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University of Groningen
Motivation: how to tame the elephant in the classroom?Prince, Arnout
IMPORTANT NOTE: You are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's PDF) if you wish to cite fromit. Please check the document version below.
Document VersionPublisher's PDF, also known as Version of record
Publication date:2014
Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database
Citation for published version (APA):Prince, A. (2014). Motivation: how to tame the elephant in the classroom? A study aimed at understandingmotivation and testing the effect of interventions on the motivation of students in pre-vocational education.s.n.
CopyrightOther than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of theauthor(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons).
Take-down policyIf you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediatelyand investigate your claim.
Downloaded from the University of Groningen/UMCG research database (Pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. For technical reasons thenumber of authors shown on this cover page is limited to 10 maximum.
Motivation: How to tame the elephant in the classroom?
A study aimed at understanding motivation and testing the effect of
interventions on the motivation of students in pre-vocational education.
Arnout Prince
This research project was funded by the Programme of Educational Research of the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (Project number NWO-PROO 411-07-123).
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system of any nature or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the author, or when appropriate, the publishers of the papers.
Self relates to the mechanism mentioned under motivational aim. It comprises
outcomes reflecting change in the perception of academic self, for example
self-efficacy, competence, and performance-orientation. Task perception, also
relating to the before mentioned mechanism, comprises outcomes reflecting
change in the perception of the task or the learning environment, for example
interest, intrinsic motivation, mastery, and enjoyment. Behavior comprises
outcomes such as strategy use and on-task behavior, but also performance.
The last outcome variable, well-being, comprises more general well-being,
which does not directly relate to the academic task, for example, self-esteem,
self-worth, or belonging. Behavior and well-being are expected to add
information on the way motivation is conceptualized in the particular study
and therefore are included in the classification scheme. The scoring of this
category was based on the reported outcomes and the instruments used to
measure them. In order to see what trend can be spotted in the outcomes, they
are reported as either positive (+), no difference (0) or negative (-). Using this
global indication of outcome trend makes comparison between the outcomes
of the studies possible in spite of the fact that they were reported in different
fashions depending on the research design used. Positive (+) can refer to either
a gain over time, a higher outcome in the experimental group than in the
control group or an group X time interaction effect. Accordingly, no difference
(0) shows no difference over time, no difference between experimental and
control group, and no interaction effect. A negative outcome (-) refers to either
a decrease over time, a lower score for the experimental group, or a negative
interaction effect.
Motivation in educational interventions
72
Results
Characteristics of the review sampleArticles with participants residing in different parts of the world were
found, including United States, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Research
performed with participants from the United States was highly represented
in the selected articles (21 studies), making up more than half of the included
articles. For other countries, a maximum of two investigations was found, with
only one for most of the countries. In total, 22 countries were represented. An
in depth inspection showed no obvious connection between the country the
research was set in and other variables.
Regarding the research designs and methodology used in the articles,
also a great diversity was found. Different research designs were used,
including case studies, repeated measures with or without a control group,
and Solomon four group designs. Also different methodologies were used.
A small overrepresentation of quantitative methods was found, but also
qualitative methods, and mixed or multi-methods were used by multiple
studies. In addition, a diversity in outcomes as well as ways in which outcomes
were presented was discovered. The presentation of outcomes ranges from
clustered bar charts without numbers reported to effect sizes. In qualitative
studies the outcomes ranged from mentioning a gain to triangulation.
Furthermore, the amount of participants included ranged from 1 to 2000.
Most of the studies used between 35 and 200 participants. Five studies were
implemented school-wide, 20 at teacher level and 23 at student level. Some
obvious relationships between design characteristics and other variables were
found (e.g. cognitive interventions having a higher incidence of quantitative
methods). No further remarkable results were found in this section.
Categorization of interventions: Characteristics The results of the categorization of the articles on intervention characteristics
Chapter 3
73
and outcome variables are represented in Table 1. A full overview of the
categorization of the interventions can be found in Appendix B. When looking
at the separate categories, the intervention focus shows one quarter of the studies
focusing on instruction, one quarter on learning contents and half on both. In
the motivation aim category, a slightly higher occurrence of task perception can
be noted, being scored as motivational aim in half of the studies against one
quarter academic self, and one quarter both. The intervention characteristics
contents and instruction show no predominance of one method of determining
contents or instruction. However, a strong tendency towards social approaches
is notable. In 39 studies an interaction or group instruction format is used, 28 of
which use group instruction. In 38 studies dynamical or constructed contents
are used, 24 of which use constructed contents. Regarding the outcome
variable, a pre-dominance of combinations of motivational variables can be
noticed. Only task perception is used slightly more frequent as a singular
outcome. Concerning the effectiveness of interventions, only three articles can
be spotted that do not report any positive outcomes of the interventions. One
of these studies reports no positive outcomes (Kim & Wei, 2011), one reports
negative outcomes (Davis, Chang, Andrzejewski, & Poirier, 2010), and one
is written to explicitly illustrate the negative effects of a specific intervention
(Thompson, Madhuri, & Taylor, 2008).
When looking at the combination of interventional focus and
intervention contents and instruction, it can be noted that the interventions
focusing on solely instruction, and the interventions focusing on both
instruction and learning contents, all use a social form of instruction and a
dynamic or constructed form of contents. The interventions focusing solely
on learning contents all appear to use standard instruction and static contents.
A look at the combination of aim and outcome shows that two out of three of
the studies have an outcome in line with the motivational aim, and one out
of three does not. Of the studies that have an outcome in line with their aim,
half of the studies shows a positive outcome, about one quarter shows a half
Motivation in educational interventions
74
Component Characteristic Occurrence
No. %
Focus Instruction 13 27%
Learning Contents 9 19%
Instruction and Learning Contents 26 54%
Aim Academic Self 10 21%
Task Perception 26 54%
Academic Self and Task Perception 12 25%
Contents Static 10 21%
Dynamic 8 17%
Constructed 11 23%
Static and Dynamic 6 12%
Dynamic and Constructed 4 8%
Static and Dynamic and Constructed 8 17%
Static and Constructed 1 2%
Instruction Standard 9 19%
Interaction 6 13%
Group 8 17%
Standard and Interaction 5 10%
Interaction and Group 9 19%
Standard and Group 5 10%
Standard and Interaction and Group 6 13%
Outcome Academic Self 9 19%
Task Perception 12 25%
Academic Self and Task Perception 18 38%
Other 9 19%
Note. No. = number; percentages may add up to more than 100% due to rounding off; a full overview of the characteristics of the interventions is presented in Appendix B; Outcome: Other includes Behavior, Well-being and Unknown.
Table 1
Characteristics of the interventions
Chapter 3
75
positive outcome and one quarter a non-positive outcome.
Categorization of interventions: Theories and outcomesA look at the intervention outcomes from the perspective of the different
theoretical approaches, based on the categorization described in the
introduction of this chapter, is represented in Table 2. Noticeable results in
Table 2 are that the interventions categorized as cognitive oriented, being
cognitive and social cognitive interventions, report more academic self
outcomes, while the contingency and social cultural interventions report
more task perception outcomes. This is in line with their motivational aim.
Furthermore, the interventions categorized as social, being social cognitive
and social cultural, use more often a combination of motivation outcomes than
the interventions in the other two categories, that are more learning oriented.
Regarding the effectiveness of the different categories of interventions, the
contingency interventions and the social cultural interventions are slightly
more effective in terms of achieving positive outcomes than the cognitive and
social cognitive interventions.
Table 2
Outcomes and effectiveness based on theoretical classification
Motivational Approach
Academic Self
Task Perception
Academic Self and Task Perception Other Total
No. Eff. No. Eff. No. Eff. No. Eff. No. Eff.
Contingence 1 100% 3 50% 1 50% 2 100% 7 71%
Cognitive 2 25% 0 2 75% 1 100% 5 60%
Social Cognitive 3 33% 1 100% 5 40% 3 100% 12 58%
Social Cultural 3 67% 8 94% 10 70% 3 100% 24 81%
Note. No. = number; Eff. = effectiveness: percentage of interventions in that category showing a positive outcome; Other includes Behavior, Well-being and Unknown.
Motivation in educational interventions
76
Categorization of interventions: Effective intervention combinationsWhen looking at the combinations of motivational aim, intervention
characteristics and outcome trends, three noteworthy combinations can
be noted. First, studies that combine an aim at producing an academic-
self outcome, static contents and standard instruction, and show a positive
outcome consistent with the motivational aim of the study (Cleary, Platten, &
The consultant helps the consultee identifying and analyzing the problem
with a client, and devising, implementing an evaluating a plan to solve the
problem. In the case of implementation in education, the consultee can be
a teacher and the client a student with learning or behavioral difficulties.
The problem is approached from a behavior perspective and with a holistic
view on the person and the environment. The solution can entail changes in
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
100
the environment as well as in the person. The model consists of four stages,
that is Problem identification, Problem analysis, Plan implementation, Problem
evaluation. In the first two stages, the consultant and consultee collaborate to
identify the problem and gather relevant information about the client and the
environment. The consultant asks questions and consults with knowledge or
experience. The consultee provides information and decides what the plan
will be. In the third and fourth stage the plan is implemented and monitored
by the consultee and evaluated after which is decided what the next step will
be.
BC has been shown to effectively improve student performance,
to reduce disruptive behavior, and to improve attendance (Shapiro and
Kratochwill, 2000). Especially when a step-by-step plan is used systematically,
adherence is shown to the treatment plan, and the evaluation is done by
comparing with baseline behavior, the effects on student behavior change are
significant (MacLeod, Jones, Somers & Havey, 2001). By effectively solving
students’ problems with learning and improving students’ learning behavior,
students’ self-efficacy is boosted as well as their enjoyment of the learning
task. No differences between boys and girls were found in the effects of
consultation (Dunson, Hughes, & Jackson, 1994).
Additionally to having beneficial effects for students, BC has
been shown to be effective to contribute to teacher professionalization.
Consultation has been shown to increase innovative and experimental
teaching (Alinder, 1994), increase teacher skills and satisfaction (Kaiser,
Rosenfield, & Gravois, 2009), improve the teachers’ ability to meet the needs
of special needs of students (Seppälä & Leskelä-Ranta, 2006), decrease
teacher stress (Tunnecliffe, Leach, & Tunnecliffe, 1986), and be facilitive to
developing a learning organization that is able to cope with the challenges
of inclusive education (Nevin, Thousand, Paolucci-Whitcomb, & Villa, 1990).
Additionally, shared vision and increased teacher communication, which
are organizational level outcomes of consultation, have been shown to
Chapter 4
101
significantly influence both student achievement (Lomos, Hofman, & Bosker,
2011), and student motivation (Opdenakker & Van Damme, 2007). However,
to effectively change teacher behavior, school-wide implementation, support
from the school administrator, and on-the-job training are needed (Van den
Berg & Vandenberghe & Sleegers, 1999).
Integration of BC and SRSD With the SRSD intervention, students experiencing learning difficulties are
taught strategies. Using these strategies, the students can gain control over
their performance on academic tasks, boost their perceptions of ability, and
direct their effort towards the task. The change brought forth by SRSD remains,
however, local. It remains limited to the individual student to whom the specific
strategies are taught, and to the teacher teaching the strategies to the student.
The integrated version of BC and SRSD was constructed to strive towards
change that is durable, school-wide and on the multiple aspects of motivation.
This intervention adopted the holistic approach to students’ learning problems
of BC, and integrated the specific approach to students’ learning problems of
SRSD in it. Literature has shown that, in order to achieve an effect on learning
behavior, both specific and general knowledge and skills have to be included
in the intervention (Campione, 1986). In this format, the learning behavior of
the individual student is analyzed taking the whole learning environment
in regard. By changing the learning environment and teaching tailor-made
self-regulation strategies, the learning behavior is boosted. This effect is
expected to transfer to other students and other subject domains, since the
intervention strives towards an optimization of the learning environment and
is implemented school-wide. Additionally, this approach has its effects on
the teachers. The teachers are constantly stimulated to professionalize. Not
only do they have to reflect on the effectiveness of their interaction with the
student, but also they consult each other and communicate in order to achieve
a school-wide vision on solving students learning problems. The parts of
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
102
BC and SRSD that were expected to influence student cognition, motivation
and behavior were integrated. This combination of a specific and a holistic
approach, as well as the combination of intervening on teacher level as well
as on organizational level, is expected to lead to a durable change in student
motivation and self-regulation.
The present studyThe aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of these interventions on
the development of motivation and self-regulation of the students of pre-
vocational education, since these students are most at risk for academic
failure and a downward spiral of motivation. The development of motivation
and self-regulation over a time span of 18 months of students with whom
the interventions were implemented were compared to the development of
motivation and self-regulation of a group of students without a treatment. The
expectations based on the literature were that task orientation, self-efficacy
and self-regulation would decline over time. Both ego-enhancing and ego-
defeating orientation were expected to incline over time. The interventions,
however, were expected to have a positive effect on the motivation and
self-regulation of the students, based on the explicit connection of learning,
self-regulation and motivation. Therefore, it was expected that the decline
in motivation and self-regulation amongst the students receiving one of
the interventions would be less steep then the decline of the students not
receiving either of the interventions. Over time, this effect would be most
noticeable for the students for whom BC was combined with SRSD. For the
SRSD intervention, a short term positive effect is expected on task orientation,
self-efficacy, and self-regulation, as well as less incline in ego orientation. This
effect is, however, not expected to last. For the BC and SRSD combination
condition, effects on short term are expected on all variables, although most
of the effects are expected on the long term. Additionally, gender differences
will be included in the model.
Chapter 4
103
Method
ParticipantsThe participants were 279 first grade students of 4 schools of secondary
education in four distinct medium sized towns in the north of the Netherlands.
They all attended pre-vocational secondary education. The distribution boy
girl was 47% boys, 53% girls.
ProcedureA pre-post-follow up experimental control group design was used. Two
treatment groups were used, each consisting of students of a separate
school, and a control group, consisting of students of two other schools.
It was opted to include the students of two schools in order to increase
representativeness of the control group. The numbers of participants per
condition per measurement are represented in Table 1. The interventions
were implemented between the pretest and the posttest. Both interventions
were implemented using three two hour training sessions and a follow-up
session. The participants of the SRSD intervention training sessions were
the Dutch and English language teachers of the students participating in the
study. The participants of the combined intervention training sessions were
all teachers of the students participating in the study as well as the school
administrators, since the behavioral consultation intervention demanded
school-wide implementation. In both interventions, the intervention contents
based on SRSD were adapted in such a fashion that the domain specific writing
strategies of the intervention were replaced by general self-regulated learning
strategies. The behavioral consultation in the combined condition was aimed
at optimizing student remedial care. Trainers were the first author assisted by
a colleague. The school administrators had communicated that participation of
training sessions was mandatory. The teachers were made responsible for the
judgment of when the training contents could be properly implemented in the
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
104
classroom. Implementation fidelity was judged during the follow-up coaching
session in the form of teacher appraisals of the interventions applicability and
change of teacher vision in line with the interventions. The student outcomes
were measured at three time points: a before-implementation pre-test, an
after-implementation post-test, and a one year later follow-up test. Not all
student participants completed the test on every measurement moment, but
they completed the tests on at least two moments. A schematic representation
of the research design can be found in Table 2.
SRSD training and coaching sessions The first training session dealt with theory of self-regulation and analysis
of student self-regulating behavior. The second training session dealt with
devising a plan and teaching a self-regulation strategy to a student. The
teachers were handed a strategy teaching planning scheme consistent with
the phases of SRSD. During the third training session the whole model was
practiced with three cases. During the follow-up session the teachers had
the opportunity to ask questions. Additionally this created the possibility to,
when needed, re-activate the intervention. For a complete overview of the
SRSD training and coaching sessions the reader is referred to Appendix A.
BC and SRSD combined training and coaching sessions The first training session dealt with problem identification and problem
analysis. The teachers were handed an analysis scheme consistent with
the stages of behavioral consultation and received training in consultation.
The second training session dealt with devising a plan and teaching a self-
regulation strategy to a student. The teachers were handed a strategy
teaching planning scheme consistent with the phases of SRSD. The third
training session dealt with in-class implementation and evaluation. The
follow-up session was held with only the school administrator and dealt
with independent implementation of the BC and SRSD combined approach
Chapter 4
105
in order to work towards ownership by the school. For a complete overview
of the BC and SRSD combined training and coaching sessions the reader is
referred to Appendix B.
Table 1
Number of participants per measurement
Pre-test Post-test Follow-up Unique participants*
SRSD 72 56 42 75
BC & SRSD 73 33 53 60
Control 139 139 126 144
Note. *Participants that completed the test at at least two measurement moments.
Table 2
Design of the study
Time Start 1 month 3 months
15 months
Activity Students Pre-test Post-test
Follow-up test
Teachers* Training Classroom Implementation
Coaching Classroom Implementation
Note. *Intervention conditions.
InstrumentsAll instruments were self-report questionnaires and were answered either
electronically or paper-pencil, depending on the schools’ facilities. The items
were scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “totally disagree” to “totally
agree”. For example items and scale reliabilities, see Appendix C.
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
106
Goal Orientations - The Goal Orientation Questionnaire (Seegers,
Van Putten, & De Brabander, 2002) was used. The Task orientation subscale
consisted of five items concerning the extent to which the students enjoyed
new and challenging tasks. The Ego-enhancing orientation subscale consisted
of six items concerning the extent to which the students enjoy outperforming
their classmates. The Ego-defeating orientation subscales consisted of six
items, concerning the extent to which the students are afraid to show failure. In
this study, the reliabilities across the three measurement moments were α=.83
for the Task orientation subscale, α=.85 for the Ego-enhancing orientation
subscale, and α=.87 for the Ego-defeating orientation subscale.
Self-Efficacy - The Academic Self-Efficacy scale of Patterns of Adaptive
Learning Scales (Midgley et al., 2000) was used. The Self-efficacy scale
consisted of six items concerning the extent to which the students expected
to perform well on their school work. In this study, the reliability of the self-
efficacy scale across the three measurement moments was α=.83.
Self-Regulation - The Self-Regulation scale of the MSLQ (Pintrich & de
Groot, 1990) was used, expanded by two items from the Reappraisal factor
of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross & John, 2003). The self-
regulation scale concerned the metacognitive regulation of study tasks. One
item was left out after the reliability analysis, leaving six self-regulation items.
The emotion regulation items concerned the reappraisal of negative emotions
and stress. In total, the self-regulation scale as used in this study consisted of
eight items and showed a reliability of α=.78 across the three measurement
moments.
