source, which decreases1 to 5000 near the plains. There appears to be a likelihoodof water parting between the Beas and the Sutlej to recedefurther to the north as Sutlej flows in a deeper channel atcorresponding points.

The Chandrabhaga or Chenab is the mightiest riversystem (in terms of volume of water) of the state. It has itssource in the glacier of the Middle Himalayas. At thissource, the river is in two streams, the Chandra and theBhaga. The two streams have their origin on the oppositesides of Bara Lacha at an elevation of about 4,900 metre.After their confluence at Tandi, the Chandra and Bhagaflow jointly as one stream and from this confluence theserivers acquire the name of Chenab. Chenab flows 122kilometres (76 mi) in Himachal before entering Kashmir.

Throughout this water length, the valley of the river is astructural trough formed by the Great Himalaya and Pir-Panjal range. Its average slope gradiet is 1 to 150. TheChandra passes through a totally barren land. The Chenabwith a lenghth of 1,200 km has a catchment area of about61,000 sq km, out which 7,500 sq km lie in the state ofHimachal Pardesh.

River Vedic Name

Jhelum Vitasta

Chenab Asikni

Ravi Purushani

Beas Vipasa

Sutlej Shatudri

Ghaggar Drishadvati

Indus Sindhu

The Ravi, also known as Parushani and Iravati in theVadic and Sanskrit literature, has its origin in Bara Bangahalas a joint stream formed by the glacier-fed Bhadal and Tant-Gari and escapes from the area through a precipitous gorge.The river is about 158 kilometres (98 mi) long and has acatchment area of nearly 5,451 square kilometres (2,105 sqmi). Chamba lies on its right bank. Only a few kilometresfrom Chamba town, the Ravi River descends from Himalayasin the form of a water fall.

The Sutlej, known as Shatudri in Vedic and Shatadruin Sanskrit literature, has its origin in the distant highlandsof Tibet. It is an antecedent river which has its origin in theTrans-Himalayan region. It flows for a distance of 400 kmalmost parallel to the Indus and then cuts right throughboth the Zanskar Range and the Great Himalaya “thusforming perhaps the most striking physical feature of theregion.” It crosses the Indo-Tibetan border near Shipki La.The Spiti River joins it at this point from the north, beyondwhich it flows in north westernly direction in Himachal. Itthen emerges from the mountains at Bhakra gorge wherethe Gobind Sagar is impounded behind the Bhakra Dam.The Trans-Himalayan portion of its basin receives but littlerain. The upper catchment of about 50,140 sq km is locatedabove the permanent snow-line at an elevation of 4,500 m.The total catchment area up to Bhakra Dam in HimachalPradesh is about 20,000 sq km. The bed slope from its sourceup to Bilaspur is on average 1 in 150.

The Yamuna, one of the most important tributaries ofthe Ganga, rises in Yamunotri glacier in Uttarkashi district,Uttarakhand. Its total catchment area in Himachal Pradeshis 2,320 square kilometres (900 sq mi). The river after flowingin a south-westernly direction up to Banog turns westwardbefore it is met by its principal tributary, the Tons at Kalsiabout 48 km from Dehradun. The Giri and the Bata join theYamuna upstream and downstream of Paonta respectively.It leaves the territory of Himachal Pardesh near TajewalaHeadworks and enters the Great Plains of India – making aboundary line between Haryana and Uttar Pardesh.

8 | Himachal Pradesh G.K.

The forms of the basins of the five rivers of theHimachal and Kashmir Himlaya are unlike those of the Kumaon and Nepal Himalaya in a sense that they areasymmetrical and oblique to the great Himalayan alignment.It is due to the fact that in Himachal, the alignments of theLesser Ranges are oblique to the Great Himalayas.

The Spiti river has its source far north on the easternslopes of mountain ranges which run between Lahul andSpiti. The river is formed at the base of the Kunzam Rangeby the confluence of Kunzam La Togpo and the streamsKabzima and Pinglung. The river follows a long meanderingcourse interlaced here and there by spurs that project fromthe foot of the hills on both sides.

The length of the river within Spiti on the south-eastis about 130 km. It continues in Kinnaur district upto aplace known as Khab where it joins the Sutlej. The mainstream of the Spiti River, which is fed by the glaciers, is aperennial one, while some of the tributary streams disappearin the loose morain at the feet of the plateaus.