AnalysisThe data was analyzed using multilevel longitudinal (growth) analysis. Three
levels were entered into the model in order to do justice to the multilevel
structure of the data. Level one is the measurement level, level two is the
student level, and level three is the class level. An advantage of multilevel
Chapter 4
107
analysis is that it is capable of handling missing data. Gender was entered
as a dummy variable, with boys receiving the score “0” and girls receiving
the score”1”. The condition variable was entered with dummy variable for
the experimental conditions, so that the control conditions functioned as the
comparison. For each variable, models with linear and quadratic effects were
tested against models with only linear time effects, and models with gender
were tested against models without gender, in order to see if there were any
gender effects. The models were tested against each other using likelihood
ratio tests (Snijders & Bosker, 2012).
After establishing what the best growth model for the data was, the
parameters of the models were tested using Wald’s t-test. Since the power
to detect relevant effects was hindered by the rather small sample sizes of
the experimental conditions (Cohen, 1988), and educational interventions are
known to have on average small to medium effect sizes (.40; Hattie, 2012),
next to an alpha of .05 an alpha of .10 was used. The test was performed
two-sided, since no clearly defined hypotheses could be formulated and the
analysis of the effects would be merely explorative.
Results
Treatment fidelityIn the case of the SRSD-only condition, the teachers indicated during the
follow-up coaching session that they had implemented the intervention in
the classroom. The teachers judged the interventions as useful and suitable
for classroom application. The teachers could offer multiple examples of how
they had implemented the intervention and how it had worked out.
In the case of the BC and SRSD combined condition, the school
administrator indicated during the follow-up coaching session that the
approach was found to be especially useful when used for group-wise
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
108
evaluation of the students and solving student problems during group-wise
evaluations by the teachers of student performance. This was indeed in line
with the core ideas behind the approach. Moreover, they indicated that the
school was working to further develop the approach to make it even more
suitable to their demands, indicating that the school had developed ownership
of the approach.
DescriptivesThe means of the variables and their standard deviations at the different time
points is can be found in Table 3. A visual representation of the means can be
found in Appendix D.
Multilevel growth curve modelsThe results of the multilevel growth curve analysis are displayed in Table 4.
Task orientationThe linear model was found to be the best fitting model for the data. No
significant differences in the deviance tests were found for models including
quadratic parameters, therefore the simplest model was decided to be the best.
No differences in intercepts were found between the conditions. A
significant decline in task orientation was found for the control condition
(p<.05). For the SRSD condition, the development of task orientation did not
differ significantly from the control condition. For the SRSD and BC condition,
the decline in task orientation over time was significantly less than the decline
in task orientation of the control condition (p<.10). The development of task
orientation is represented in Figure 1.
Chapter 4
109
Table 3
The means of the variables
Condition Pre-test Post-test Follow-up
M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Task Orientation
SRSD 3.92 (.69) 3.88 (.74) 3.50 (.71)
BC and SRSD 3.76 (.76) 3.77 (.74) 3.62 (.57)
Control 3.82 (.66) 3.65 (.78) 3.44 (.83)
Ego Enhancing
SRSD 3.02 (.98) 3.11 (.80) 2.72 (.80)
BC and SRSD 2.96 (.96) 2.97 (1.09) 3.07 (.82)
Control 3.06 (.91) 2.91 (.82) 2.81 (.89)
Ego Defeating
SRSD 1.87 (.78) 2.22 (1.05) 1.68 (.88)
BC and SRSD 1.92 (.71) 1.97 (.82) 2.17 (.80)
Control 2.06 (.86) 2.16 (.84) 1.95 (.85)
Self-Efficacy
SRSD 3.82 (.69) 3.78 (.71) 3.79 (.64)
BC and SRSD 3.84 (.75) 3.88 (.65) 3.76 (.59)
Control 3.71 (.76) 3.69 (.75) 3.68 (.73)
Self-Regulation
SRSD 3.37 (.67) 3.42 (.77) 2.64 (.74)
BC and SRSD 3.22 (.87) 3.18 (.72) 2.78 (.60)
Control 3.30 (.77) 3.15 (.73) 2.79 (.58)
An effect of gender was found. A significant difference was found
in deviance scores (p<.05) for a model including a fixed effect for gender as
well as fixed effects for interaction of condition with effect as compared to a
model without including gender as a predictor. The girls scored lower than
the boys in the control condition (p<.01) In the SRSD condition, this effect
was not found. The model showed a significant interaction between the SRSD
condition and gender (p<.05). This effect undid the difference between boys
and girls observed in the control condition. The SRSD and BC condition was
also nearly significantly different (p<.15) from the control condition with
regard to the gender effect. No interaction effect of gender and task orientation
score over time was found for any of the conditions.
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
110
Fig. 1. Graph of the growth curves of task orientation. Time is displayed in months since the start of the intervention. Gender differences were not included in this representation.
Ego-Enhancing orientation The model combining linear and quadratic effects was found to be the best
fitting model for the data. No significant differences in the deviance tests were
found between the linear and quadratic models. However, some quadratic
parameters were found to be significant, and therefore it was decided that the
combination model showed the best fit for the data.
No differences in intercepts were found between the conditions. A
significant linear decline of ego-enhancing orientation was found for the
control condition (p<.05). The quadratic effect was not significant, although
being not far from significance (p<.15), suggesting that a trend of slightly less
decline in ego-enhancing in the long term. The linear effect of ego-enhancing
orientation of the SRSD condition approached significance in difference from
the control condition (p<.15), suggesting a stable to slightly upwards trend in
the short term. The quadratic effect of ego-enhancing orientation showed an
Chapter 4
3,2
3,4
3,6
3,8
4
4,2
0 5 10 15
task
ori
enta
tion
time
SRSD
BC and SRSD
Control
111
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
accelerated decline compared to the control condition (p<.10). The decline of
ego-enhancing orientation of the SRSD and BC condition was significantly less
than the decline observed for the control condition (p<.05). The development
of ego-enhancing orientation is represented in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. Graph of the growth curves of ego-enhancing orientation. Time is displayed in months since the start of the intervention. Gender differences were not included in this representation.
An effect of gender was found. A significant difference was found
in deviance scores (p<.0001) for a model including a fixed effect for gender
as compared to a model without including gender as a predictor. The girls
scored lower than the boys all the conditions. (p<.0001). No interaction effect
of gender and ego-enhancing orientation score over time was found for any of
the conditions.
Ego-Defeating orientation The model combining linear and quadratic effects was found to be the best
fitting model for the data. No significant differences in the deviance tests were
2,6
2,8
3
3,2
3,4
3,6
0 5 10 15
ego-
enha
ncin
g or
ient
atio
n
time
SRSD
BC and SRSD
Control
112
Chapter 4
Tabl
e 4
Mul
tilev
el g
row
th c
urve
mod
els
Task
Ori
enta
tion
Ego
Enha
ncin
gEg
o D
efea
ting
Self
-Effi
cacy
Self
-Reg
ulat
ion
(N=7
32)
(N=7
32)
(N=7
32)
(N=7
30)
(N=7
25)
Coe
ffici
ent
SEC
oeffi
cien
tSE
Coe
ffici
ent
SEC
oeffi
cien
tSE
Coe
ffici
ent
SE
Fixe
d Eff
ects
Inte
rcep
t3.
9518
1**
.100
143.
2679
8**
.111
822.
0658
6**
.120
533.
8531
5**
.068
943.
3851
6**
.089
90
Tim
e-.0
2315
**.0
0521
-.046
21**
.022
92.0
3715
.024
61-.0
0356
.005
13-.0
5025
**.0
2325
Tim
e2.0
0203
.001
41-.0
0306
**.0
0152
.001
08.0
0144
SRSD
-.0
3473
.178
81-.0
6393
.182
53-.1
8060
.120
53.0
7489
.096
99.0
6300
.147
20
SRSD
and
BC
-.210
55.1
6290
-.105
64.1
6671
-.162
64.1
1527
.096
42.0
9929
-.076
51.1
3761
SRSD
*tim
e-.0
0679
.010
17.0
7160
.045
44.0
8488
*.0
4872
.005
02.0
0986
.052
74.0
4399
SRSD
*tim
e2-.0
0504
*.0
0288
-.005
87**
.003
10-.0
0448
.002
79
SRSD
and
BC
*tim
e.0
1540
*.0
0930
.022
09**
.010
26.0
2295
**.0
0917
-.003
40.0
0918
.074
43.0
5048
SRSD
and
BC
*tim
e2-.0
0495
.003
26
Gen
der
-.296
72**
.098
87-.3
9857
**.0
8558
-.241
21**
.069
62-.1
6116
**.0
6555
Gen
der*
SRSD
.336
59**
.169
56
Gen
der*
SRSD
and
BC
.265
76.1
7164
Not
e. *p
<.10
**p<
.05
113
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
Tabl
e 4
(co
ntin
ued)
Task
Ori
enta
tion
Ego
Enha
ncin
gEg
o D
efea
ting
Self
-Effi
cacy
Self
-Reg
ulat
ion
Coe
ffici
ent
SEC
oeffi
cien
tSE
Coe
ffici
ent
SEC
oeffi
cien
tSE
Coe
ffici
ent
SE
Rand
om E
ffect
s
Leve
l 3 v
aria
nce
Inte
rcep
t.0
3529
.020
76.0
4823
8.0
2897
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.023
70.0
1435
Tim
e.0
0008
.000
09.0
0006
.000
10.0
0000
.000
00.0
0010
.000
07.0
0000
.000
00
Inte
rcep
t*Ti
me
-.001
40.0
0112
-.000
15.0
0130
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
Leve
l 2 v
aria
nce
Inte
rcep
t.2
3303
.038
32.4
8238
.059
21.4
0085
.055
01.3
1107
.040
71.3
3767
.044
33
Tim
e.0
0033
.000
30.0
0104
.000
37.0
0070
.000
39.0
0024
.000
26.0
0083
.000
30
Inte
rcep
t*Ti
me
-.000
03.0
0260
-.009
64.0
0366
-.005
12.0
0356
-.004
89.0
0247
-.012
39.0
0297
Leve
l 1 v
aria
nce
Res
idua
l.2
4611
.023
60.2
5395
.024
51.3
0487
.029
29.2
1077
.020
33.2
1694
.021
09
Dev
ianc
e14
62.8
9940
1652
.361
0416
66.1
4724
1383
.372
5014
06.3
6089
Not
e. *p
<.10
**p<
.05
114
found between the linear and quadratic models. However, some quadratic
parameters were found to be significant, and therefore it was decided that
the combination model showed the best fit for the data. No differences in
intercepts were found between the conditions. No significant incline or decline
in linear development of ego-defeating orientation was found for the control
condition, although the linear incline approached significance (p<.15). The
quadratic effect was significant (p<.05), suggesting a trend of slight incline
at first, turning into a decline at the long term. The same trend was visible
for SRSD condition, with even more explicit developments in the trends;
the linear development of ego-defeating orientation showed an significantly
higher incline compared to the control condition (p<.10), and the quadratic
slope showed significantly higher decline (p<.05). The incline of the linear
development of ego-defeating orientation for the SRSD and BC condition was
significantly higher than the development of the control condition (p<.05). No
effect of gender was found. The development of ego-defeating orientation is
represented in Figure 3.
Self-efficacy The linear model was found to be the best fitting model for the data. No
significant differences in the deviance tests were found for models including
quadratic parameters, therefore the simplest model was decided to be the best.
No effect over time was found and no effect of the conditions, neither
on the intercept, nor on the development of the self-efficacy scores. The
scores stay stable over time in all conditions. An effect of gender was found.
A significant difference was found in deviance scores (p<.0001) for a model
including a fixed effect for gender as compared to a model without including
gender as a predictor. The girls scored lower than the boys all the conditions.
(p<.001). No interaction effect of gender and self-efficacy score over time
was found for any of the conditions. The development of self-efficacy is
represented in Figure 4.
Chapter 4
115
1,4
1,6
1,8
2
2,2
2,4
0 5 10 15
ego-
defe
atin
g or
ient
atio
n
time
SRSD
BC and SRSD
Control
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
Fig. 3. Graph of the growth curves of ego-defeating orientation. Time is displayed in months since the start of the intervention.
Fig. 4. Graph of the growth curves of self-efficacy. Time is displayed in months since the start of the intervention. Gender differences were not included in this representation.
3,4
3,6
3,8
4
4,2
4,4
0 5 10 15
self
-eff
icac
y
time
SRSD
BC and SRSD
Control
116
Self-regulation The quadratic model was found to be the best fitting model for the data. No
significant differences in the deviance tests were found between the linear
and quadratic models. However, some quadratic parameters were found to
be approaching significance. Also an inspection of the means suggested that
the quadratic model would be the best approach to the data. Therefore it was
decided that the quadratic model showed the best fit for the data.
No differences in intercepts were found between the conditions. A
significant decline of self-regulation was found for the control condition (p<.05).
The quadratic effect was not significant. None of the intervention conditions
differed significantly from the control condition, neither in the linear nor the
quadratic development. Some coefficients approached significance though,
suggesting some trends. The quadratic development of self-regulation of the
SRSD condition approached significance, suggesting a trend of more decline
in self-regulation than the control condition (p<.15) on the long term. Both the
linear and the quadratic effect on the development of self-regulation of the
SRSD and BC condition were approaching significance, suggesting a trend of
less decline compared to the control condition on the short term (p<.15), and
more decline on the long term (p<.15). The development of self-regulation is
represented in Figure 5.
An effect of gender was found. A significant difference was found
in deviance scores (p<.05) for a model including a fixed effect for gender
as compared to a model without including gender as a predictor. The girls
scored lower than the boys in all the conditions. (p<.01). No interaction
effect of gender and self-regulation score over time was found for any of the
conditions.
Chapter 4
117
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
Fig.5. Graph of the growth curves of self-regulation. Time is displayed in months since the start of the intervention. Gender differences were not included in this representation.
Conclusion
The control group showed the expected decline over time for the variables
task orientation and self-regulation. For ego-defeating orientation a trend in
the expected direction was visible, as well as the development in the long
term. Contrary to the expectations, ego-enhancing orientation showed a
decline, and the self-efficacy scores remained stable over time.
The SRSD group showed similar developmental patterns with
reference to the control group. Only on ego-enhancing orientation, this
condition showed a trend that differed from the development observed in the
control condition. Instead of a stabilization or decline on the short term, the
SRSD group showed a trend towards an incline. On the long term, however,
a decline in ego-enhancing orientation was observed for this group. For ego-
defeating orientation, a development comparable to the control condition was
observed. The effects were more explicit, however. Self-regulation showed
a trend of less decline on the short term as compared to the control group.
2,60
2,80
3,00
3,20
3,40
3,60
0 5 10 15
self
-reg
ulat
ion
time
SRSD
BC and SRSD
Control
118
Neither an effect nor a trend of the intervention on task orientation was found
however.
The BC and SRSD combined group showed, however, different
developmental patterns. On the goal orientation variables it showed linear
development over time and significant less decline than the control group,
or in the case of ego-defeating orientation an incline. The development of the
goal orientation variables differed significantly from the other conditions,
however, due to the linear development of the goal orientation scores of the
BC and SRSD combined condition as opposed to the quadratic development
of the scores of the other conditions, the magnitude of these effects becomes
dramatic on the long term. On self-efficacy and self-regulation, the scores of
the SRSD combined with BC group did not differ significantly from the control
group. For self-regulation, however, the effects both on the long term and on
the short term approached significance. This shows at least less stability in
the development of the scores over time compared to the control condition,
suggesting some influence of the intervention.
Concluding, the expectations on the effect of the BC and SRSD
combined intervention on task orientation have been confirmed. Regarding
both ego-enhancing and ego-defeating orientation, clear effects have been
found for the BC and SRSD combined condition, but not in the direction that
was expected. Furthermore, the expected effect of the interventions on self-
regulation was not found.
The results revealed some differences between boys and girls. On
ego-enhancing orientation, self-efficacy and self-regulation the boys scored
higher than the girls. On task orientation, this effect was also found for the
control group. The SRSD intervention group did not show this effect, and
the BC and SRSD combined group also differed nearly significantly from the
control group concerning the gender effect. No further interaction effects of
gender and time or gender and intervention was found.
Chapter 4
119
Discussion
The SRSD and BC combined intervention did deliver an effect on motivation.
Not only did the students show less decline over time in motivation, also was
it a long term effect. Effects of educational interventions noticeable after more
than one year are hard to achieve. The addition of behavioral consultation
seems to be the determining factor for long term effect in this case, since the
SRSD only condition shows a strong drop on the motivation scores on the long
term. The construction of a coherent vision and a system that helps a school
to work independently on quality of teaching seems to be the ingredients for
long term effect on student motivation. Vision and a stimulating environment
were shown to be productive for the teacher professionalization (Geijsel,
Seegers, Stoel, & Krüger, 2009).
The SRSD only condition, on the other hand, did not lead to an effect
on motivation, especially not on the long term. The strong effects on writing
skills and outcomes, as reported in literature, apparently do not show transfer
to motivation outcomes. Some short term effects on the ego orientations were
noticeable. Ego orientation, however, has been shown to be detrimental to
academic performance when it is not combined with task orientation (Pintrich,
2000b). Furthermore, on the long term, the students in this condition show an
alarming drop in the motivation and self-regulation scores, suggesting a trend
towards a-motivation. One explanation for this developmental pattern could
be that the students were made more conscious of their performance due to
the intervention, which leads to some effects on ego involvement in the short
run, but to detrimental effects on the long run. The same explanation can be
given from a teacher’s perspective. The teachers can be made more conscious
of the students’ self-regulation, focusing more on the students than on the
task. Remarkable, however, is that the students in the SRSD condition, did
not show an effect on self-regulation, even though this was the main focus
of this intervention. A trend on the short term was visible however. This is
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
120
in line with the conclusion of Campione (1987), that maintaining effects on
metacognitive self-regulation is hard to achieve. Apparently, the strategy
instruction has not led to the students durably perceiving themselves as self-
regulated learners.
The fact that the scores on self-efficacy remain stable over time
and over the conditions is remarkable, since self-efficacy is often reported
as changing over time and dependable on the environment and academic
success. One explanation for this stable pattern is the fact that in this study
general self-efficacy was measured. It appears to be that the students have
reported a general sense of efficacy. The measurement of self-efficacy was
intended to be answered as a snapshot of their current perception of efficacy,
albeit over all subjects. Possibly, either the students have not recognized the
questions as concerning their perception of efficacy at that time, or was it too
difficult for the students to make an assessment of their current efficacy.
This study has shown that only teaching self-regulation strategies is
not sufficient to achieve a durable change in students’ motivation. In order
to achieve both a stop in the declining trend of motivation, and make this
effect durable, changes should be made not only in the teacher-student
interaction and teaching of strategies, but also in the learning environment
in a more broad scope (Wang & Eccles, 2013). The same has been shown in
the review study on interventions aiming at a change in students’ motivation
in chapter three. The school organization should collaboratively change their
vision on problem-solving and offering tailor-made teachings. By actively
communicating and consulting each-other, the teachers can create a learning
environment to offers room for both explicit and constructive teaching, but
also enables the teacher to professionalize constantly (Lam et al, 2010). This
school environment can be a match for challenges in the area of student
motivation or other areas.
Chapter 4
121
Limitations and future researchSome limitations can be noted in the research design. A random assignment
of schools to conditions was not performed, hence the requirements of an
experimental design were not fully met. Since participation by schools could
not be top down regulated in the Netherlands, a convenience sampling design
was used. This raises the chance of school variables being accountable for
the found effect instead of the intervention (Shadish, Cook & Campbell,
2002). However, research in naturalistic settings cannot completely rule out
facilitating factors in the, in this case, participating schools (Togerson &
Togerson, 2007). Moreover, since especially in the SRSD and BC combination
condition a school-wide involvement was demanded, here the presence of
possible facilitating factors within a school will not so much have led to a false
effect, but rather to faster implementation (Brophy, 1977). Therefore it may
limit the generalizability of the findings on speed or quality of implementation,
but an effect on motivation can still be noticed. Another limitation was the
limited number of schools per condition and limited number of participants
per condition. Although the numbers were sufficient to do statistical testing,
the small effect sizes demanded for larger samples. This was anticipated by
enlarging the alpha to .10. However, for future research, more schools and
participants per condition and random assignment would be preferable.
Longitudinal studies of motivation in secondary school are growing
but still relatively scarce (Wigfield et al., 2006), making it hard to formulate
precise hypotheses about the developmental patterns of student motivation
over time. This, additionally, still leads to questions about especially the
drop in motivation and self-regulation observed on the long term. Additional
longitudinal studies are needed to gather knowledge on the trajectories of
student motivation and self-regulation over a long time. Additionally, the
literature did not provide clear expectations concerning the influence of
gender on motivation and self-regulation. In this study, however, gender
effects were found on ego-enhancing orientation, self-efficacy and self-
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
122
regulation. In all these cases, girls scored lower than boys. Especially in the
case of self-efficacy, this can be alarming, since self-efficacy has been shown
to influence other motivation variables as well as self-regulation. On the
other hand, Gjesme (1973, 1983) has stated that girls tend to systematically
underestimate their subjective probability of success. In other words, girls are
harsher on themselves then boys when it comes to expectancies of success.
Even though literature suggested that the interventions could remediate
this underestimation, the results do not show they do. Nor was any other
interaction between gender and time found. It would be useful if the effects of
gender on different aspects of motivation, as well as the consequences of these
effects over time were further explored in research.
This study has shown that, even among students with a higher risk
of learning and behavioral difficulties, measures can be taken that affect
their motivation over a long time. Training of teachers to teach strategies, to
consult each other, to stimulate constructive vision on students with learning
difficulties, and to professionalize themselves has shown to be productive for
student motivation.
Chapter 4
123
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
App
endi
x A
Tabl
e A
.1
Det
aile
d de
scri
ptio
n of
the
SRSD
trai
ning
ses
sion
s
SRSD
Tra
inin
g Se
ssio
n 1:
Sel
f-re
gula
tion
beha
vior
ana
lysi
s
Con
tent
sFo
rmat
Exer
cise
1:
“Wha
t is
self-
regu
latio
n?”
- The
ory
self-
regu
latio
n - E
xam
ples
of s
elf-r
egul
atin
g be
havi
or- H
ow to
teac
h se
lf-re
gula
tion
-Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n -G
roup
dis
cuss
ion
Exer
cise
2:
“The
SRS
D m
odel
”- S
RSD
six
sta
ge m
odel
- S
RSD
key
cha
ract
eris
tics
-Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n
Exer
cise
3:
“Tal
king
to s
tude
nts
abou
t use
d st
rate
gies
”- I
nter
view
ing
skill
s fo
r int
erac
tion
with
stu
dent
- I
dent
ifica
tion
of n
eede
d in
form
atio
n fo
r ana
lysi
s-S
mal
l gro
up ro
le-p
layi
ng e
xerc
ise
Hom
ewor
k:
“The
Cas
e of
an
indi
vidu
al s
tude
nt -
part
1.”
- Ana
lysi
s of
sel
f-reg
ulat
ing
beha
vior
of a
n in
divi
dual
stu
dent
usi
ng th
ree
cate
gory
form
: de
sire
d se
lf-re
gula
tion
(str
ateg
y), c
urre
nt
beha
vior
, how
to te
ach
-Fill
in fo
rm
124
Chapter 4
Tabl
e A
.1 (c
ontin
ued)
SRSD
Tra
inin
g Se
ssio
n 2:
The
stu
dent
Con
tent
sFo
rmat
Exer
cise
1:
“Fro
m a
naly
sis
to p
roce
dure
”- T
heor
y se
lf-re
gula
tion
proc
edur
e - T
rans
latio
n of
ana
lysi
s ou
tcom
es to
pro
cedu
re
usin
g th
ree
char
acte
rist
ics:
str
uctu
re, t
ailo
r-m
ade,
st
ep-w
ise.
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - S
mal
l gro
up e
xerc
ise
Exer
cise
2:
“Tea
chin
g a
self-
regu
latio
n st
rate
gy”
- The
ory
teac
hing
a s
elf-r
egul
atio
n st
rate
gy- T
rans
latio
n pr
oced
ure
to te
achi
ng b
ehav
ior
usin
g fo
ur c
ateg
ory
form
: dis
cuss
, mod
el,
mem
oriz
e, p
ract
ice
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - S
mal
l gro
up e
xerc
ise
Hom
ewor
k:“T
he C
ase
of a
n in
divi
dual
stu
dent
- pa
rt 2
.”- E
labo
ratio
n of
indi
vidu
al s
tude
nt c
ase
proc
edur
e us
ing
four
cat
egor
y fo
rm: d
iscu
ss,
mod
el, m
emor
ize,
pra
ctic
e- C
onte
mpl
ate
teac
her r
ole
in th
e pr
oces
s
- Fill
in fo
rm
125
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
Tabl
e A
.1 (c
ontin
ued)
SRSD
Tra
inin
g Se
ssio
n 3:
The
teac
her
Con
tent
sFo
rmat
Exer
cise
1:
“Thr
ee c
ases
of s
tude
nts”
- Thr
ee fi
ctio
nal c
ases
of s
tude
nts
are
disc
usse
d- F
our s
teps
: ana
lysi
s, p
roce
dure
, how
to te
ach,
ho
w to
impl
emen
t in
clas
sroo
m te
achi
ng
- Gro
up e
xerc
ise
SRSD
Tra
inin
g Se
ssio
n 4:
Coa
chin
g
Con
tent
sFo
rmat
Exer
cise
1:
“Q&
A”
- Exp
erie
nces
- Str
engt
hs a
nd w
eakn
esse
s of
the
appr
oach
- Que
stio
ns
- Int
erac
tive
grou
p co
nver
satio
n- Q
uest
ions
and
ans
wer
s
126
Chapter 4
App
endi
x B
Tabl
e B.
1
Det
aile
d de
scri
ptio
n of
the
BC a
nd S
RSD
com
bine
d tr
aini
ng s
essi
ons
BC a
nd S
RSD
com
bine
d tr
aini
ng S
essi
on 1
: Stu
dent
pro
blem
ana
lysi
s
Con
tent
sFo
rmat
Exer
cise
1:
“Mod
el a
nd v
isio
n”- B
C m
odel
: goa
ls, f
our s
tage
s, m
ain
char
acte
rist
ics
- Int
ervi
ewin
g te
chni
ques
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - V
ideo
mod
elin
g th
e co
nsul
tatio
n in
terv
iew
- Gro
up d
iscu
ssio
n
Exer
cise
2:
“Pro
blem
iden
tifica
tion”
- Fir
st tw
o st
eps
of th
e m
odel
: Pro
blem
id
entifi
catio
n an
d pr
oble
m a
naly
sis
- Ide
ntifi
catio
n m
ism
atch
con
sulte
e an
d cl
ient
- Con
stru
ctio
n of
ideo
grap
hica
l the
ory
of c
lient
pr
oble
m
- Sm
all g
roup
role
-pla
ying
exe
rcis
e
Hom
ewor
k:
“The
Cas
e of
an
indi
vidu
al s
tude
nt -
part
1.”
- A
naly
sis
of p
robl
em o
f an
indi
vidu
al s
tude
nt
usin
g se
ven
cate
gory
form
: pro
blem
des
crip
tion;
go
als
not a
ccom
plis
hed
(bot
h pr
oble
m
iden
tifica
tion)
; tas
k; c
urre
nt ta
sk b
ehav
ior;
inst
ruct
ion;
des
ired
str
ateg
y (a
ll fo
ur p
robl
em
anal
ysis
); m
ism
atch
and
ideo
grap
hica
l the
ory
- Fill
in fo
rm
127
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
Tabl
e B.
1 (c
ontin
ued)
BC a
nd S
RSD
com
bine
d tr
aini
ng S
essi
on 2
: The
stu
dent
Con
tent
sFo
rmat
Exer
cise
1:
“Fro
m a
naly
sis
to p
roce
dure
”- T
heor
y se
lf-re
gula
tion
- SRS
D k
ey c
hara
cter
istic
s- T
rans
latio
n of
ana
lysi
s ou
tcom
es to
pro
cedu
re
usin
g th
ree
char
acte
rist
ics:
str
uctu
re, t
ailo
r-m
ade,
st
ep-w
ise.
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - S
mal
l gro
up e
xerc
ise
Exer
cise
2:
“Tea
chin
g a
self-
regu
latio
n st
rate
gy”
- The
ory
teac
hing
a s
elf-r
egul
atio
n st
rate
gy- S
RSD
six
sta
ge m
odel
- T
rans
latio
n pr
oced
ure
to te
achi
ng b
ehav
ior
usin
g fo
ur c
ateg
ory
form
: dis
cuss
, mod
el,
mem
oriz
e, p
ract
ice
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - S
mal
l gro
up e
xerc
ise
Hom
ewor
k:
“The
Cas
e of
an
indi
vidu
al s
tude
nt -
part
2.”
- E
labo
ratio
n of
indi
vidu
al s
tude
nt c
ase
proc
edur
e us
ing
four
cat
egor
y fo
rm: d
iscu
ss,
mod
el, m
emor
ize,
pra
ctic
e- C
onte
mpl
ate
teac
her r
ole
in th
e pr
oces
s
- Fill
in fo
rm
128
Chapter 4
Tabl
e B.
1 (c
ontin
ued)
BC a
nd S
RSD
com
bine
d tr
aini
ng s
essi
on 3
: The
teac
her
Con
tent
sFo
rmat
Exer
cise
1:
“Cas
e of
a s
tude
nt”
- The
who
le p
roce
ss o
f pro
blem
iden
tifica
tion,
pr
oble
m a
naly
sis,
des
ign
of p
roce
dure
, tea
chin
g th
e st
rate
gy
- Vid
eo- G
roup
dis
cuss
ion
Exer
cise
2:
“Lon
g te
rm &
cla
ss-w
ide”
- Tea
chin
g st
rate
gies
for t
he lo
ng te
rm a
nd c
lass
-w
ide
use
of th
e ap
proa
ch- T
rain
er p
rovi
ding
info
rmat
ion
- Gro
up d
iscu
ssio
n
BC a
nd S
RSD
com
bine
d tr
aini
ng s
essi
on 4
: Tow
ards
ow
ners
hip
Con
tent
sFo
rmat
Mee
ting
with
the
scho
ol a
dmin
istr
ator
- Eva
luat
ion
of th
e tr
aini
ng: i
dent
ifica
tion
of
stre
ngth
s of
the
appr
oach
for t
he s
choo
l- I
dent
ifica
tion
of fi
eld
situ
atio
ns in
whi
ch th
e ap
proa
ch c
ould
be
used
and
ela
bora
ted
tow
ards
sc
hool
ow
ners
hip
- Pla
nnin
g fo
r fut
ure
actio
ns
- Mee
ting
of tr
aine
r with
sch
ool a
dmin
istr
ator
129
The effect of school-based interventions on motivation and self-regulation
Appendix C
Table C.1
The scales used in the study
Example Item No. of Items
Source Original Scale Reliability (α)
This Study Scale Reliability (α)
Task Orientation “I like it when I have learned something new at school”
5 Seegers et al. (2002)
.77 .83
Ego Enhancing Orientation
“I enjoy getting a better grade than my classmates.”
6 Seegers et al. (2002)
.81 .85
Ego Defeating Orientation
“During classroom tasks, I am afraid that the other children will notice that I make mistakes”
6 Seegers et al. (2002)
.76 .87
Self-Efficacy “I'm certain I can master the skills taught in class this year.”
6 Midgley et al. (2000)
.78 .83
Self-Regulation “Before I begin studying I think about the things I will need to do to learn.”“When I feel stressed, I just think about something else.”
8 Pintrich and de Groot (1990)Gross and John (2003)
.74 .78
130
Chapter 4
Appendix D
3,2
3,4
3,6
3,8
4
4,2
0 5 10 15
task
ori
enta
tion
time
SRSD
BC and SRSD
Control
2,4
2,6
2,8
3
3,2
3,4
0 5 10 15
ego-
enha
ncin
g or
ient
atio
n
time
SRSD
BC and SRSD
Control
1,4
1,6
1,8
2
2,2
2,4
0 5 10 15
ego-
defe
atin
g or
ient
atio
n
time
SRSD
BC and SRSD
Control
3,4
3,6
3,8
4
4,2
4,4
0 5 10 15
self
-eff
icac
y
time
SRSD
BC and SRSD
Control
2,6
2,8
3
3,2
3,4
3,6
0 5 10 15
self
-reg
ulat
ion
time
SRSD
BC and SRSD
Control
Fig. D.1-5. Graphs of the mean scores of the variables for the different conditions. Time is displayed in months since the start of the intervention. Measurement moments were at the start (pre-test), 3 months (post-test) and 15 months (one-year follow-up).
Short and long term effects on motivation and self-regulation: The surplus value of behavioral consultation on top of strategy instruction
CHAPTER 5
This chapter is based on:
Prince, A., Opdenakker, M.-C., & Minnaert, A. (2013). Short and long term effects on motivation and self-
regulation: The surplus value of behavioral consultation on top of strategy instruction. Manuscript submitted
for publication.
134
Abstract
Students’ motivation and self-regulated learning has been shown to decrease
in secondary education. In this study, the effects of two interventions on the
longitudinal development of motivation and self-regulation of students in
pre-vocational secondary education were explored using a planned variation
design. Teachers were trained to solve students’ learning problems with
either self-regulated strategy development only, or self-regulated strategy
development combined with behavioral consultation. Student outcomes for
both conditions were contrasted in order to scrutinize the surplus value of
behavioral consultation. Results of the multi-level growth curve analysis
showed a short term effect of both interventions on task orientation, ego
orientation and self-regulation. On the long term, however, only the combined
condition showed maintenance effects on motivation while the strategy
development only condition showed a strong decrease. The outcomes suggest
that the self-regulated strategy development approach to problem solving is
effective to trigger short term effects on motivation and self-regulated learning.
To achieve durable effects, however, this approach has to be combined with
a focus on both teacher level (teacher professionalization) and organizational
level (school-wide vision, coordination and communication).
Chapter 5
135
Introduction
Students’ motivation for school influences students’ performance,
learning enjoyment, attendance, and their change of staying on track.
However, studies have shown that from the start of secondary education,
SRSD and BC 3.31 (.82) 3.25 (.85) 3.20 (.72) 2.76 (.62)
The SRSD only conditionOn the short term, at the post-test measurement, the students in the SRSD
only condition showed more or less stable developments for the variables
task orientation, self-efficacy, and self-regulation. No significant increase or
decrease was found for these variables in the short term. On ego-defeating
orientation, the students showed a significant increase (p<.05). On ego-
enhancing orientation, the scores in the SRSD only condition show instability
on the short term, with a significant decrease (p<.05) followed by a marginally
significant increase.
On the long term, at the follow-up measurement, the students in the
SRSD only condition showed a decrease in the developments of all of the
variables except for self-efficacy, which remained relatively stable on the long
term. The decrease of the developments was significant for task orientation,
Short and long term effects on motivation and self-regulation
156
ego-enhancing orientation, ego-defeating orientation, and self-regulation
(p<.05).
The SRSD and BC combined conditionOn the short term, the students in the SRSD and BC combined condition
showed more or less stable developments for the scores on task orientation,
self-efficacy, and self-regulation comparable to the students in the SRSD only
condition. The development of task orientation displays a small decrease
in the beginning that approaches significance (p<.15). Additionally, the
students showed a rather stable development on ego-enhancing orientation
that significantly deviates from the development observed in the SRSD only
condition (p<.10). On ego-defeating orientation, the students in the SRSD and
BC combined condition show a significant decline on the short term.
On the long term, the students still show relatively stable developments
of task orientation and ego enhancing orientation, in which they significantly
deviate from the decrease in task orientation (p<.05) and ego enhancing
(p<.10) observed for the students in the SRSD condition. For ego-defeating
orientation, the students showed an increase on the long term (p<.05). For
self-efficacy and self-regulation, no differences were found between the two
conditions on the long term, just as on the short term. For self-regulation, the
students in the SRSD and BC combined condition showed a decrease on the
long term that was similar to the decrease in self-regulation observed for the
students in the SRSD only condition. For self-efficacy, the students showed
rather stable scores over time and between the conditions.
Chapter 5
157
Short and long term effects on motivation and self-regulation
3,2
3,4
3,6
3,8
4
4,2
0 5 10 15 20
task
ori
enta
tion
time
SRSD
SRSD and BC
2,8
3
3,2
3,4
3,6
3,8
0 5 10 15 20
ego-
enha
ncin
g or
ient
atio
n
time
SRSD
SRSD and BC
1,4
1,6
1,8
2
2,2
2,4
0 5 10 15 20
ego-
defe
atin
g or
ient
atio
n
Time
SRSD
SRSD and BC
3,4
3,6
3,8
4
4,2
4,4
0 5 10 15 20
self
-eff
icac
y
time
SRSD
SRSD and BC
2,4
2,6
2,8
3
3,2
3,4
0 5 10 15 20
self
-reg
ulat
ion
time
SRSD
SRSD and BC
Fig. D.1-5. Graphs of the mean scores of the variables for the different conditions. Time is displayed in months since the start of the intervention. Measurement moments were at the start (pre-test), 3 months (post-test) and 15 months (one-year follow-up).
158
Tabl
e 4
Mul
tilev
el m
odel
s
Task
Ori
enta
tion
Ego
Enha
ncin
gEg
o D
efea
ting
Self
-Effi
cacy
Self
-Reg
ulat
ion
(N=5
68)
(N=5
68)
(N=5
68)
(N=5
66)
(N=5
54)
Coe
ffici
ent
SEC
oeffi
cien
tSE
Coe
ffici
ent
SEC
oeffi
cien
tSE
Coe
ffici
ent
SE
Fixe
d Eff
ects
Inte
rcep
t3.