Parbati River is a river in Himachal Pradesh that flowsinto the Beas River at Bhuntar, some 10 km south of Kullu.It rises from the Man Talai Glacier below the Pin Parbatipass and flows in a gradual curve from north-northwestto west-southwest, past the important temple town ofManikaran.

The river Giri is an important tributary of the YamunaRiver. It drains a part of South-Eastern Himachal Pradesh.The Giri or Giriganga as it is famous in the Jubbal, Rohruhills that rises from Kupar peak just above Jubbal townafter flowing through the heart of Shimla hills, flows downin the South-Eastern direction and divides the Sirmaurdistrict into equal parts that are known as Cis-Giri andTrans-Giri region and joins Yamuna upstream of Paontabelow Mokkampur. The river Ashni joins Giri near Sadhupul(Chail) while river Jalal which originates from Dharthi rangesadjoining Pachhad joins it at Dadahu from the right side.The water from the Giri River is led through a tunnel to thepower house of Girinagar and after that it is led into theBata river.

The Pabbar River is a tributary of the Tones Riverconnecting to it from the west. The Pabbar River is thewesternmost river that drains east to the Ganges. The SutlejRiver is the next watershed over and is the easternmostriver that drains west into the Indus.

Malung is a glacial torrent in Lahaul— Spiti rising atan elevation of about 6,094 m and flows north-west to joinTsarap Lingti or Tsarap Chu which later joins the ZanskarRiver flowing into the Indus.

SoilsThe naturally occurring thin layer of unconsolidated

material on the earth surface that has been influenced byparent material, relief, climate, in addition to physical,chemical, biological agents to produce a medium, suitable

for the growth of the plants is called soil. Soil exhibitsdifferences in their physical and chemical characteristicsas well as in their capability for growing crops. Soils of anyregion maybe classified into (i) zonal, in broad altitudinalzones or belts; (ii) Inter-zonal, resulting from special parentrocks (e.g. Limestone, sandstone); (iii) Azonal or immaturesoils, new material on which soil forming processes havenot had sufficient time to work. The agriculture departmentof Himachal Pradesh has classified the soils into five types,taking into consideration the climate and the altitude.

Low Hill Soil ZoneThis Hill Soil Zone extends up to an elevation of about

900 metre. In this zone the soils are shallow and embeddedwith stone. Soil reaction is almost neutral; carbon tonitrogen ratio is 10:1. The nutrient status varies from low tomedium. These soils are devoted mainly to rice, barley,wheat, and Maize and fodder crops. Leeching of soils onthe slopes is the main problem in this zone.

Mid-Hill Soil ZoneThe Mid-Hill Soil Zone extends between 900 metre to

1500 metre.The soils are loam to clayey-loam in texture withgrayish brown colour and are well drained. The carbon tonitrogen ratio varies between 10:12. These soils are neutralto slightly acidic in reaction. Available nitrogen andphosphate are medium, whereas, available potash variesfrom low to medium.

High Hill Soil ZoneThe High Hill Soil Zone extends between 1500-2000 m

and has developed on steep slopes with good drainage.Soil texture ranges from silty loam to clayey loam with darkbrown colour. On favourable aspects, the soils are quitedeep. The organic matter is also high. The available nitrogenvaries from medium to high, whereas, potash is medium.The soil react ion is acidic to neutral. Soil erosion is a seriousproblem in this zone.

Mountain Soil ZoneThe Mountain Soil Zone extends between 2100-3000

m. These soils are shallower in depth than the high hillsoils. Soil texture is silty loam to loam, with dark brown tolight brown colour Soil reaction is slightly to moderatelyacidic. The oragnic content varies from 2.5 to 3.5. Theavailable nutrient status is medium to high. These soils arenot very much used for the agricultural purposes.

The Dry Hill Soil ZoneThese soils are found in Lahaul and Spiti, Pangi and

Kinnaur where monsoon rainfall is scanty. These are hightextured soils with a variable fertility. The organic contentand humus in the soil is low.

However, people take a utilitrain view of soils, distin-guishing between lands lying close to or at a distance from

Himachal Pradesh G.K. | 9

the homestead and between lands that yield one or twocrops. Middleton in his final report on Land RevenueSettlenwnt has classified soils as under:

1. Chaih—Irrigated by wells.

2. Nehri 1—land irrigated by gravity Canals which areperennial in character.

3. Nehri Il—Land receiving water from non-perennialsource or only at times.

4. Nad—Inundated land, growing only rice crop.

5. Dofasli—Unirrigated—Bearing two crops a year orthree in two years.

6. Ek-Fasli (unirrigated)—This type of land producesonly one crop in a year.

7. Bahnd Banjar —It bears one crop in two to threeyears. The per acre yield is generally poor.

8. Kharetar—These are hay-fields and pastures

The soils of the State can also be broadly divided intonine groups on the basis of their development and physico-chemical properties. These are:

(i) Alluvial soils,

(ii) Brown hill soil,

(iii) Brown earth,

(iv) Brown forests soils,

(v) Grey wooded or podzolic soils,

(vi) Grey brown podzolic soils,

(vii) Planosolic soils,

(viii) Humus and iron podzols

(ix) Alpine humus mountain speletal soils.