8363
8**
.084
213.
3927
3**
.132
961.
8161
8**
.131
343.
9070
4**
.088
253.
3150
5**
.114
74
Tim
e.0
1860
.020
54-.0
7206
**.0
4072
.050
91**
.025
05-.0
0483
.005
44.0
1402
.024
56
Tim
e2-.0
0204
**.0
0097
.011
27.0
0835
-.002
89**
.001
22-.0
0283
**.0
0116
Tim
e3-.0
0044
.000
34
SRSD
and
BC
.005
85.1
0644
-.069
90.1
5053
.237
05.1
6612
.050
82.1
0184
-.008
71.1
4531
SRSD
and
BC
*tim
e-.0
4083
.027
63.0
1489
*.0
0905
-.071
87**
.033
10.0
0075
.007
29-.0
1616
.032
56
SRSD
and
BC
*tim
e2.0
0257
**.0
0134
.004
17**
.001
64.0
0129
.001
57
Gen
der
-.357
34**
.096
27-.1
7400
**.0
7579
Not
e. *p
<.10
**p<
.05
Chapter 5
159
Tabl
e 4
(con
tinue
d)
Task
Ori
enta
tion
Ego
Enha
ncin
gEg
o D
efea
ting
Self
-Effi
cacy
Self
-Reg
ulat
ion
Coe
ffici
ent
SEC
oeffi
cien
tSE
Coe
ffici
ent
SEC
oeffi
cien
tSE
Coe
ffici
ent
SE
Rand
om E
ffect
s
Leve
l 3 v
aria
nce
Inte
rcep
t.0
0000
.000
00.0
1650
.017
92.3
008
.022
38.0
0000
.000
00.0
1081
.011
97
Tim
e.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0002
.000
04.0
0000
.000
00
Tim
e2.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00
Tim
e3.0
0000
.000
00
Inte
rcep
t*Ti
me
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
Inte
rcep
t*Ti
me2
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
Inte
rcep
t*Ti
me3
.000
00.0
0000
Tim
e*Ti
me2
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
.000
00.0
0000
Tim
e*Ti
me3
.000
00.0
0000
Tim
e2 *Ti
me3
.000
00.0
0000
Not
e. *p
<.10
**p<
.05
Short and long term effects on motivation and self-regulation
160
Discussion
The aim of the study was to explore what the surplus value of adding BC
to SRSD was in terms of short term and long term outcomes in student
motivation and self-regulated learning. Since previous studies had shown a
decline in students’ motivation and self-regulated learning from the start of
secondary education, every development of motivation and self-regulated
learning deviating from a declining trend was considered a positive effect.
The added value of BC was given special attention, since it was expected to
prolong the positive effects that the SRSD intervention would have on the
short term on students’ motivation and self-regulated learning. Previous
research only showed moderate maintenance effects (Graham & Harris, 2003).
By using interventions that did not directly aim at motivating students, and by
implementing a minimal version of the intervention, aiming only at teaching
self-regulation strategies and contrasting it with a maximal version of the
intervention, including large scale changes in the learning environments,
light could be shed on what fosters motivation, both on the short term, and
on the long term.
In terms of importance for education, the observed development of
the interventions on task orientation is really interesting. Both conditions
initially showed more or less stable developments of task orientation. The
interventions have had their effect on task orientation. In the follow-up
measurement moment, after one year, this effect is only observed in the
SRSD and BC combination condition. Apparently, the SRSD condition has
not brought a durable change. Teaching self-regulation strategies to students
and using tailor-made problem solving solutions raises the students’ task
orientation, but only for short time. Internalization of the positive effects
leading to durable task orientation was not observed. By expanding the
SRSD approach with the BC approach, which evokes the teacher to adapt the
environment, professionalize and communicate, the effect on task motivation
Chapter 5
161
has become durable.
The development of both ego-enhancing and ego-defeating
orientation for both conditions is remarkable considering that the observed
trends are the opposite of the expected trends. The developments of the ego-
orientations can, however, be better interpreted from a patterns approach to
goal orientations (Pintrich, 2000b). In this approach, task and ego orientation
are not assumed to be antithetically related, but rather the combination of the
two forms more or less productive patterns. For the SRSD condition, a decline
over time in all orientations was observed, suggesting a trend of a-motivation.
A small effect of the intervention can be spotted at the post-test but in the
follow-up measurement, the results are catastrophic. In the SRSD and BC
combined conditions, a different pattern was observed. Over time, both task
orientation and ego orientation remain relatively stable after the start of the
intervention. This suggests a trend of the students focusing both on task
mastery as well as performance. This has been shown to be the most productive
pattern. These results contribute to the discussion around the relationship
of task orientation and ego orientations, and the positive contribution of
ego orientation to academic performance (Harackiewicz, Barron, Pintrich,
2012). It does show, however, that ego orientation does not hinder an incline
in task-orientation per se, in this case not even ego-defeating orientation.
Minnaert (1999) also showed that the combination of high approach and high
avoidance was beneficial for students’ metacognitive activities. This suggests
that ego-orientation is used as a form of self-regulating behavior (Elliot &
Moller, 2003). Interestingly, on the self-regulation variable, no differences
were observed between the developments of the two conditions. For both
conditions, stabilization in the development on the short term was observed,
as well as a decline on the long term. Contrary to expectations, not only no
increase in self-regulations developments was observed for both conditions
on the short term, but also no long term effects were observed for the SRSD
Short and long term effects on motivation and self-regulation
162
and BC combined condition. Apparently, there is room for improvement in
the effect on self-regulation.
Besides shedding a light on the development of motivation over
time, this study also reveals valuable information on the way motivation can
be fostered in the classroom. The outcomes of the interventions show that
motivation indeed is related to self-regulation. The results show teaching
strategies that can help students to overcome problems is a first step to
promoting a sense of competence and interest in the task. However, motivation
to remain stable over time needs more. In order to remain motivated the
students need a durable school-wide environment where teaching is tailor-
made and mastery-based and the students can develop a sense of mastery
by interacting with their environment. Not only should the teacher teach this
way, they should think this way and the school should be organized this way.
The school environment can stimulate teachers to be effective in problem
solving, to feel efficacious, and to continuously professionalize themselves, as
well as consult and support each other. This study has shown that especially
this addition of school-wide environmental change is effective to keep the
students motivated over time. This durable change in organization in a school
changes the teacher-student interaction over time and makes the teachers
prepared for all kinds of challenges, whether it is teaching students with
learning problems or motivating all students. However, this is a hard thing to
achieve, especially with demands from the government implicitly demanding
a formalized instead of adaptive approach to every student and a standards-
based of education and testing (Skrtic, 1991). In order to respond to the
external demands and stimulate adaptive and interactive teaching, a school
administration should have a clear vision and aim at creating a learning
organization.
Chapter 5
163
Limitations and future researchSome limitations can be noted of this research. First, no random assignment
was performed of participants to conditions. This limits the generalizability of
the findings (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). However, no pre-experimental
differences were encountered between both groups. Besides, by matching
schools with treatments, misfits of schools ecological factors with treatment
factors was minimized (Kennedy, 1978), thereby facilitating implementation.
This is one of the advantages of a planned variation design. Second, limited
number of school per condition and limited number of participants per
condition were used. More schools would have improved internal as well as
external validity of the study. More participants would have allowed more
fine-grained analysis of developmental curves of the variables. For future
research, it would be preferable to include more schools and participants per
condition, and to find a balance between random assignment and ecological
validity. Third, some issues with the measurement of self-efficacy and self-
regulation were noticeable. For self-efficacy, the questionnaire used did not
show any differences between the interventions or over time between the
students. Apparently, the measurement was not formulated specific enough.
The students might not have recognized the questions on self-efficacy as
concerning a snapshot of their current perception of efficacy, as it was intended.
It has been stated that the measurement self-efficacy has to be specific enough
to deliver valid results (Bandura, 2006a). This made it impossible to assess the
moderating role of self-efficacy as described in literature on goal-orientations
and self-regulation. For self-regulation, an influence of time was observed.
However, no differentiation between conditions was observed, suggesting
that the measurement might not have covered the complete concept of self-
regulation. Measurement of abstract variables is an issue with students of
this age and especially the lower educational tracks. Further attention should
be given to the measurement of self-efficacy and self-regulation with this
population.
Short and long term effects on motivation and self-regulation
164
Some gender differences were found on ego-enhancing orientation
and self-efficacy. These were general gender effects that did not interact
with the interventions or with time. An explanation offered by literature
is that girls systematically underestimate their ability (Gjesme 1973, 1983;
Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990). The influence of gender on students’
motivation and self-regulated learning needs further exploration, especially
when interventions combine these variables in their approach. Additionally,
from this research a plea emerges for future research to take the long term
effect of interventions into account, and not only the short term.
This study has shown that students’ motivation and self-regulated
learning can be influenced by changing the approach to learning problems and
the school environment, even on a long term. Future research can investigate
the change of the learning environment into more detail, and test the effects
of the intervention in larger scale experiments. This research contributes
to the development of future research with the finding that an educational
intervention should have its influence on student level, on teacher level, and
on organizational level in order to bring durable improvement in students’
motivation.
Chapter 5
165
Short and long term effects on motivation and self-regulation
App
endi
x A
Tabl
e A
.1
Det
aile
d de
scri
ptio
n of
the
SRSD
trai
ning
ses
sion
s
SRSD
Tra
inin
g Se
ssio
n 1:
Sel
f-re
gula
tion
beha
vior
ana
lysi
s
Goa
ls:
- Pro
vidi
ng k
now
ledg
e on
sel
f-reg
ulat
ed le
arni
ng- A
ctiv
atin
g al
read
y pr
esen
t kno
wle
dge
on le
arni
ng p
robl
ems
and
prob
lem
s w
ith s
elf-r
egul
ated
lear
ning
- Stim
ulat
ing
conn
ectio
ns b
etw
een
theo
ry a
nd te
ache
rs’ p
erso
nal k
now
ledg
e an
d ex
peri
ence
s
Exce
rcis
eC
onte
nts
Form
at
Exer
cise
1:
“Wha
t is
self-
regu
latio
n?”
- The
ory
self-
regu
latio
n - E
xam
ples
of s
elf-r
egul
atin
g be
havi
or- H
ow to
teac
h se
lf-re
gula
tion
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - G
roup
dis
cuss
ion
Exer
cise
2:
“The
SRS
D m
odel
”- S
RSD
six
sta
ge m
odel
- S
RSD
key
cha
ract
eris
tics
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n
Exer
cise
3:
“Tal
king
to s
tude
nts
abou
t use
d st
rate
gies
”- I
nter
view
ing
skill
s fo
r int
erac
tion
with
stu
dent
- I
dent
ifica
tion
of n
eede
d in
form
atio
n fo
r ana
lysi
s- S
mal
l gro
up ro
le-p
layi
ng e
xerc
ise
Hom
ewor
k:
“The
Cas
e of
an
indi
vidu
al st
uden
t - p
art 1
.”- A
naly
sis
of s
elf-r
egul
atin
g be
havi
or o
f an
indi
vidu
al s
tude
nt u
sing
thre
e ca
tego
ry fo
rm:
desi
red
self-
regu
latio
n (s
trat
egy)
, cur
rent
be
havi
or, h
ow to
teac
h
- Fill
in fo
rm
166
Chapter 5
Tabl
e A
.1 (c
ontin
ued)
SRSD
trai
ning
Ses
sion
2: T
he s
tude
nt
Goa
ls:
- Pro
vidi
ng k
now
ledg
e on
sel
f-reg
ulat
ed le
arni
ng- A
ctiv
atin
g al
read
y pr
esen
t kno
wle
dge
on le
arni
ng p
robl
ems
and
prob
lem
s w
ith s
elf-r
egul
ated
lear
ning
- Stim
ulat
ing
conn
ectio
ns b
etw
een
theo
ry a
nd te
ache
rs’ p
erso
nal k
now
ledg
e an
d ex
peri
ence
s
Exce
rcis
eC
onte
nts
Form
at
Exer
cise
1:
“Wha
t is
self-
regu
latio
n?”
- The
ory
self-
regu
latio
n pr
oced
ure
- Tra
nsla
tion
of a
naly
sis
outc
omes
to p
roce
dure
us
ing
thre
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s: s
truc
ture
, tai
lor-
mad
e,
step
-wis
e.
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - S
mal
l gro
up e
xerc
ise
Exer
cise
2:
“Tea
chin
g a
self-
regu
latio
n st
rate
gy”
- The
ory
teac
hing
a s
elf-r
egul
atio
n st
rate
gy- T
rans
latio
n pr
oced
ure
to te
achi
ng b
ehav
ior
usin
g fo
ur c
ateg
ory
form
: dis
cuss
, mod
el,
mem
oriz
e, p
ract
ice
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - S
mal
l gro
up e
xerc
ise
Hom
ewor
k:“T
he C
ase
of a
n in
divi
dual
stud
ent -
par
t 2.”
- Ela
bora
tion
of in
divi
dual
stu
dent
cas
e pr
oced
ure
usin
g fo
ur c
ateg
ory
form
: dis
cuss
, m
odel
, mem
oriz
e, p
ract
ice
- Con
tem
plat
e te
ache
r rol
e in
the
proc
ess
- Fill
in fo
rm
167
Short and long term effects on motivation and self-regulation
Tabl
e A
.1 (c
ontin
ued)
SRSD
trai
ning
Ses
sion
3: T
he te
ache
r
Goa
ls:
- Int
egra
tion
of in
form
atio
n- C
ombi
ning
theo
ry w
ith p
ract
ical
cas
es- C
ontr
ol o
f tea
cher
s’ u
nder
stan
ding
of t
he tr
eatm
ent
Exce
rcis
eC
onte
nts
Form
at
Exer
cise
1:
“Thr
ee c
ases
of s
tude
nts”
- Thr
ee fi
ctio
nal c
ases
of s
tude
nts
are
disc
usse
d- F
our s
teps
: ana
lysi
s, p
roce
dure
, how
to te
ach,
ho
w to
impl
emen
t in
clas
sroo
m te
achi
ng
- Gro
up e
xerc
ise
SRSD
trai
ning
Ses
sion
4: C
oach
ing
Goa
ls:
- Offe
ring
the
teac
hers
an
oppo
rtun
ity to
ask
que
stio
ns- R
eact
ivat
ing
inte
rven
tion
beha
vior
- Gua
rdin
g tr
eatm
ent fi
delit
y
Exce
rcis
eC
onte
nts
Form
at
Exer
cise
: “Q
&A
”- E
xper
ienc
es- S
tren
gths
and
wea
knes
ses
of th
e ap
proa
ch- Q
uest
ions
- Int
erac
tive
grou
p co
nver
satio
n- Q
uest
ions
and
ans
wer
s
168
Chapter 5
App
endi
x B
Tabl
e B.
1
Det
aile
d de
scri
ptio
n of
the
SRSD
and
BC
com
bine
d tr
aini
ng s
essi
ons
SRSD
and
BC
com
bine
d tr
aini
ng S
essi
on 1
: Stu
dent
pro
blem
ana
lysi
s
Goa
ls:
- Pro
vidi
ng k
now
ledg
e on
lear
ning
pro
blem
s, th
e BC
mod
el, c
onsu
ltatio
n te
chni
ques
- Pro
vidi
ng a
vid
eo e
xam
ple
of a
con
sulta
tion
inte
rvie
w- P
ract
icin
g co
nsul
tatio
n an
d co
mm
unic
atio
n te
chni
ques
- Co-
cons
truc
ting
a sh
ared
vis
ion
on le
arni
ng p
robl
ems
and
prob
lem
-sol
ving
Exce
rcis
eC
onte
nts
Form
at
Exer
cise
1:
“Mod
el a
nd v
isio
n”- B
C m
odel
: goa
ls, f
our s
tage
s, m
ain
char
acte
rist
ics
- Int
ervi
ewin
g te
chni
ques
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - V
ideo
mod
elin
g th
e co
nsul
tatio
n in
terv
iew
- Gro
up d
iscu
ssio
n
Exer
cise
2:
“Pro
blem
iden
tifica
tion”
- Fir
st tw
o st
eps
of th
e m
odel
: Pro
blem
id
entifi
catio
n an
d pr
oble
m a
naly
sis
- Ide
ntifi
catio
n m
ism
atch
con
sulte
e an
d cl
ient
- Con
stru
ctio
n of
ideo
grap
hica
l the
ory
of c
lient
pr
oble
m
- Sm
all g
roup
role
-pla
ying
exe
rcis
e
Hom
ewor
k:
“The
Cas
e of
an
indi
vidu
al st
uden
t - p
art 1
.”
- A
naly
sis
of p
robl
em o
f an
indi
vidu
al s
tude
nt
usin
g se
ven
cate
gory
form
: pro
blem
des
crip
tion;
go
als
not a
ccom
plis
hed
(bot
h pr
oble
m
iden
tifica
tion)
; tas
k; c
urre
nt ta
sk b
ehav
ior;
inst
ruct
ion;
des
ired
str
ateg
y (a
ll fo
ur p
robl
em
anal
ysis
); m
ism
atch
and
ideo
grap
hica
l the
ory
- Fill
in fo
rm
169
Short and long term effects on motivation and self-regulation
Tabl
e B.
1 (c
ontin
ued)
SRSD
and
BC
com
bine
d tr
aini
ng S
essi
on 2
: The
stu
dent
Goa
ls:
-Pro
vidi
ng k
now
ledg
e on
sel
f-reg
ulat
ion
stra
tegi
es-P
rovi
ding
kno
wle
dge
on th
e SR
SD m
odel
of t
each
ing
self-
regu
latio
n st
rate
gies
-Stim
ulat
ing
inte
grat
ion
of th
e SR
SD m
odel
with
teac
hers
’ per
sona
l kno
wle
dge
and
expe
rien
ces
-Co-
cons
truc
ting
a sh
ared
vis
ion
on th
e te
ache
r-st
uden
t rel
atio
nshi
p re
gard
ing
self-
regu
late
d le
arni
ng
Exce
rcis
eC
onte
nts
Form
at
Exer
cise
1:
“Fro
m a
naly
sis
to p
roce
dure
”- T
heor
y se
lf-re
gula
ted
lear
ning
- SRS
D k
ey c
hara
cter
istic
s- T
rans
latio
n of
ana
lysi
s ou
tcom
es to
pro
cedu
re
usin
g th
ree
char
acte
rist
ics:
str
uctu
re, t
ailo
r-m
ade,
st
ep-w
ise.
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - S
mal
l gro
up e
xerc
ise
Exer
cise
2:
“Tea
chin
g a
self-
regu
latio
n st
rate
gy”
- The
ory
teac
hing
a s
elf-r
egul
atio
n st
rate
gy- S
RSD
six
sta
ge m
odel
- T
rans
latio
n pr
oced
ure
to te
achi
ng b
ehav
ior
usin
g fo
ur c
ateg
ory
form
: dis
cuss
, mod
el,
mem
oriz
e, p
ract
ice
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n - S
mal
l gro
up e
xerc
ise
Hom
ewor
k:
“The
Cas
e of
an
indi
vidu
al st
uden
t - p
art 2
.”- E
labo
ratio
n of
indi
vidu
al s
tude
nt c
ase
proc
edur
e us
ing
four
cat
egor
y fo
rm: d
iscu
ss,
mod
el, m
emor
ize,
pra
ctic
e- C
onte
mpl
ate
teac
her r
ole
in th
e pr
oces
s
- Fill
in fo
rm
170
Chapter 5
Tabl
e B.
1 (c
ontin
ued)
SRSD
and
BC
com
bine
d tr
aini
ng S
essi
on 3
: The
who
le c
lass
Goa
ls:
- Int
egra
tion
of in
form
atio
n- C
ombi
ning
theo
ry w
ith p
ract
ical
cas
es- S
timul
atin
g co
nnec
tions
bet
wee
n th
eory
and
teac
hers
’ per
sona
l kno
wle
dge
and
expe
rien
ces
- Con
trol
of t
each
ers’
und
erst
andi
ng o
f the
trea
tmen
t
Exce
rcis
eC
onte
nts
Form
at
Exer
cise
1:
“Cas
e of
a s
tude
nt”
- The
who
le p
roce
ss o
f pro
blem
iden
tifica
tion,
pr
oble
m a
naly
sis,
des
ign
of p
roce
dure
, tea
chin
g th
e st
rate
gy
- Vid
eo- G
roup
dis
cuss
ion
Exer
cise
2:
“Lon
g te
rm &
cla
ss-w
ide”
- Tea
chin
g st
rate
gies
for t
he lo
ng te
rm a
nd c
lass
-w
ide
use
of th
e ap
proa
ch.
- Tra
iner
pro
vidi
ng in
form
atio
n- G
roup
dis
cuss
ion
171
Short and long term effects on motivation and self-regulation
Tabl
e B.
1 (c
ontin
ued)
SRSD
and
BC
com
bine
d tr
aini
ng S
essi
on 4
: Tow
ards
ow
ners
hip
Goa
ls:
- Pr
ovid
ing
know
ledg
e on
and
stim
ulat
ing
orga
niza
tiona
l fa
ctor
s fo
ster
ing
a sc
hool
-wid
e ap
proa
ch t
o pr
oble
m-s
olvi
ng- P
rovi
ding
kno
wle
dge
on a
nd s
timul
atin
g sc
hool
ow
ners
hip
a sc
hool
-wid
e ap
proa
ch to
pro
blem
-sol
ving
- Gua
rdin
g tr
eatm
ent fi
delit
y
Exce
rcis
eC
onte
nts
Form
at
Mee
ting
with
the
scho
ol a
dmin
istr
ator
- Eva
luat
ion
of th
e tr
aini
ng: i
dent
ifica
tion
of
stre
ngth
s of
the
appr
oach
for t
he s
choo
l- I
dent
ifica
tion
of fi
eld
situ
atio
ns in
whi
ch th
e ap
proa
ch c
ould
be
used
and
ela
bora
ted
tow
ards
sc
hool
ow
ners
hip
- Pla
nnin
g fo
r fut
ure
actio
ns
- Mee
ting
of tr
aine
r with
sch
ool a
dmin
istr
ator
172
Chapter 5
Appendix C
Table C.1
The scales used in the study.
Example item No. of Items
Source Original scale Reliability (α)
This Study Scale Reliability (α)
Task Orientation “I like it when I have learned something new at school”
5 Seegers et al. (2002)
.77 .79
Ego Enhancing Orientation
“I enjoy getting a better grade than my classmates.”
6 Seegers et al. (2002)
.81 .84
Ego Defeating Orientation
“During classroom tasks, I am afraid that the other children will notice that I make mistakes”
6 Seegers et al. (2002)
.76 .87
Self-Efficacy “I'm certain I can master the skills taught in class this year.”
6 Midgley et al. (2000)
.78 .82
Self-Regulation “Before I begin studying I think about the things I will need to do to learn.”“When I feel stressed, I just think about something else.”
8 Pintrich and de Groot (1990)Gross and John (2003)
.74 .79
Conclusion and discussion
CHAPTER 6
177
Introduction
In this thesis two main goals were pursued. The first goal was to contribute to
the understanding of motivation and of how to influence motivation. In order
to make it a rigorous attempt, in the second chapter literature was explored
on the environment in which the change in motivation must be achieved, the
educational environment, and in the third chapter literature was reviewed on
interventions aiming at a change in student motivation. The second goal was
to explore approaches to influencing students’ motivation in a specific target
group, being pre-vocational education. Using the findings of the explorations
in the second and the third chapter, two interventions were developed,
implemented, and tested in the fourth and the fifth chapter, one being a
minimal version, and one being a maximal version, in order to identify the
effective components of the interventions. In this final chapter, the findings
of the four studies represented in chapter two to five will be summarized
and transcending conclusions and implications, both for theory and practice,
will be made. Finally, the methodological approach of the studies will be
discussed and the recommendations for future research will be elaborated on.
The general aim of this chapter will be to review to what extent the question
What can be done to stop the decline of students’ motivation during secondary
education? can be answered based on the findings of this research.
Conclusion and discussion
178
Summary of findings
In the first chapter, based on motivational literature, motivation was
concluded to be an abstract and multifaceted and not clear cut concept
involving the interaction of the person, the task, and the environment. A
summary of the theories on motivation shows a dialectic between a form
of motivation regarding the self, and a form of motivation regarding the
task, or in a broader sense, the environment. Multiple micro-theories have
been constructed that explain mechanisms within either of these forms of
motivation. Three major theories on motivation, being the expectancy-value
theory (Eccles et al., 1983), the achievement goal theory (e.g. Nicholls, 1984),
and the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), incorporate both forms
of motivation. These theories do, however, differ in their conceptualizations
of how the specific form of motivation works, how it can be influenced, and
what the relationship with the other form of motivation is. Of the three major
theories, achievement goal theory was concluded to offer the most clues on
how motivation could be translated to classroom behavior. Therefore it was
decided that this theory was most suitable as a framework for measuring
student motivational outcomes in this study. With regard to influencing
motivation and the possible contents of an intervention aiming at a change in
students’ motivation, the major motivational theories did not produce clear-
cut recommendations. Literature on more behavioral or more educational
approaches to finding a balance between the self and the environment, the
two forms of motivation, suggested that the relationship between the self
and the environment could be influenced by 1) control mechanisms and self-
regulation, 2) knowledge construction and democratic interaction, and 3)
environments fostering autonomy or agency. However, the suggestions on
how to influence motivation produced by the theoretical exploration were
judged to be abstract and multiform. Therefore, two goals were formulated
for this thesis: to develop a greater understanding of motivation and of how
Chapter 6
179
to influence motivation, and to explore approaches to influencing students’
motivation in a specific target group, being pre-vocational education. In
order to do so, 1) literature on the educational environment to understand
the influences of the multilevel structure of education would be explored,
2) literature on interventions aiming at a change in motivation would be
reviewed, and 3) the findings of the exploration of motivation, how it can be
influenced, and what the possible influences of the educational environment
on interventions were, would be used to construct, implement, and evaluate
interventions with an aim at changing the motivation of pre-vocational
secondary education students.
In the second chapter, the process of implementation of educational
interventions was explored in a theoretical treatise. Literature on the
implementation of educational interventions was explored. Since several
sources had reported issues of bringing together scientific demands and
demands of the field (e.g. Boekaerts & Minnaert, 2003; De Corte, 2000), the
roles of both the scientific field and the educational field in the implementation
of educational interventions were scrutinized. A synthesis of the rich body of
literature on the goals, demands, and players involved of both fields yielded
some interesting new conclusions that not only shed some light on the origin of
problems of combining scientific demands and field demands, but also brought
forth several practical implications for the construction, implementation, and
evaluation of educational interventions. The most important findings were
that the scientific field has rather strict demands in order to guard the scientific
credibility of the results, and even though the opinion is divided on how to
take the educational field into account, several design solutions can be found
to increase ecological validity. The educational field shows several paradoxes
in goals, beliefs, and demands of the players involved in the implementation
of educational interventions. Furthermore, the players appear to be highly
interdependent. What makes an intervention societally credible is rather
defined by the degree to which it can incorporate all the different demands,
Conclusion and discussion
180
than by some strict rules. Based on these findings, implications were formulated
for both educational researchers and educational field professionals
cooperating in an attempt to implement educational interventions. Scientists
should take the complexity of the educational environment and the pragmatic
methodology into account, include attention for process and ‘hot’ variables in
their approaches, and consider themselves part of an implementation process
and therefore a factor of influence. Field professionals should continuously
reflect on the pitfalls of their pragmatic methodology and try to overcome
the paradoxes characterizing their profession, such as the choice between
pursuing short term solutions or long term educational goals. Both fields
should work together on a shared language, communication, cooperation
and mutual understanding in order to successfully construct, implement, and
evaluate educational interventions that are high on both scientific credibility
and societal credibility. In order to answer to the different demands of both
the scientific field and the educational field in the intervention studies of this
thesis, the search for an approach to influencing students’ motivation would
need to include both a theoretical consideration of motivation, and a practical
consideration of how to influence motivation in a classroom setting.
In the third chapter, the main aim was to explore the concept of
motivation. This was done by reviewing recent studies on the effects of
educational interventions on the motivation of students in the first years of
secondary school. This should unveil information on what can be done to stop
the decrease in students’ motivation and why. By combining a theoretical
with an empirical approach, preliminary conclusions could be drawn on
mechanisms behind effective approaches of enhancing motivation. Especially
since the concept of motivation is rather multifaceted (see chapter one), it was
considered important to thoroughly understand which part of motivation was
effective, in which case, and how it was translated to classroom implementation.
The analysis of the interventions yielded information on what were important
factors in the operationalization of the concept of motivation in a classroom
Chapter 6
181
intervention, what theoretical mechanisms were prevailing in the approach
to enhancing motivation, and which combinations of characteristics could be
considered as effective. Important in the operationalization of motivation in
classroom interventions was to consider 1) the amount of choice or personal
influence was given to the students and 2) the amount of social interaction
that was used in the construction of contents and the instruction of the tasks.
The more socially orientated approaches were prevailing. Three effective
combinations of intervention characteristics were observed: 1) studies showing
a learning approach to motivation by having comparable aim and outcome
regarding the self, and a self-regulation approach with static contents and
standard instruction 2) studies showing a social approach to motivation by
showing socially constructed interventions that elicit positive task perception
outcomes, and 3) studies showing a co-regulation approach to motivation by
combining social instruction, constructed contents, a focus on and outcome
in task perception, but also transfer to academic-self outcomes. Furthermore,
the analysis showed that all of the established theoretical approaches to
motivation were represented in the different studies. All though these results
emphasize the multi-facetted and dialectical nature of motivation, valuable
information was found on what can be done to influence students’ motivation.
In the fourth chapter, the main aim was to evaluate the effects of
two interventions on the development of motivation and self-regulation
over time of students in the first two grades of pre-vocational secondary
education in an empirical study. For motivation, goal orientations were used
as an outcome variable, since they have a strong connection to behavior, self-
perceptions, and self-regulation. Since for each of the two forms of motivation
a different approach to influencing motivation was observed in chapter three,
both the self-regulation focused approach and the social instruction and
constructed contents focused approach were decided to be used to construct
the interventions. The two interventions used were Self-Regulated Strategy
Development (SRSD), aiming at teaching self-regulation strategies to students
Conclusion and discussion
182
comparable to the self-regulation focused interventions observed in chapter
three, and Behavioral Consultation (BC) with SRSD integrated in it, aiming
at teacher problem solving and creating an environment fostering learning
and motivation, comparable to the social instruction and constructed contents
focused interventions observed in chapter three. Both interventions were
implemented at teacher level, in an attempt to achieve durable effects, but
the combined condition was implemented in a way that it would transcend
teacher level and trigger cooperation and problem-solving school-wide. The
results of the multilevel growth curve analysis showed a decline of motivation
and self-regulation over time for the control group. The students in the BC
and SRSD combined condition showed significantly less decline in goal
orientations on the long term compared to the control group. The SRSD only
condition showed no different effects compared to the control group. This
implies that only teaching self-regulation strategies is not sufficient to achieve
a durable change in students’ motivation. Apparently, only triggering local
processes in the students was not enough to influence the motivation of the
students. By combining a school-wide approach to problem-solving, and
teacher communication and collaboration (BC), with teaching self-regulation
strategies (SRSD), students’ motivation could be influenced, and a durable
effect was achieved on the long term development of students’ motivation.
In the fifth chapter, the differences between the two interventions,
both in intervention contents and in effects, were studied in more depth in
an empirical study. Using a planned variation design, the two interventions
were compared as a minimal version of an approach to enhancing students’
motivation, with only SRSD, and a maximal version of an approach to
enhancing students’ motivation, with SRSD combined with BC. It was
argued that BC expanded SRSD in 1) that it approaches the problem of an
individual student by analyzing the whole learning environment, 2) that
it actively stimulates teacher to professionalize, and 3) that it stimulates
cooperation, vision building and support among teachers school-wide. The
Chapter 6
183
effects of the interventions were compared with an emphasis on assessing
the differences between the different conditions on the short and the long
term. On task orientation, no differences were notable on the short term, but
on the long term the combined condition showed significantly less decrease
than the SRSD only condition. Additionally, on ego-enhancing orientation
and ego-defeating orientation, an increase was observed on the long term in
the combined condition, suggesting a patterns approach to goal orientations.
Apparently, the SRSD approach did have some small effects on motivation on
the short term. These effects were however too small to be significant -as was
shown in chapter four- and did not last long enough to become significant.
The combined approach did remain to influence the students’ motivation
over time. This showed that a school-wide environmental change must be
made in order to achieve durable effects.
In the next sections, a synthesis of the findings of the studies will
be discussed and interpreted in relation to their theoretical and practical
significance. Furthermore, some considerations will be made concerning
the strengths and weaknesses of the methodology applied in this thesis,
accompanied by suggestions for future research.
Discussion
Theoretical significanceThe most important theoretical contribution of this thesis is concerning
the understanding of motivation and how it can be influenced. In the first
chapter, it was shown that literature on motivation painted a rather complex
and abstract picture. To work towards further understanding of motivation
elaborate explorations of the literature were done in the second and the third
chapter on studies aiming at a change in student motivation, and studies
reporting on the influence of the educational context on the implementation
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of interventions. These explorations yielded some suggestions on the
nature of motivation, how motivation can be influenced, and what should
be taken into account when constructing and implementing educational
interventions. Based on the findings of these explorations, two interventions
were constructed and implemented in the studies in chapter four and five.
Especially the intervention taking all theoretical findings into account was
found to be effective to influence students’ motivation, thereby delivering
empirical proof for the theoretical contributions of this research. In this
paragraph, the theoretical contributions of the research in this thesis and their
implications will be considered into more detail.
Dialectical nature of motivation With regard to the nature of motivation, the exploration of the motivational
theories in chapter one showed a dialectic between a form of motivation
regarding the self, and a form of motivation regarding the task, or in a broader
sense, the environment. Students, in an attempt to cope with environmental
demands, are either motivated to adapt themselves to the environment, or to
adapt the environment to their own demands. This means that motivation is
situated either in the person (Can I adapt myself to the environment?), or in the
characteristics of the task (Is the task in line with my demands?). The exploration
of recent studies reporting on interventions aiming at influencing motivation
in chapter three confirmed that this dialectical and multifaceted nature of
motivation can still be observed in current studies to motivation and the
attempts to influence motivation. The two forms of motivation as well as a
combination of the two forms were all well represented in both the aims as
well as the outcomes of the studies reviewed in chapter three. Furthermore,
the different theoretical approaches to motivation that were identified in the
exploration of motivational literature in chapter one, were also identified in
the review of current intervention studies in chapter three. This led to the
conclusion that indeed the dialectic between a form of motivation regarding
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the self and a form of motivation regarding the task could be spotted in
motivational theory as well as in approaches to influencing motivation
until recent day. Furthermore, it also led to the conclusion that the different
theoretical approaches to motivation, including the micro theories, should
be considered to be theoretically sound, since they have yielded abundant
empirical research in the past and still remain to do so in current studies.
The conclusions that motivation has a dialectical nature and that the
different theoretical approaches to motivation are valid, are important for
the understanding of the concept of motivation. However, the question still
remains What can be done to influence students’ motivation?, since the different
theories offer different recommendations on how to deal with the dialectical
and multifaceted nature of motivation, and how to influence students’
motivation. Two ways to deal with the dialectical and multifaceted nature of
motivation can be identified in motivational literature, being to device a large
amount of specific conceptualizations of parts of motivation (the rational-
cognitive approach), or to combine the two forms of motivation in one theory
(the expectancy-value theory, achievement goal theory, self-determination
theory). Some authors have tried to devise general theories that were able
to incorporate the different motivational micro theories, but in general these
attempts resulted in large models linking the different micro-concepts found in
different theories (e.g. Appleton, Christenson, & Furlong, 2008; De Brabander
& Martens, 2012). The three major theories, all though incorporating the two
forms of motivation, give their own conceptualizations of how the specific
form of motivation works, how it can be influenced, and what the relationship
with the other form of motivation is. For example, when considering the
three major theories of motivation (see chapter one), the forms of motivation
can be conceptualized as a perceived value of something (expectancy-value
theory), as an orientation towards a goal (achievement goal theory), or as an
innate form of motivation for competence (self-determination theory). They
can be influenced by cognitive techniques and feedback of the environment
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(expectancy-value theory), by creating an environment influencing the person’s
goal structures (achievement goal theory), or by creating an environment
showing involvement, structure, and autonomy support (self-determination
theory). Furthermore, the relationship of motivation regarding the self and
regarding the task are conceptualized differently: the two are either unrelated
to each-other (expectancy-value theory), or on two dimensions making them
able to co-exist and in some instances strengthen each other (achievement
goal theory), or on one dimension and therefore hierarchically related (self-
determination theory). This conceptual pluralism with regard to the nature
of motivation can be considered viable from a theoretical point of view, since
the micro mechanisms can be investigated and understood into detail. From
a more practical point of view, however, it has some major disadvantages.
For example, it makes it hard to formulate applicable advice to, for example,
teachers. Furthermore, a micro theory of motivation will have a hard time
taking the ecological factors into account. Every context or situation would
demand for the use of a different micro-theory.