The soils found in the districts of Mandi, Kangra,Bilaspur, Una, Solan, Hamirpur and Sirmaur are generallybrown, alluvial and grey brown podzolic; Kullu and Shimlahave greywooded podzolic soils, while Kinnaur, Lahauland Spiti and some parts of Chamba district have humusmountain speletal soils.

Soil ConservationIn the State of Himachal Pradesh, soils are adversely

affected by soil-erosion. The removal of organic matterand plant nutrients from the top layer and its leaching bythe agents of denudation is called soil erosion. Uncheckederosion gradually leads to poverty of soil and underminesthe strength of land. Although there are a number ofphysical and socio-cultural factors responsible for thedepletion and erosion of soil. Aspect of slope, precipitation,weather, temperature, wind, snowfall human action (over-grazing, defective crop-rotation) all combine to accentuatethe rate of soil erosion. In order to overcome the problemof soil depletion and soil erosion, some of the importantdevices which need to be adopted are as under.

The soil erosion can be checked by maintenance of aneffective vegetation cover, contour ploughing, rotation ofcrops, terracing, composting, planting of cover crops,creation of wind breaks (trees, fences), pipe-drainage toprevent gullying, damning of gullies or filling them withbrushwood.

ClimateThe State of Himachal Pradesh is situated in the sub-

tropical latitudes but owing to high altitudes, orographicfeatures and snow covered peaks, the climate of the greaterpart of the state resembles to that of mountainous andContinental parts of the temperate latitudes. There arehowever, microlevel variations in the general prevailingweather and climatic conditions of the state. In the absenceof reliable temperature, pressure and precipitation data, ascientific and detailed study of climate at the microlevelis not possible and such an attempt may be an overgeneralization.

There is a huge variation in the climatic conditions ofHimachal Pradesh due to variation in altitude (450–6500metres). The climate varies from hot and sub-humid tropical(450–900 metres) in the southern low tracts to warm andtemperate (900–1800 metres), cool and temperate (1900–2400 metres) and cold glacial and alpine (2400–4800 metres)in the northern and eastern high elevated mountain ranges.

The climate of Himachal Pradesh is closely controlledby the relief features. The Himalayas check the northwardmovement of the Summer Monsoon resulting into adequatequantity of rainfall during the season of general rains. Thehigh ranges of Himalayas also check the southwardpenetration of the cold and dry polar air during the winterseason.

The microlevel variations in the climatic conditions maybe mainly attributed to the marked variations in altitudes. Infact the altitude of the state varies from 450 m in Una to 6500in Lahaul and Spiti.

In general, the climate of the State of Himachal Pradeshis distinguished from the Plains of Punjab by a shorter andless severe hot summer, a somewhat higher precipitationand colder and more prolonged winter. The two main climaticcharacteristics of the region are the seasonal rhythm of theweather and the vertical zoning. The climatic conditionsvary from hot and sub-tropical humid in the southern partsof low elevation to temperate, cold alpine and glacial in thenorthern and eastern high mountains. Lahaul and Spitiexperience drier conditions as they are almost cut off byhigh mountain ranges and fall in the rain-shadow areas.

The climate of Himachal Pradesh is characterisedwith marked seasonality. In fact, the genesis of weatherof Himachal Pradesh is intrinsically linked with themechanisms of weather in the Indian sub-continent ingeneral. On the basis of temperature and precipitation per

10 | Himachal Pradesh G.K.

year; Himachal Pradesh is divisible into the following threeseasons.