The dialectical nature of motivation may very well be related to the
dialectical nature of education identified in chapter two. An example of a
dialectical relationship in the educational situation would be the relationship
between teaching contents and the demands from the educational environment
or the students. Environmental demands can be assumed play a role on
every level in the educational situation. Comparable to when implementing
educational interventions, the complex classroom ecology should be taken
into account when considering motivation in education. Ecological factors
are ever present in especially educational research, since educational research
takes place in a complex environment. These factors will be likely to activate
other motivation mechanisms than aimed for in the research, make it hard to
achieve durable results on students’ motivation. This not only emphasizes the
importance of a whole picture approach when constructing, implementing,
and evaluating an approach to changing students’ motivation (societal
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credibility), but it also confirms what was already considered in chapter one:
that the clue to influencing motivation should be looked for in the relationship
of the students with the environment (ecological validity).
In this thesis, in order to deal with the dialectical nature of motivation
and the educational situation identified in the first chapter and confirmed in
chapters two and three, an interaction-focused approach to motivation was
adopted in the empirical studies in chapter four and five. This perspective
assumes that students become motivated when they are able to competently
and effectively interact with the tasks or their environment. A situation is
motivating when persons feels both competent in adapting to the task or the
environment, and the task or the environment has enough affordances to be
perceived as interesting, enjoyable, or stimulating. Instead of conceptualizing
motivation as either being competent in dealing with the environment, or
perceiving the environment as interesting or enjoyable, motivation is considered
to be fostered when students can combine the both. This conceptualization of
motivation is not contrasting with the definitions of motivation as given in
the major theories. Even more, the interactional approach, with an organismic
instead of a rational-cognitive view on motivation, comes rather close to the
ideas of the self-determination theory. According to the self-determination
theory, people can be ‘freed’ from environmental constraints when relatedness,
competence and autonomy are fostered. This research indeed has shown the
potential of the self-determination theory as a framework for understanding
motivation, as was already presumed in the introduction.
Influencing students’ motivationThe exploration of the motivational theories showed that the different
motivational theories all offered approaches to influencing motivation.
However, it also revealed that the different theories had difficulties in dealing
with the dialectical nature of motivation and difficulties taking the many
ecological factors into account. The results of the review in chapter three
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showed a high occurrence of social approaches to influencing motivation, as
well as approaches assigning a certain amount of influence to the students.
Both socially oriented interventions and interventions giving students a
choice have been implemented in order to enhance students’ motivation. It
should, however, be noted that merely focusing on the social side to learning
does not automatically lead to student motivation. In order to effectively learn
in a social fashion, students need to have skills in for example cooperation and
self-regulation, and the task as well as the instruction needs a clear structure.
This is also in line with the dialectical nature of motivation, as explained in the
previous paragraph. Only focusing on making the characteristics of the task
attractive, by introducing group work, or making the person more competent
in performing tasks, by teaching specific strategies, is not enough to trigger
durable motivation.
Social and choice-oriented approaches to teaching and learning are
already well-known from educational theory. Based on the ideas of Dewey
(1938) and Vygotsky (1978), social and choice-oriented approaches to teaching
and learning have become popular as an alternative for frontal teaching and
rote learning of static contents. However, in Dewey’s theory the main goal
is experience. Social approaches to learning and students’ choice were the
means to bringing about experience. The same can be found in Vygotsky’s
theory, where the social approach and students’ choice are means to achieve
constructed knowledge. Social approaches to learning are supposed to
make the taught materials more framed into contexts in which the materials
will be used, to teach the students social and thinking skills, to educate
the students to be independent individuals, and to motivate them to learn
(Vygotsky, 1978). Rather, the social approaches and students’ choice should
be seen as contributing to “democratic” interaction (Biesta, 2007) of teachers
and students. This democratic interaction in turn contributes to Dewey’s
experience and Vygotsky’s constructed knowledge.
Besides a social and choice-oriented approach, in chapter three also
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a learning oriented approach was observed in the reviewed studies. This
approach focused more on self-regulating strategies and aimed at a local effect
on motivation, being regarding the self. This approach was not as widely
represented as the social and choice-oriented approach, but nevertheless also
showed promising results for influencing motivation regarding the self. In
the empirical studies, the approach teaching self-regulation strategies to the
students was not found to produce effects different from the control group.
Apparently the aim of the intervention is too local, and no transfer to other
processes or situations takes place. The SRSD intervention originally was
constructed to intervene on a specific area, being writing. It has been shown
to produce strong effect in that area. However, since motivation is a complex
concept and is related to various other concepts, in line with Campione
(1987), local interventions do not sort an effect, and especially not on the long
term, since that would demand for extensive transfer to other situations and
problems.
Thus, as was already stated in chapter one and confirmed in the
empirical studies in chapter four and five, interventions based on the
rational-cognitive approach to influencing motivation are too specific to bring
about durable change in motivation since they focus on local processes and
processes regarding parts of motivation. In the organismic interaction-focused
approach, these issues are overcome. The interaction-focused approach
focuses on the process instead of on the outcome. Interventions based on the
interaction-focused approach strive towards democratic interaction between
students and teachers or between students and their environment in a more
global sense. This democratic interaction is characterized by student choice
or influence and social knowledge construction. In this approach, the quality
of the interaction is determining for students’ motivation. High quality
interaction stimulates students’ competence in dealing with the tasks and the
environment, by for example offering tailor-made strategies or feedback, and
adapts the environment to the students, by, for example, offering students
Conclusion and discussion
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influence on lesson contents or instruction formats. This should enable
students to achieve experience and construct knowledge, and therefore feel
competent in dealing with the environment.
One advantage of the interaction-focused approach is that it can deal
with the dialectical nature of motivation and the educational field and the
demands from the educational environment, since the approach focusses on
process and quality of interaction. These processes and the interaction can
be adapted to different contexts and situations. This makes the approach
generalizable and ecologically valid, since it can be adapted to different
specific target ecologies, but also societally credible size it can be adapted to
the demands of the particular school. Another advantage of the interaction-
focused approach is that it creates the opportunity to interpret the mechanism
of motivation in everyday behavior instead of new abstract concepts that have
to be related to behavior or tasks. The key to influencing students’ motivation
appears to be in the interaction between the students and the teacher or the
students in the environment, or, in other words, the pedagogical relationship
between student and the teacher or the student and the learning environment.
The interaction can be judged to have high pedagogical quality when it
contributes to democratic influence and knowledge construction. High quality
pedagogical interaction is believed to foster students’ motivation.
To some extent, the interaction-focused approach resembles the ideas
of the self-determination theory, in which motivation is said to be fostered
by giving students a sense of belonging, structure, and autonomy. From this
perspective, it can be concluded that these studies have offered theoretical and
empirical prove for the self-determination theory without actually using self-
determination operationalization or questionnaires. One might even say that
the findings in these studies extent on self-determination theory knowledge,
since knowledge produced on how to translate the self-determination idea of
an environment fostering relatedness, competence, and autonomy to actual
classroom situations, in the form of knowledge construction and teacher-
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student democratic interaction.
The above clearly shows the contribution of a theoretical exploration
to the understanding of motivation and how to influence motivation.
Additionally, it shows that the ultimate test of understanding of motivation is
to be found in the classroom. The exploration of theory was needed to tell the
different theories apart in their working mechanisms and develop a framework
for understanding motivation. Ultimately, however, these theories and this
framework have to be applied in the classroom. Since so many different
ecological situations and influences can be identified in the educational field,
the real understanding of motivation has to be sought in specific classroom
situations. This is why the interventions constructed and implemented in
the fourth and fifth chapter were not so much aimed at directly influencing
students’ motivation, by for example making the tasks more interesting or
the students perceiving themselves as more competent. Rather an indirect
approach was chosen in which the students gained feelings of control over
their academic achievements and the interaction of the teachers with the
students was improved. Neither were the teachers trained in interaction skills,
but rather in an interactive vision on students’ behavior, as well as a tailor-
made approach of learning contents. Additionally, in the approach combining
Self-Regulated Strategy Development with Behavioral Consultation the
interactive vision was implemented school-wide, in order to supply teachers
with additional support. This created the necessary pre-conditions for high
quality teacher-student pedagogical interaction, with the opportunity for
the teachers to incorporate their personal teaching skills and beliefs into the
approach, as well as the situational demands. In the empirical chapters, the
effects of the approach were explored in a target group with specific features
and background, pre-vocational education students. By placing emphasis
on student care in the interaction approach, the specific demands of this
target group were fitted into the approach. Consequently, the theoretical
contribution of this thesis can be found in a general exploration of motivation
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and how it can be influenced, combined with a specific exploration of effects
an approach based on the general exploration on students’ motivation in a
specific target group.
Practical significanceIn addition to the theoretical contributions in the previous paragraphs, practical
contributions can be noted of the research. These practical contributions are
the next steps towards the final aim of formulating recommendations on how
to stop the decline in students’ motivation. The theoretical explorations of
motivation and the educational field, and the empirical explorations of the
effects of interventions based on the theoretical findings with a specific target
group, produced practical implications for teacher knowledge and teacher
professionalization. First, this thesis offers practical knowledge to teachers
on what motivation is, and on how to influence motivation. This knowledge
can easily be translated to applicable teacher behavior and is suitable for
implementation in specific target groups and in different educational
situations. Second, teacher professionalization is indispensable for quality
of pedagogical interaction and dealing with classroom challenges. These
practical implications will be considered in the next section.
Teacher knowledge and understanding of motivationTeachers want to know how they can positively influence students’ motivation.
When students’ motivation declines, this affects the teaching situation, and
consequently also students’ performance. In order to be able to influence
students’ motivation, the teachers need knowledge on motivation that they can
understand and translate to classroom behavior. Furthermore, for teachers to
judge knowledge as applicable, it has to be suitable for use in, or adaptive to, a
range of different contexts and educational situations. The research in chapter
four and five of this thesis showed that the approach combining SRSD and BC
described and explored on effects indeed did respond to these two demands.
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Therefore, this thesis provides knowledge to be of added value to teachers.
First, the results in the chapters three till five of this thesis show
that something can be done to stop the decline in students’ motivation and
that teachers can play a role in this process. What can be done is formulated
in concrete teaching goals, such as attention for quality teacher-student
interaction, democratic knowledge construction, and mastery-based
learning. In short, motivation is being assumed to be fostered by quality of
pedagogical interaction. Therefore recommendations made by the approach
explored in this thesis aim at achieving or maintaining high quality of
pedagogical interaction. These recommendations are on how teachers can
develop and maintain a dynamic vision on students, assess possible grounds
for remediation of problems, device tailor-made solutions for problems, and
thereby develop a durable culture of interaction and knowledge construction
within the school. This stimulates teachers to create a balance between
conveying and constructing knowledge, to help students develop into human
beings that autonomously can make choices, and to ‘think outside of the
box’ during problem-solving. Additionally, by monitoring and evaluating
the quality of their interaction with students, teachers are able to develop
a more accurate picture of their own teaching and pedagogical quality, as
well as of the students’ academic potential and possible problem areas. This
will stimulate teachers to continuously reflect on their own behavior and
develop their own identity as an educational and pedagogical professional.
Furthermore, when teachers’ attention is focused on problem solving, they
become aware of the positive contributions of individual differentiation and
effective teacher-student interaction. When teachers learn to see every student
as a unique individual in need of an individualized approach, they will be
less likely assess students’ behavior as aversive, and they will probably feel
more efficacious in dealing with differences between and within students. By
focusing on increasing or maintaining high quality of pedagogical interaction
as a way to fostering motivation, the more abstract sides of motivation,
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which were discussed in the previous paragraphs concerning the theoretical
significances, are being translated to applied behavior. Not only does it
make certain characteristics of high quality interaction clear and applicable
in the classroom for teacher, it also reminds teachers of the importance and
significance of pedagogical interaction.
So far, only the teachers’ role in achieving high quality of interaction has
been discussed. Interaction, however, demands for at least two ‘actors’. The
approach explored in this thesis has attention for both sides of the interaction.
Students are being taught self-regulation skills and strategies, which allows
them to regulate their own learning and maintain positive perceptions of
their own competence. The goal is that the students eventually will be able to
autonomously and efficaciously interact with the tasks and the demands of the
environment. Self-regulation, as it was operationalized in the implemented
interventions, should be seen as self-management in interaction situations.
This is especially valuable for students in lower educational tracks, since
they are more likely to have negative experiences in their interaction with
the environment. When the students are more able to regulate their own
learning, they will be more able to participate in the interaction, for example
when knowledge is constructed socially or when a teacher tries to assess what
will be the next step in learning on which the teacher can aim the instruction
(Randi & Corno, 2000). Additionally, a good fit between the students’ goals
and strategies has been shown to be beneficial for students’ performance
(Renkema & Van Yperen, 2008), which means that the students need well-
adjusted strategies to translate their motivation to classroom behavior. In the
empirical studies, no effect on the interventions was observed in the students’
self-regulation scores, probably because of the specificity of the questionnaire
used. Some effects which were assumed to be related to self-regulation were
observed in the students’ scores on ego-orientation (see chapter 5). On the
other hand, the results of the empirical studies show, that only focusing on
teaching students self-regulation strategies does not bring about durable
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change in students’ motivation, while the combined approach, focusing
on students, teachers, and school-wide support, does. Additionally, since
interaction involves multiple persons, the responsibility for the quality of the
outcomes is shared. These skills in self-regulated learning, self-management,
and additionally shared responsibility for outcomes are not only important to
improve student motivation, but also can be expected to contribute to student
achievement and a decrease in their tendency to drop-out.
In this thesis, no actual assessment was made of the quality of
interaction of the teachers with the students. There are two reasons for this.
First, making classroom observations was judged to be too time consuming
and beyond the scope of this project. Second, no good instrument for the
assessment of the interaction quality was available. Until recent day, the
question What makes high pedagogical quality? has not been answered to
satisfaction (see also Minnaert, Lutje Spelberg, & Amsing, 2009). Rather,
in this thesis, the responsibility of the judgment of quality is placed by the
teachers. The teachers are stimulated to assess the quality of their interaction
with the students and to continuously try to improve this quality. Therefore,
as a manipulation check, not so much observations of teacher interaction
behavior was assessed on quality of interaction, but the change in the vision
of the teachers on their behavior towards the students, especially the students
demanding special educational care, was assessed. For both intervention
conditions, this change in vision was observed among the participating
teachers, albeit that in the combined condition the change in vision had
evolved into school-wide ownership of the vision.
In addition to offering understandable and applicable advice to
teachers, the approach to fostering motivation explored in this thesis is
suitable for use in different situations and contexts. The interventions do
not aim at motivating students for tasks or making tasks more motivating.
Instead, they aim at achieving or maintaining high quality of pedagogical
interaction. As was shown in chapter three, motivating students for tasks or
Conclusion and discussion
196
making tasks more motivating lacks in generality and durability. This means
that a teacher continuously has to apply motivating practices for new tasks or
situations, and it makes it difficult to achieve an enduring effect. Furthermore,
the approach of motivating students or making tasks more motivating is
in threat of lacking individual differentiation. Due to the complex nature
of motivation, inter- and intra-individual differences are very likely to be
observed in what is effective to motivate students. In addition to choosing
an aim of the interventions that can be adapted to situational or contextual
demands, the recommendations being made by the interventions are also
suitable for adaption or integration. The recommendations are not so much
teaching strategies on how to improve the quality of the interaction. Rather
they are on vision and problem solving, thereby creating a situation fostering
high quality interaction behavior. This was made clear by the fact that the
approach was found to be effective with a specific target population. The aim
of the interventions was achieving or maintaining high quality pedagogical
interaction. With this specific population, the means of achieving high quality
pedagogical interaction was by working towards effective problem solving
and high quality student care. With a different target population, it may well
be that high quality pedagogical interaction is achieved in a different way.
By being able to answer to the specific demands of the target population,
ownership of the interventions could be achieved among the teachers and the
school, and durable effects could be achieved with the students. Additionally,
this contributes to the societal credibility of the approach. The expertise and
experience of the teachers is used in the adaption of the ideas represented in
the approach to the specific teaching situation.
The results in chapter four and five clearly show that in order to
achieve a durable effect on students’ motivation a school-wide approach is
needed. This finding can be attributed to the nature of pedagogical quality
and the multi-leveled structure of education. An approach to achieving
high pedagogical quality cannot be limited to an interaction between
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a teacher and a student on a local level. It has to be implemented school-
wide and demands collaboration, communication, knowledge sharing, and
vision building among teachers and administrators. This was illustrated by
the fact that in the combined condition, the school administrator indicated
that the school saw important implications of the approach for group-wise
evaluations by the teachers of student performance. The approach was judged
to show potential as a guideline for group-wise evaluating the students and
solving student problems. The dynamic vision on students and interactive
vision on problem solving was lifted to the inter-teacher level. Furthermore,
since the educational field has a leveled structure and these levels influence
each-other, an approach to motivation has to be made uniform school-
wide in order to have an effect; otherwise the influences from other levels
will threaten the pedagogical quality and teachers efficacy to effectively
interact with the students (see chapter two). In order to support the teacher
in dealing with challenges concerning student learning and motivation
cooperatively with the students, the school also has to confront challenges
and stimulate teacher professionalization. This once again emphasizes that an
approach to influencing students’ motivation transcends the knowledge on
motivation, and includes learning, problem solving, students’ remedial care,
teacher professionalization, and organizational development (Van den Berg,
Vandenberghe, & Sleegers, 1999). An interdisciplinary approach is needed to
answer to the ecological demands and bring about durable effects.
Teacher professionalizationIn this thesis, a picture is painted of motivation resulting from quality of
pedagogical interaction. As stated in the previous paragraph, the scope of the
interventions goes beyond motivation, and includes topics such as problem
solving, students remedial care, self-regulation, and school-wide vision
building and collaboration. For teachers, in order to maintain high quality
pedagogical interaction, knowledge and skills are necessary. Teachers have to
Conclusion and discussion
198
deal with the challenges they face in the classroom. Especially with the specific
population of pre-vocational secondary education students, many students
have additional needs and target care is requested for them. This thesis
shows the importance of teacher professionalization for student motivation
as well as the added value for teachers themselves. Professionalization
should be defined broadly, covering the many subjects involved in teaching.
Professionalization can contribute to the quality of teaching, the quality of
pedagogical interaction, and therefore has a wide array of positive influences,
ranging from student performance to student motivation, effective problems
solving, and teacher motivation.
As shown in chapter two, teacher professionalization is influenced
by the complex nature and the multi-level structure of the educational field.
Teachers tend to be somewhat skeptical towards educational interventions.
This can partly be attributed to the fact that teachers have been confronted
with abundant reform initiatives and policy change over the last decades.
However, additionally to this, interventions do not always respond to the
immediate demands of applicability and adaptability to different situations
or contexts. Interventions have to appear useful to the teachers, have to be
suitable to their teaching situation and possible to achieve, and have to fit
into their subjective ideas on teaching (Gregoire, 2003). On the other hand,
the teachers should be stimulated to elaborate on the information, integrate
it into their existing knowledge, and reflect on the links between the different
subjects. Their subjective theories on teaching contributes to their ability to
deal with the unpredictability of the environment, and revising these theories
is not always an attractive idea since the theories serve as safe knowledge
to fall back on (Lee & Porter, 1990). However, the teachers need to remain
critical on their subjective theories and be prepared to revise them or add new
information to them when needed.
Additionally, the school on an organizational level can be either
facilitative or detrimental to teacher professionalization and implementation
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of the approach. The school can support the teachers in problem-solving by
supplying consultation, developing a shared vision, and making collaboration
possible. This collective responsibility, support, and ownership can help the
teacher do develop the professionalism and efficacy to overcome paradoxes
that can rise from the complex educational situation, or problems that are
specific to the target ecology (Nevin, Thousand, Paolucci-Whitcomb, &
Villa, 1990). A positive and democratic working atmosphere also stimulates
teachers to, in turn, contribute to the processes in the school (Van Yperen, Van
den Berg, & Willering, 1999), creating the opportunity for both the teachers
and the organization to continuously professionalize. Furthermore, in depth
analysis of differences between the two interventions in chapter five showed
that pedagogical quality goes beyond a local interaction between teacher and
students, and therefore should be encouraged school-wide. The results of
the studies in this thesis have strengthened the viewpoint that school-wide
implementation of the approach to changing motivation produces durable
effects on students’ motivation. On the other hand, as shown in chapter two,
even as local as within a school, paradoxes can rise. When schools on an
organizational level do not cooperate, successful execution of any approach is
likely to be a challenge (Boekaerts & Minnaert, 2003). For example, when school
administrators retract their support for an approach during implementation,
this will diminish the change that teachers will successfully adopt the
approach. The interdependency and the paradoxical nature of the educational
field make that there is a fine line between contribution and interference by
the people involved. Therefore, taking the school organizational level into
account is irrefutable when trying to achieve teacher professionalization
(Nevin et al., 1990).
Methodological considerations and future research Several methodological factors were conducive to the theoretical and practical
Conclusion and discussion
200
contributions of this thesis. Some choices regarding the research design and
methodology were made in order to purchase a combination of high scientific
credibility and high societal credibility, as was recommended in chapter two.
These choices have both advantages and disadvantages. Answering to all of
the demands of scientific credibility and societal credibility can be problematic
due to issues of compatibility of the demands as well as due to practical issues.
In this paragraph, the rationale behind choices regarding the research design
and methodology will be discussed, as well as their consequences.
One strength of this study is that it involves both theoretical
considerations and empirical evaluation in its methodology. Another strength
is that the study can be rated high on ecological validity. The first strength, the
inclusion of both theoretical considerations and empirical evaluation in the
study has its advantages for the internal validity of the study. Multiple data
sources and qualitative and quantitative methods have been used. The fact
that different data sources yielded comparable conclusions and that findings
of previous research were confirmed by findings in this research contributes
to the credibility of the causal relationships between the concepts and the
empirical findings (Krathwohl, 1998) and the trustworthiness (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985) of the findings. Additionally, the combination of theoretical
and empirical sources contributed to the construct validity (Shadish, Cook,
& Campbell, 2002) of the findings regarding the concept of motivation.
The combination of theoretical and empirical sources made it possible to
develop a thorough understanding of motivation, which was needed to
make recommendations for applied classroom behavior. Since motivational
theory still had many unanswered questions, exploratory steps had to be
made from motivational theory to classroom practice. These explorations
lead to an approach that focused on quality of pedagogical interaction
instead of motivational strategies. The advantages are that these exploratory
steps have led to an approach that is able to deal with the dialectical nature
of motivation and is adaptable to the demands of the educational field
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demands. Furthermore, it responds to a call made by Minnaert (2013), to not
only investigate the effects for example interventions have on achievement
goals, but also the processes underlying those effects. Based on the results
of this thesis, teacher-student interaction and pedagogical quality can be
concluded to play a role in students’ motivation, and therefore the relations
of these subjects with motivation should be investigated more elaborately
in future research. The former is already studied within the approach of the
self-determination theory (e.g. Maulana, 2012), and the latter with regard
to students’ self-image (e.g. Wentzel, 1997), but neither has produced many
intervention studies yet. For a future research agenda, an explicit focus on
intervention studies aiming at student motivation, student performance, and
teacher motivation, is strongly requested.
Regarding the research design, however, not all of the demands for
internal validity could be met. A higher number of participants per condition
would have improved the power of the test to detect effects of the interventions.
Random assignment of schools to conditions, multiple groups per treatment,
and more extensive manipulation checks would have contributed to the
credibility of the causality of the relationship between treatment and effect and
therefore the internal validity of the findings (Shadish et al., 2002). Practical and
societal issues made these demands very difficult to meet. In the Netherlands,
participation of schools to research is not obligatory. Many schools judge
participation as too cumbersome and time-consuming. This made it hard to
recruit a large amount of participating schools for the research. Assigning
students to conditions within schools was judged to be undesirable, since it
would have increased the threat of contamination between conditions, and
since one of the conditions had to be implemented school-wide. Furthermore,
since the schools had extensive demands regarding the interventions, random
assignment of schools to conditions was impossible. The characteristics
of the conditions had to (to some extent) fit the demands of the schools,
otherwise they would not participate. By matching schools to conditions the
Conclusion and discussion
202
ecological validity of the design was increased, but the internal validity of the
research design was decreased. The weaknesses in the research design were
compensated by methodological choices. Multilevel growth curve analysis
was used to deal with for example the problems of low number of participants
and low statistical power. This procedure is pretty robust to attrition of
participants, and shows trends in addition to significances. Furthermore,
multiple measurement moments were used. The importance of using a
longitudinal approach was illustrated by the results of the empirical studies.
On the short term, no differences were observed between the conditions. On
the long term, the differences were striking. Research without a longitudinal
measurement is in danger of stimulating easy-to-implement local approaches
and teaching-to-the-test. This research shows that besides a local approach,
a generic approach is necessary to achieve durable effects. Future research
should include a longitudinal design, as well as interventions that are broadly
oriented and implemented. Statistical techniques become more advanced,
making longitudinal research and research including multiple components
possible.
Another issue regarding the research design was the external validity
of the design. Since the recruitment of participants was problematic, not all
demands of external validity could be met. By using a large design with
random sampling and multiple groups per treatment, the generalizability of
the findings would be increased (Shadish et al., 2002). These weaknesses in the
research design were to some extent compensated by the use of multiple data
sources and qualitative and quantitative methods. The approach to influencing
students’ motivation was based on general findings of the exploration of
motivation and the educational field, and therefore generally formulated.
The aim of the interventions was to achieve or maintain high quality in
pedagogical interaction, and the way to do that was to stimulate the teacher
to cooperatively construct an approach to classroom problem solving and
student care. A general framework grounded in careful scientific explorations
Chapter 6
203
was formed, and an adapted version was created to respond to the demands
of the target ecology. The generally formulated approach did indeed show
potential to be adapted into effective interventions responding to the specific
demands of the target population, thereby suggesting generalizability of the
approach. Future research is advised, however, to include larger designs
with random selection, and many different participating schools in order to
produce empirical prove of the external validity of the findings
The ecological validity of the findings can, on the other hand, argued
to be high. It was already stated that this is a strength of this study. Qualitative
and quantitative methods were used in order to achieve a thorough
understanding of both motivation and the educational field. This led to a more
ecologically valid approach and the opportunity to oversee the relationships
between abstract concepts and applied behavior. For example, detailed
information on the implementation processes and teaching contents could be
involved in the research when investigating motivation. The approach was
not only high on ecological validity in the sense that it showed potential to be
applied in different contexts and situation, but also the eventual interventions
answered to the features and demands of the target ecology. The proof for both
forms of ecological validity (see chapter two) was delivered by the fact that
the approach was successfully implemented with a specific target population,
and the approach showed effects on this specific target population.
Additionally, ecological validity of the construction and
implementation of the approach has contributed to what in chapter two
was called the societal credibility of the approach. Since the eventual aim
of this thesis was the first step towards an approach that could be credibly
implemented in a classroom ecology, the educational field was subjected
to a thorough analysis. This yielded valuable conclusions on what would
be facilitating in constructing and implementing interventions that would
answer to demands of the classroom environment. This information could be
used in the empirical studies. The implementation at school level, for example,
Conclusion and discussion
204
had positive effects on the degree to which intervention participation of
teachers and school evolved into ownership. The reactions during the follow-
up session in the combined condition showed that the school had developed
ownership on the parts of the approach that they could use to improve
their current proceedings. Thus, the societal credibility of the approach was
increased by first using information on the target ecology in the construction
of the interventions, but second and foremost, by letting the target ecology
construct their own version of the approach. Additional positives for the
educational field were relative short implementation trajectories as well as a
constructivist approach to intervention contents during the training sessions.
However, future research could include further explorations of the target
ecology in the form of classroom observations and elaborate explorations of
teachers’ beliefs. This can be expected to have positive effects on ecological
validity and treatment fidelity.
When considering the scientific and societal credibility of this
research, it must be concluded that regarding scientific credibility a lot of
demands were met, but also several demands could not be met. In order
to produce evidence-based advice on how to stop the decline in students’
motivation, large designs with randomization, multiple conditions, and
many participating schools are needed, and the findings need to be replicated
(Cook & Payne, 2002). It was beyond the scope of this project to subject every
step of this research to strict methodological demands. The research in this
thesis did succeed in performing the needed exploratory steps that could
yield necessary and scientifically valid knowledge to work towards such an
evidence-based approach in the future. Regarding societal credibility, many
steps were set in order to answer to the demands of the educational field. In
this way, this research can be concluded to include many of the steps in the
model of Levin and O’Donnell (1999) as discussed in chapter two. The final
test of the validity of the framework was placed in the field. Future research
on motivation should further work towards a design that is possible to yield
Chapter 6
205
evidence-based knowledge on approaches to fostering motivation that also
answer to ecological demands.
Final conclusions
This thesis should not be seen as a plea for a new framework or theory of
motivation. The existing motivational theories are theoretically sound based
on empirical evidence and therefore should not be disregarded. This thesis
does, however, argue for an interaction oriented view on motivation, its
components, and the way it is influenced. This is not entirely new, indeed some
of the theory behind it can already be found in White’s 1959 article. Neither is
the link between motivation and pedagogical interaction (see Wentzel, 1997).
However, an exploration of recent interventions on motivation in chapter three
shows that the rational-cognitive approach is still the predominant approach
to changing motivation. By focusing on only a part of motivation, a durable
change for all students is hard to achieve. On the other hand, by only focusing
on interaction, crucial motivational mechanisms become lost out of sight. An
interaction approach, stimulating pedagogical quality and taking knowledge
on motivation into account, should be on the agenda for motivational research
for the future. A tailor-made approach, with pedagogical quality, and school-
wide vision and collaboration, adaptable to specific target populations, should
be the objective for educational professionals.
Conclusion and discussion
206
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Motivatie: hoe de olifant in de klas te temmen? Een studie met als doel meer te begrijpen van motivatie, en de effecten van
interventies te testen op de motivatie van leerlingen in het VMBO-onderwijs.
Nederlandse samenvatting
In deze thesis wordt onderzoek gedaan naar de ontwikkeling van motivatie
van middelbare scholieren, meer specifiek scholieren in het voorbereidend
middelbaar beroeps onderwijs (VMBO). Eerdere studies hebben laten zien
dat de motivatie van scholieren over het algemeen tijdens de middelbare
schoolperiode afneemt, en dat vooral VMBO scholieren een kwetsbare groep
is die vaker problemen heeft met leren en een hoger percentage drop-out
laat optekenen dan andere niveaus. Daarom is besloten onderzoek te doen
naar wat voor aanpak gebruikt kan worden om deze afname in motivatie te
verminderen, en deze aanpak in de vorm van een interventie te toetsen bij
VMBO scholieren. Vooraf is duidelijk dat een multidisciplinaire benadering
van belang is, gezien de multi-level structuur van het onderwijs en de
complexiteit van de onderwijsomgeving. Niet alleen dient onderzoek gedaan
te worden naar het concept motivatie en hoe motivatie beïnvloed kan worden,
ook dient de omgeving waarin de aanpak geïmplementeerd moet worden en
de onderwijspraktijk grondig bestudeerd te worden, en dient de interventie
toegespitst te worden op een specifieke doelgroep, te weten VMBO scholieren.
Allereerst is de literatuur over motivatie en motivatietheorieën verkend om
de huidige stand van zaken in kaart te brengen. Op basis van de literatuur
over motivatie wordt gesteld dat motivatie een abstract concept waar vele
kanten aan zitten en dat (nog) niet duidelijk afgebakend is. Wat wel duidelijk
is, is dat motivatie voortkomt uit een interactie tussen de persoon, de taak en
de omgeving. Een samenvatting van de motivatietheorieën laat een dialectiek
Nederlandse samenvatting
232
zien tussen een vorm van motivatie die betrekking heeft op het zelf en een
vorm van motivatie die betrekking heeft op de taak, of in een bredere zin, de
omgeving. Wetenschappers hebben diverse micro-theorieën geconstrueerd
die elk specifieke mechanismes van één van beide vormen van motivatie
verklaren. Drie grote motivatietheorieën, te weten de expectancy-value theory
(Eccles et al., 1983), de achievement goal theory (zie bijv. Nicholls, 1984) en
de self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), omvatten beide vormen
van motivatie. Er zijn echter nog wel verschillen waar te nemen tussen deze
theorieën in hoe ze stellen dat de twee vormen van motivatie werken, hoe
ze stellen dat ze beïnvloed kunnen worden, en hoe ze stellen dat de twee
vormen van motivatie zich tot elkaar verhouden. Verdere informatie over
het vinden van een balans tussen het zelf en de omgeving (de twee vormen
van motivatie) is te vinden in literatuur over gedragsverandering en over
onderwijs. Deze literatuur schetst drie manieren waarop de relatie tussen het
zelf en de omgeving kan worden beïnvloed, namelijk 1) controle mechanismes
en zelfregulatie, 2) kennis constructie en democratische interactie, en 3)
omgevingen die autonomie of eigen keuze stimuleren. De conclusie na deze
theoretische verkenning van motivatie is dat motivatie een abstract en niet
eenduidig begrip is. Van de drie grote motivatietheorieën geeft achievement
goal theory de meeste aanwijzingen over hoe motivatie naar gedrag van de
leerling in de klas kan worden vertaald. Daarom is besloten dat deze theorie
het meest geschikt is als raamwerk om in deze studie de uitkomsten op het
gebied van motivatie bij de studenten te meten. Wat betreft het beïnvloeden van
motivatie en mogelijke inhoud van een interventie gericht op verandering in
de motivatie van studenten geven de grote motivatie theorieën geen duidelijk
omschreven aanbevelingen. Daarom zijn er twee doelen geformuleerd voor
deze thesis. Het eerste doel is om aanvullende inzichten te ontwikkelen over
hoe motivatie werkt en hoe motivatie beïnvloed kan worden. Het tweede doel
is om bij een specifieke doelgroep, namelijk VMBO-scholieren, de effecten
van benaderingen om motivatie van studenten te beïnvloeden te verkennen.
233
Om deze doelen te bereiken wordt 1) een verkenning gemaakt van literatuur
over de onderwijsomgeving om meer te weten te komen over de invloeden
van de multi-level structuur van het onderwijs, 2) een overzicht gemaakt van
literatuur over onderwijsinterventies gericht verandering in motivatie van
studenten, en 3) de informatie verkregen in deze verkenning en dit overzicht
gebruikt om interventies gericht op verandering van motivatie van VMBO-
scholieren te construeren, implementeren, en te evalueren.
Vervolgens is literatuur over implementatie van onderwijsinterventies
verkend in een theoretische beschouwing. Dit is gedaan om een goed beeld te
ontwikkelen van de omgeving waarin de interventies geïmplementeerd gaan
worden: het onderwijs, en om te verkennen wat factoren zijn die eventueel
een rol kunnen spelen in het implementatieproces. Zowel de rol van de
wetenschappers als die van de onderwijsprofessionals in de implementatie
van onderwijsinterventies is onder de loep genomen, aangezien meerdere
bronnen hebben gemeld dat het combineren van de eisen van de wetenschap
en de eisen van de praktijk een uitdaging is bij de implementatie van
onderwijsinterventies (zie bijv. Boekaerts & Minnaert, 2003; De Corte, 2000).
Een synthese van de omvangrijke literatuur op het gebied van doelen, eisen
en de betrokken spelers van de wetenschap en de praktijk brengt enkele
interessante nieuwe conclusies voort. Deze conclusies werpen niet alleen
een nieuw licht op waar de problemen bij het combineren van de eisen van
de wetenschappers en van de praktijk vandaan komen, maar brengen ook
praktische aanbevelingen met zich mee voor de constructie, implementatie,
en evaluatie van onderwijsinterventies. De belangrijkste bevindingen zijn dat
de wetenschap behoorlijk strenge eisen hanteert om de wetenschappelijke
geloofwaardigheid van de resultaten te bewerkstelligen. Daarnaast zijn er
diverse design oplossingen die de ecologische validiteit verhogen, ondanks
het feit dat niet iedereen het erover eens is in hoeverre er rekening gehouden
met worden met de praktijk situatie in interventieonderzoek. De praktijk
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234
vertoont meerdere paradoxen op het gebied van de doelen, overtuigingen,
en eisen van de spelers bij de implementatie van onderwijsinterventies.
Bovendien blijken de betrokkenen in hoge mate onderling afhankelijk. Wat
een interventie geloofwaardig voor de praktijk maakt is vooral de mate
waarin de interventie aan de verschillende eisen van de praktijk en al haar
spelers kan beantwoorden, en niet zo zeer aan strenge regels. Op basis van
deze bevindingen kunnen enkele implicaties geformuleerd worden voor
zowel onderwijs onderzoekers als onderwijs professionals die samenwerken
om onderwijsinterventies te implementeren. Wetenschappers moeten
rekening houden met de complexiteit van de onderwijsomgeving en de
pragmatische methodologie van de onderwijsprofessionals. Ook moeten ze
aandacht hebben voor het proces van implementatie en ‘warme variabelen’.
Tenslotte is het belangrijk dat wetenschappers zichzelf beschouwen als
onderdeel van het implementatieproces en daardoor als tevens een factor
van invloed. Onderwijsprofessionals moeten voortdurend reflecteren op
de valkuilen van hun pragmatische methodologie. Daarnaast moeten ze
proberen om de paradoxen te overbruggen die hun professie karakteriseren,
zoals de keuze tussen het nastreven van korte termijn oplossingen of lange
termijn onderwijsdoelen. De wetenschappers en de praktijk-professionals
moeten samenwerken aan een gemeenschappelijk taal, aan communicatie,
aan samenwerking, en aan wederzijds begrip. Alleen dan zijn ze in staat om
onderwijsinterventies die zowel hoge wetenschappelijke geloofwaardigheid
als hoge geloofwaardigheid voor de praktijk hebben succesvol in elkaar te
zetten, te implementeren, en te evalueren.