1. Hyund or cold weather season (October-February),

2. Taundi or summer season (March-June), and

3. Barsat or season of general rains (July-September).

The Cold Season (Hyund/ Syala)In the state of Himachal Pradesh, the winter season

lasts from October to February. The mean maximum andmean minimum temperatures in October at Shimla readabout 18ºC and 5ºC respectively. In November there is afurther decrease in temperature, the mean minimum being2ºC and mean maximum 10ºC. January is the coldest in whichthe mean maximum and mean minimum reads 7ºC and 1ºCrespectively. Occurrence of heavy snow, espe-cially in thedistricts of Lahaul-Spiti, Kinnaur, Kulu and areas of Manaliin winters is a common phenomenon. Though snowfallvisually occurs in December and January, the high reachesmay record snowing as early as the last week of Octoberand as late as the last week of March. Usually snow doesnot lie for any length of time below 2,000 m altitude, andrarely falls below 1,250m. At elevation of about 3,000 m theaverage snowfall is about 3 metre and lasts for about fourmonths (November to February or December to March).Occasionally, the snowfall becomes very heavy.

In the winter season rainfall is received mainly from thewestern disturbances or the temperate cyclones. The rainfallgenerated by these cyclones is fairly widespread. Thereare however, variations in the rainfall recorded at the differentrainfall recording stations of the state. The wet spells aregenerally followed by cold waves. The frequency of thesewestern depressions is about two in November, four to fiveduring December to April and about two in May. The winterrainfall decreases from west to east, for example, it is 425 mmat Dharamshala, 345 mm at Kalpa, 260 mm at Nahan and 190mm at Keylong.

The rainfall resulting from the western disturbances isof great significance for the standing Rabi crops, especiallyin the unirrigated Barani tracts. Gaddis, the semi-nomadicshepherds who follow the seasonal rythm, descend from themountain slopes to the valley areas which remain relativelywarm or less cold.

The Summer Season (Taundi)At the advent of March, the weather starts improving

and the temperature start ascending steadily. The severityof winters is considered to be over by the first week of March.The mean monthly temperatures in March at Shimla andMandi read 10.2ºC and 17.5ºC. Dharamsala also records about17ºC as the mean monthly temperature in March. The upwardtrend in temperature continues. The maximum temperaturesare recorded in the month of June. In this month the weatherbecomes sultry and uncomfortable in the low lying areas ofthe south Hiimachal Pradesh. The relative humidity declines

and the weather become hot and dusty and a fine hazehangs over the hills after mid-day obliterating the distantview. In the valley bottom and southern low tracts peoplefeel oppression of the heat. It is somewhat mitigated bythe winds, up the valley in the day and down the mountainslopes at night. Occasional duststorms accompanied by lightshowers also bring some relief. During this part of the year,snow melts and swells the hill tor-rents which help in fillingthe irrigation channels or Kuhls. Very little rainfall isrecorded during the summer season, the weather remainsclear. It is the period when large number of tourists fromthe Punjab Plains and other parts of the country crowd thehill stations of Himachal Pradesh.

The Rainy Season (Barsat) July to September is the season of general rains in

Himachal Pradesh. After the scorching heat of May andJune when a low pressure area develops over the Sutlej-Ganga Plains, the summer monsoons set in. At the advent ofsummer monsoon the temperature starts falling. The capitalof the state (Shimla) records about 18.3°C as the meanmonthly temperature against 19.8ºC in June. The tempera-ture at Dharamsala decreases from 27.5ºC inJune to 24.3º C in July. The valley regions and the lowaltitudinal areas are however, often hot and sultry. Withthe onset of rains, the whole panorama of landscapebecomes fresh and lush green.

So far as the distribution of rainfall during the seasonof general rains is concerned, it increases from the plains tothe hills according to relief and aspect. Beyond Kulu, therainfall again decreases due to the rain shadow effecttowards Lahaul, Spiti and Kinnaur. Spiti is the driest part ofthe state which records only 40 c.m. of rainfall during therainy season and 50 c.m. annually. Almost all the rainfallrecording stations of the state record between 70 to 80 percent of the total annual rainfall during theseason of generalrain. In the rainy season, snow melts at a faster rate andswells the hill torrents which help in filling the irrigationchannels or Kuhls, In sheltered aspects, Nala glaciers maybe found as low as 3000 m. The snow lies longer on thenorthern slopes.

The spring and autumn seasons are very delightful inHimachal Pradesh, especially in the hilly and mountainousareas. In autumn season, weather is cool, invigorating andexhilarating during late September & October. The springseason from Mid February to March is short in duration buthighly pleasant. The air is cool and fresh and flowers ofmyriad hues adorn the valleys, forest slopes and mountainmeadows. The agricultural activities which remain suspen-ded during the Iong winter season are again started in Marchand April. Ploughing of paddy and maize fields commences,and sowing of rice nursery and vegetables also take placein April. In the month of April the Gaddis semishepherdsstart moving towards the summer pastures along with theirflocks of sheep and goats.