Nadat eerst de onderwijsomgeving en de implementatie van interventies is
geanalyseerd, wordt het concept motivatie verder verkend. Vooral aangezien
het concept motivatie vele kanten heeft, is het belangrijk om grondig te
begrijpen welk deel van motivatie effectief was in welk geval, en hoe dat
vertaald is naar implementatie in de klas. Dit is gedaan door recente studies
235
te bespreken die rapporteren over de effecten van onderwijsinterventies op
de motivatie van scholieren in de eerste jaren van de middelbare school.
Bij de analyse van de studies is gekeken naar het doel van de studies,
de karakteristieken van de interventies die gebruikt zijn, de empirische
uitkomsten van de interventies, en in welk motivatie-theoretisch kader de
studie past. De combinatie van theoretische en empirische analyse van de
interventies verschaft informatie over wat belangrijke factoren waren in de
operationalisering van het concept motivatie in een interventie in de klas, over
welke theoretische mechanismes het belangrijkst zijn als je motivatie probeert
te beïnvloeden, en welke combinaties van interventie karakteristieken
beschouwd kunnen worden als effectief. Bij de operationalisering van
motivatie in interventies in de klas bleek het belangrijk te zijn om oog te hebben
voor 1) de mate van keuze of persoonlijke invloed dat aan de studenten was
gegeven, en 2) de mate van sociale interactie die was gebruikt bij de constructie
van inhoud of bij de instructie van de taken. De meer sociaal georiënteerde
aanpakken werden iets vaker gebruikt dan de minder sociaal georiënteerde
aanpakken. Drie effectieve combinaties van interventie karakteristieken
werden waargenomen in de geanalyseerde studies: 1) studies die een
leerbenadering van motivatie hanteren in de vorm van een overeenkomstig
doel en uitkomst betreffende het zelf, en een zelf-gereguleerde aanpak met
statische inhoud en gestandaardiseerde instructie, 2) studies die een sociale
benadering van motivatie hanteren in de vorm van sociaal geconstrueerde
interventies die een positieve perceptie van de taak teweeg brengen, en 3)
studies die een co-regulatie aanpak van motivatie hanteren in de vorm van
een combinatie van sociale instructie, geconstrueerde inhoud, perceptie van
de taak als doel en uitkomst, maar ook met een transfer naar uitkomsten op
het gebied van het academische zelf. Bovendien liet de analyse zien dat alle
gevestigde theoretische benaderingen van motivatie vertegenwoordigd zijn
in de verschillende studies.
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De verkenning van theoretische literatuur over motivatie, literatuur over
de onderwijsomgeving en implementatie van interventies, en recente
empirische literatuur over onderwijsinterventies gericht op beïnvloeding van
de motivatie van middelbare scholieren levert de volgende conclusies op: 1)
motivatie is een abstract begrip dat verschillende kanten kent, 2) het is bij de
constructie, implementatie en evaluatie van onderwijsinterventies van belang
om rekening te houden met de doelen en eisen van zowel de wetenschap
als de onderwijspraktijk, en het liefst wetenschap en praktijk bij elkaar te
brengen, en 3) de dialectiek tussen motivatie wat betreft het zelf en motivatie
wat betreft de taak wordt ook in recente studies nog waargenomen en alleen
een aanpak die hoge mate van sociale instructie en geconstrueerde inhoud
bevat schept mogelijkheden om deze dialectiek te overstijgen. De informatie
uit deze verkenningen wordt gebruikt bij de constructie, implementatie en
evaluatie van de interventies in dit onderzoek.
Na in literatuurverkenningen nagegaan te zijn wat aandachtspunten zijn
voor interventies gericht op de beïnvloeding van motivatie van de studenten
en de implementatie van die interventies, is vervolgens het belangrijke doel
om in een empirische studie de effecten te evalueren van twee interventies
op de ontwikkeling over tijd van motivatie en zelfregulatie van studenten
in de eerste twee klassen van het VMBO. Voor de motivatiemeting worden
de ‘goal orientations’ gebruikt als uitkomst variabelen, vanwege het feit dat
‘goal orientations’ een sterke connectie met gedrag, zelfbeeld en zelfregulatie
hebben. Aangezien voor elk van de twee vormen van motivatie (betreffende
het zelf en betreffende de taak) een losse aanpak is geobserveerd in de
literatuurstudie van recente interventie-studies, is besloten om zowel een
aanpak die zich richt op zelfregulatie als een aanpak die zich richt op sociale
instructie en geconstrueerde inhoud te gebruiken om de interventies in elkaar
te zetten, in lijn met de gevonden aanpakken in de literatuurstudie. De twee
interventies zijn Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD), en Behavioral
237
Consultation (BC) met SRSD erin geïntegreerd. SRSD is gericht op het aanleren
van zelfregulatie strategieën aan de studenten en is vergelijkbaar met de
interventies die zich richten op zelfregulatie geobserveerd in de literatuurstudie
van recente interventie-studies. BC is gericht op probleemoplossing door
de leerkracht en het creëren van een omgeving die leren en motivatie
stimuleert. Deze aanpak is vergelijkbaar met de interventies geobserveerd in
de literatuurstudie van recente interventie-studies die zich richten op sociale
instructie en geconstrueerde inhoud. Beide interventies zijn geïmplementeerd
op het niveau van de leerkracht om duurzame effecten teweeg te brengen.
De gecombineerde conditie (BC en SRSD) is echter zo geïmplementeerd dat
de aanpak het niveau van de leerkracht zou ontstijgen en samenwerking en
probleemoplossing school breed zou initiëren. De resultaten van de multi-
level growth curve analyse laat een afname over tijd zien van motivatie en
zelfregulatie voor de controlegroep. De studenten in de gecombineerde BC en
SRSD conditie laten significant minder afname zien van ‘goal orientations’ op
de lange termijn in vergelijking met de controle groep. De SRSD conditie laat
geen afwijkende ontwikkeling van motivatie en zelfregulatie zien over tijd
in vergelijking met de controle groep. De conclusie is dat alleen het aanleren
van zelfregulatie-strategieën niet genoeg is om langdurige verandering in
motivatie van studenten teweeg te brengen. Kennelijk is het niet voldoende
om alleen maar lokale processen binnen studenten aan te spreken om de
motivatie van de studenten duurzaam te beïnvloeden. Door een schoolbrede
benadering van probleemoplossing, communicatie en samenwerking tussen
leerkrachten (BC) te combineren met het aanleren van zelfregulatie strategieën
(SRSD) wordt de motivatie van de studenten wel beïnvloed en wordt een
duurzaam effect teweeg gebracht op de ontwikkeling van de motivatie van
de studenten.
Aansluitend op de eerste conclusies over de effecten van de twee interventies
worden in een volgende empirische studie de verschillen tussen de twee
Nederlandse samenvatting
238
interventies meer diepgaand bestudeerd, zowel wat betreft de interventie
inhoud als wat betreft de effecten. Hiervoor wordt gebruik gemaakt van een
planned variation design. De enkel SRSD conditie vormt de minimale versie
van een aanpak om de motivatie van studenten te verhogen, en de SRSD
gecombineerd met BC conditie vormt de maximale versie van een aanpak
om de motivatie van studenten te verhogen. Op het gebied van de interventie
inhoud wordt gesteld dat BC een uitbreiding is van SRSD op de volgende
punten: 1) dat de aanpak van een probleem van de individuele student wordt
benaderd door de hele leeromgeving te analyseren, 2) dat het leerkrachten
actief stimuleert om te professionaliseren, en 3) dat het schoolbreed
samenwerking, visie ontwikkeling en ondersteuning van leerkrachten
stimuleert. De verschillende tussen de ontwikkelingen van motivatie en
zelfregulatie tussen de twee condities worden op de korte termijn en de lange
termijn vergeleken om de verschillen tussen de effecten van de minimale en
de maximale versie van de aanpak vast te stellen. In ‘task orientation’ worden
geen verschillen waargenomen op de korte termijn, maar op de lange termijn
laat de gecombineerde SRSD en BC conditie significant minder afname
zien dan de enkel SRSD conditie. In zowel de ‘ego-enhancing orientation’
als de ‘ego-defeating orientation’ wordt op de lange termijn een toename
geobserveerd bij de gecombineerde conditie, hetgeen een patroon benadering
van ‘goal orientations’ suggereert. De enkel SRSD benadering zorgt voor
enkele kleine effecten op de korte termijn, maar deze effecten zijn te klein
om significant te zijn en houden niet lang vol. De gecombineerde aanpak laat
blijvende effecten zien op de motivatie van de studenten. Dit laat zien dat
een schoolbrede verandering in de leeromgeving moet worden gemaakt om
duurzame effecten te bewerkstelligen op de motivatie van de studenten.
In de conclusie en discussie van de thesis wordt tenslotte teruggegrepen op
de allereerste onderzoeksvraag: Wat kan er gedaan worden om de afname
in motivatie van VMBO scholieren te verminderen?, worden de theoretische
239
significantie en de praktische significantie van het onderzoek aangegeven,
wordt de methodologie besproken, en worden implicaties voor toekomstig
onderzoek gegeven. Op theoretisch gebied draagt de thesis bij aan kennis
over motivatie en hoe motivatie beïnvloed kan worden. Zowel op theoretisch
als op empirisch gebied is er aanvullend bewijs geleverd voor het feit dat
motivatie dialectisch van aard is. Door motivatie vanuit een dialectisch
perspectief te benaderen kan zowel het zelf als de taak of omgeving een
rol krijgen in de beïnvloeding van de ontwikkeling van motivatie, of in de
oplossing van motivatieproblemen, in plaats van dat slechts één van de twee
een rol krijgt. Ook laat het onderzoek in deze thesis zien dat het invloed heeft
op de motivatie van de student wanneer in interactie de student invloed kan
hebben op de taak of de omgeving door middel van sociale kennisconstructie
en keuze. Vanuit een interactieperspectief kan omgegaan worden met de
dialectische aard van motivatie. Deze bevindingen hebben ook waarde op
praktisch gebied. De bevindingen over hoe motivatie beïnvloed kan worden
zijn waardevolle informatie voor leerkrachten, aangezien de theoretische
ideeën goed vertaalbaar zijn naar gedrag in de klas en concrete doelen voor de
leerkrachten, en de ideeën toepasbaar zijn in verschillende situaties. Niet alleen
laten de studies zien dat hoge kwaliteit van pedagogische interactie bijdraagt
tot motivatie van leerlingen, ook laten ze zien hoe leerkrachten pedagogische
interactie hoog van kwaliteit kunnen maken. Aangezien de leerkrachten wel
voortdurend de kwaliteit van de interactie moeten blijven monitoren, en hun
interactie moeten blijven aanpassen aan voortdurend wijzigende situaties, is
professionalisering van leerkrachten, het liefst schoolbreed georganiseerd en
ondersteund, onmisbaar.
Wat betreft de toegepaste methodologie wordt geconcludeerd dat de
combinatie van theoretisch en empirisch onderzoek, het gebruik van meerdere
databronnen en verschillende methodologieën bijdraagt aan conclusies
op het gebied van kennis over motivatie en de interne validiteit van de
conclusies. Enkele kenmerken van het empirische onderzoeksdesign zorgen
Nederlandse samenvatting
240
echter voor wat tekortkomingen op het gebied zowel de interne validiteit als
externe validiteit. Tot op zeker hoogte worden deze ondervangen door de
analysetechnieken. Het feit dat een algemeen theoretisch model kan worden
toegepast voor implementatie bij een doelgroep met zeer specifieke kenmerken
en dat de aanpak op basis van dit model vervolgens effectief blijkt te zijn bij
deze doelgroep maakt dat deze studie op het gebied van ecologische validiteit
sterk is. Dit heeft niet alleen positieve effecten voor de constructvaliditeit van
de theoretische ideeën, maar ook voor de geloofwaardigheid van de aanpak
en de bevindingen voor de praktijk.
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Dankwoord
Tijdens het doen van mijn onderzoek en het werken aan mijn proefschrift heb ik
samengewerkt met en ben ik gesteund door verschillende mensen. Graag wil
ik iedereen bedanken die een bijdrage heeft geleverd aan de totstandkoming
van mijn proefschrift. Enkelen wil ik in het bijzonder noemen.
Allereerst Alexander en Marie-Christine, mijn promotor en co-promotor:
Jullie deelden met mij de kennis die nodig was voor het verrichten van
wetenschappelijk onderzoek op hoog niveau. Daarnaast hebben jullie mij de
vrijheid en het vertrouwen gegeven om (delen van) het onderzoek op mijn
manier te doen. Ik heb erg genoten van de inhoudelijke discussies. Dikwijls
ging ik een gesprek in met een bepaald idee waar nog wat haken en ogen aan
zaten, en wisten we het idee in een goed gesprek in een vorm te gieten die ik
in ieder geval vooraf niet had zien aankomen. Kennisconstructie in optima
forma!
Graag wil ik de leden van de leescommissie, de hooggeleerde heren
Martens, Vermunt en Van Yperen, bedanken voor het beoordelen van mijn
proefschrift. Ik zie er naar uit om met u van gedachten te wisselen tijdens mijn
verdediging.
Ik wil de vele mensen die ik heb ontmoet en mee heb samengewerkt
tijdens mijn promotie graag bedanken. Met mijn collega’s van de sectie Leer- en
Onderwijsproblemen heb ik vele vergaderuren gedeeld (dikwijls interessant
en zo nu en dan vol vuur), vaak samengewerkt (een goed programma voor
de terugkomdagen), en leuke informele momenten beleefd (o.a. Brussel).
Anke: bedankt voor de gezelligheid en de interesse vanaf de eerste dag. Els:
bedankt voor de ervaring die je met me gedeeld hebt in het werk, maar ook
de gezelligheid en menselijkheid naast het werk. Jorith: de terugkomdagen
samen waren erg leuk. Ernst: bedankt voor de levendige discussies. Marieke:
bedankt voor je hulp bij mijn onderzoek en tijdens de trainingen op de scholen.
Dankwoord
242
Ook de jonge collega’s van het AiO-huis en later de Bladergroenvleugel wil ik
graag bedanken voor de steun en de gezelligheid. Tim: dank je voor je morele
leiding en vriendschap. Ook Susan, de laatste student die ik begeleid heb:
bedankt voor de interessante overlegmomenten.
Ik wil mijn collega’s uit Amsterdam bedanken: Thea, Ineke, Lisette en
Jaap. Niet alleen hebben we interessante inhoudelijke discussies gehad, maar
ook was het elke keer erg gezellig (soms tot laat) bij onze overlegmomenten
en op de congressen. I want to thank Stuart Karabenick for his advice on my
research and my thesis, especially concerning the second chapter.
Additionally, I want to thank my friends from the 2010 ICM Porto
Summerschool and the other international colleagues I have met at the
different ICM and EARLI conferences. I am glad that I have met all of you,
especially the Summerschool friends. Talking to you has been really inspiring
and a lot of fun. I hope we will stay in touch and meet many more times.
Graag wil ik de verschillende scholen die hebben meegewerkt aan
mijn onderzoek bedanken. Hartelijk dank aan de afdelingscoördinatoren
die de trainingen en de dataverzamelingen mogelijk hebben gemaakt, aan
de leerkrachten die hebben deelgenomen aan mijn interventies, en aan de
leerlingen die mijn vragenlijsten hebben ingevuld.
Ik ben erg blij dat mijn nichten Myra en Lotte de opmaak van mijn
thesis en een illustratie voor de voorkant hebben verzorgd. De thesis ziet er
schitterend uit!
Mijn goede vrienden Roderick en Dries: Ik wil jullie bedanken voor
de steun de afgelopen jaren. Bedankt voor de momenten dat jullie zeiden
“neem gewoon nog een biertje” als ik wel wat ontspanning kon gebruiken,
maar ook bedankt voor de momenten dat jullie begrip hadden als ik aangaf
dat ik nu geen tijd had. Ps: vanaf nu heb ik tijd, dus maar een biertje en niet te
weinig Led Zeppelin?
243
Dankwoord
Mijn familie heeft me enorm gesteund tijdens mijn promotietraject. Papa en
mama: Jullie waren er altijd voor me en hebben feilloos aangevoeld wat ik
nodig had. Mijn broer en zus Hugo en Laura: bedankt voor jullie voortdurende
interesse. Mijn lieve oma: Dat u elke keer tegen me zegt hoe trots u op me bent
maakt mij op mijn beurt zó trots. Carin, Carlijn en Willemijn: ook jullie hebben
voortdurend interesse getoond. Dank daarvoor.
Bijzonder dankbaar ben ik mijn paranimf, kamergenoot en collega van
het eerste uur Kim. We hebben zo veel samengewerkt, zo veel inhoudelijke
gesprekken gehad, zo veel samen uitgezocht. Ik heb veel bewondering voor je
kennis en de manier waarop jij jouw project hebt uitgevoerd. Doordat je vaak
anders dacht dan ik heb je mij dikwijls een andere kant van de zaak kunnen
laten zien. Ik kijk met heel veel plezier terug op onze samenwerking.
Een persoon zou eigenlijk een eigen dankwoord verdienen in dit proefschrift.
Dit is mijn lieve vriendin, collega en paranimf Marlous. Lieve Marlous,
zonder jou was dit proefschrift er simpelweg niet gekomen (en je weet wat
het betekent als ik zoiets zeg). Je hebt meegewerkt aan een hoofdstuk, mij
mentaal gesteund tijdens moeilijkere periodes, als klankbord gefungeerd en
in de laatste maanden mij het leven zo gemakkelijk gemaakt dat ik hard kon
werken aan de afronding. Ik weet dat dit niet altijd makkelijk is geweest, zeker
aangezien je ook nog je eigen proefschrift had om mee bezig te zijn, en ik kan
dan ook niets dan bewondering voor jou hebben. Heel erg bedankt voor alles,
en op de komende (hopelijk wat rustigere) jaren: Proost!
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Curriculum Vitae
Arnout Prince is op 28 april 1982 geboren te Groningen.
Hij bezoekt het Praedinius Gymnasium in Groningen en geeft al op jonge
leeftijd hockeytraining aan verschillende leeftijdsgroepen. Vervolgens
gaat hij Psychologie studeren aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. Tijdens
zijn studie volgt hij vooral vakken Sociale Psychologie, hetgeen hij ook als
afstudeerrichting kiest. Daarnaast volgt hij ook vakken Sport
Psychologie, Ontwikkelings Psychologie, Onderwijs Psychologie en
Bewegingswetenschappen. Na afronding van zijn studie in 2007 werkt
Arnout gedurende twee jaar als fulltime professioneel hockeytrainer en
-coach, om vervolgens in 2009 aan de slag te gaan als promovendus aan de
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, afdeling Orthopedagogiek. Dit resulteert in het