Himachal Pradesh G.K. | 11

Vegetation and Forest

All vegetation not deliberately organi-sed or included infarming activity, and includes ‘wild’ or semi-natural vegetation.The State of Himachal Pradesh is well endowed in naturalvegetation and forest wealth. Its natural vegetation has greatdiversity in flora, ranging from the lush green summerpastures to evergreen conifers on the gentle slopes of highaltitudes, and from scrub jungles of the foothills to thedeciduous forests on the southern slopes of the Siwaliksand the Lesser Himalayas. The natural vegetation of thestate has, however, undergone a drastic transformation.Large tracts of forests have been removed through conti-nuous felling of trees to bring more area under plough andpastures.

The latitudinal sprawls, altitudinal extent, climatic andpedological conditions of Himachal Pradesh have resultedinto highly diversified flora. The forest covers an area ofabout 25,235 sq km or about 41 per cent of the total area ofthe state. Forests are however, not uniformly distributedthroughout the state. The high concentration of forestsoccurs in the higher hills and interior remote valleys wherethe density of population is sparse. In the areas of loweraltitudes and areas of easy accessibility, the forests havebeen cleared and the land has been brought undercultivation, pastures, and human establishments. Most ofthe forests of Himachal Pradesh belong to the government.

The natural vegetation has a climatic altiludinal zona-tion :

S.No. Vegetation zone Altitudes in metres

1. Tropical and Sub-tropical 300-1525

2. Temperate 1526-3650

3. Alpine 3651-4650

In Himachal Pradesh 3,950 m is the tree line and beyondthis height is found the alpine pastures and grasses growin the summer season up to 4600 m. On the basis of speciesand general characteristics of vegetation the forests ofHimachal Pradesh may be classified into :

(a) the Coniferous forests, e.g., Deodar, Kail, Pines(Chir),Spruce, Fir, Silver Fir and other conifer species,(b) the broad-leaved or Deciduous forests, e.g., Sal, Ban,Mohru, Kharsu, Walnut, Maple, Horse-chestnut, Poplar,Alder, Semal, Tun, Shisham.. ‘

The distribution of different species follows a fairlyregular alitudinal stratification except where the micro-climatic changes due to aspect and exposure and localchanges in rocks and soils brings in vegetation inversion,i.e., the associations which otherwise occur at higher altitudesare found projected in the lower zone and vice versa.Generally, the sequence of important timber species growingin the region is Sal, Chir, Deodar. Kail, spruce, and silver fir.Other broad-leaved species grow in small pockets in suitablesites.

The Vegetation of Himachal Pradesh can be classifiedmainly into nine types as under:

1. The Dry Alpine Forests

The Dry alpine forests are found in Lahaul, Kinnaur,and Pangi mainly. These forests are very open xerophytics.The main species of dry alpine forests are juniper, artemesia,lonicera, Cotoneaster etc. Extensive alpine pastures are thecharacteristic feature of this forest type which supports largeflocks of sheep and goats during summer months. Thesealpine pastures remain covered with snow from October toApril or May, depending on the altitude and location.

2. The Moist Alpine Scrub Forests

These forests are met with above the limit of tree growthand consist of evergreen scrub growth forming dense coverin patches broken by grass in between. The main speciesof moist alpine scrub forests are Salix, Lonicera, Viburnumetc. Herbceous flora is fairly rich and medicinal herbs suchas aconite, Dhoop, Karru occur in these areas.

3. The Sub-Alpine forests

The sub-alpine forests are found above the altitude of3,500 m and below the moist alpine scrub zone. Kharsu andBetulautlis, the typical trees of this zone, are however,

Particulars and Shivalik Zone Mid-Hill Zone High hill zone Trance HimalayanCharacteristics Zone

Altitude Up to 800 m 800m-1,600m 1,600m-2,700m 2,700m-3,600m

Type of area Valley areas and Hilly and mountain Alpine zone Lahaul Spiti andfoothills ranges Kinnaur range

Climatic Sub tropical Slightly warm Cool temperature Dry and extremelyconditions temperature with humidity cold conditions

Rainfall in mm. 1,500 1,500-3,000 1,000-1,500 500% of total geo- 30% 10% 25% 35%graphical area

Himachal Pradesh General KnowledgeAt a Glance

Publisher : Upkar Prakashan Author : Shahid Ali

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