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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

A STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF HIGH ENERGY PALM OIL SUPPLEMENTED DIETS ON BROILERS GROWTH

UNDER TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT

PAICHOK PANJA

FPV 1991 5

A STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF HIGH ENERGY PALM OIL SUPPLEMENTED DIETS ON BROILERS GROWTH

UNDER TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT

By

PAICHOK PANJA

Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty

of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science .

Universiti Pertanian Malaysia

September 1991

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would l i ke to thank the Malaysian and Thai land govern m ent fo r

awarding m e the scholarshi p under the Malaysian Technical Cooperation

Programme (MTCP) which enables me to undertake th is postg rad uate

studies.

I would l i ke to express my appreciation and sincere gratitude to my

supervisors, Professor Dr . Syed Jalaludin bin Syed Sal im and Professor

D r . M o h d . M a h y u d d i n b i n M o h d . Dahan of D epartm ent of A n i m a l

SCiences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Universiti

Pertan ian Malaysia, for their invaluable guidance and advice throughout

the course of this study and in the preparation of this thesis.

I wish to thank Dr . Gu lam Rusu l b i n Rahmat A l i , H ead of Food

Sc i e n c e D e partment , Facu lty of Sc ience and Food Tech n o logy, fo r

granting permission to use the gas chromatograph and Mr. Sivanesan and

Mr. Chan Tin Wah for their help during the gas chromatographic analyses.

I also wish to thank Associate Professor D r. Kassi m b i n Ham id,

Associate Professor Dr . Mohd. Al i Rajon , M rs . Ramlah Abd . Hamid and

Dr. Norhani bt. Abdul lah for their helpful comments and suggestions i n the

preparation of this thesis.

I am also i ndebted to my mother for her loving support in Thai land.

Fi na l ly, I wish to express my deepest g ratitude to my wife, Tassanee

Panja and my brother and sister for their encouragement and support and

to dedicate this thesis to my daughter, Kamonporn Panja.

i i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . .... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ..... . . .... ...... . . .. ........ .. . . . . . .. . ii

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. vii

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . xi

ABSTRACT . . . .. ..... . .. .. . . . ..... .. . . . ..... . . . . . . ........ ....... . . . .... .......... . . . . ...... . xv

ABSTRAK ...... . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . ..... . . . . . ...... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . xv

CHAPTER

I I

INTRODUCTION ..... . .. ... .. . . . . ... ... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 1

LITERATURE REVI EW .. . . . . . ... .... . .... . . ... . . .... . . . .... . .. . 3

Broiler Production in the Tropic............ . .............. ... 3

Climate . . . .. . .. ..... . . . . . ... . . . . .. .. . .... . ..... ...... . .... . .. .. . . 5

Disease . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ...... . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . .. . . . ... ... . .. .... . . 6

Marketing . ... ... . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. .... . . . . . . . ....... . 6

Feed and Feeding.. . . . .. ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 7

Management . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 7

Regu lation of Voluntary I ntake . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Dietary Factors Affecting Feed I ntake . .. ... . ... 9

Environmental Factors Affecting Feed I ntake . ... . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 1 3

Role of Fats in Diets ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 1 3

Lipids Digestion in Poultry . . . . . ..... . .. . . ... . ... . . . . .. 1 3

Metabolisable Energy of Fat... . ... .. .... .. . ....... .. 1 6

Effects of High Fat Diets... ........... ..... ............ 1 8

iii

I I I EFFECTS OF SUPPLEMENTATION OF PALM OI L IN ISONITROGENOUS DI ETS ON BROI LERS ... .. . 28

Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Animals and Diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Carcass Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1

Determination of Metabolisable Energy. . . . . . . . 3 1

Proximate Analysis . .. . . . . .... .. . . . . . .. . . . ... .... .. . . . .. . 33

Statistical Analysis . . . .... . .. ......... .... ..... . . . . . . . . .... 34

Results ......... . . ....... . . ....... . .. . . ..... . . . . ....... . . . . . . . ........ . . . .. 34

Feed · I ntake .. . . . . ..... ... . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Weight Gain . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Feed to Gain Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Nitrogen I ntake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Energy I ntake . . . . .. ... . . . ..... . . . . . . .. . .. ..... . . ... .. . .. .. ... 38

Body Composition .. . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . 38

Discussion . ... ... . ...... . . . ..... .. . . .. ..... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ..... . 4 1

IV EFFECTS OF SUPPLEMENTATION OF PALM OI L IN ISOCALORIC AND ISONITROGENOUS DIETS ON BROI LERS . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. .. . . ... . . . . .. . . . ... .... .. . . .. ... .. . . . . . 46

Materials and Methods . . . ... .. . . ...... . . . . .. . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . 46

Animals and Diets . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Carcasses Separation . . . . .... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Carcass Analysis . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .... ... . ...... . . . . . . . .. 51

Determination of Metabolisable Energy .. . . . . . . 5 1

Proximate Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1

Energy and Nitrogen Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1

Determination of Fatty Acids . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . .. 52

iv

v

Statistical Analysis . . .. . . . . . . . . ..... ... ........ . . . . .... . . .. 55

Results .. .... .... . .. . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ... ... . .. . . . .. .. . . . . ... . 55

Feed I ntake . ... . .. . ..... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . .... 55

Weight Gain . .. . . . . . . .... . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . ... 57

Feed Conversion . . ...... . . . . . ...... . . . . . .. . .. . ... . . . ..... . 58

Nitrogen I ntake . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ... . 59

Energy I ntake . . . . . .. ... .. . .. . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . ... . . 59

Nitrogen Retention . .... . . . .. .. . . .... .. . . .. . ... . . . . . . . .. .. . 60

Energy Retention .. .. . . . .... .. . . . ... . .. ... . . . .... . ......... 60

Body Composition . ... .. ....... ... . ... . .... . . . ... ......... . 61

Fatty Acid Composition i n the Muscles ....... . . 64

Discussion . . . .. . . . . . . ... .. . . . . . ..... . . . . .. ... . . . .. ....... ... . . . ........ . . 70

EFFECTS OF FAT SOURCES IN ISONITROGENOUS AND ISOCALORIC DIETS ON BROI LERS . ... . ... ...... . . . . . . ..... .. .. . . . . .. .. . .... .. 75

Materials and Methods ...... . . ............ ........ ..... ........... 75

Animals and Diets . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .......... ...... . . . . . . .... 75

Oil and Blending . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . .......... ........ . . . . . . . . 80

Carcasses Separation . . . . . . . .. .... . . . . . .. . .. . .. .... . . . . 80

Carcass Analysis . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ....... . 80

Determination of Metabolisable Energy ... ..... 80

Proximate Analysis . ...... . . . . .. ........... , . .. .... . . . . . . . 80

Determination of Fatty Acids . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 8 1

Statistical Analysis . . . . . ...... . . . . ............ . . .. . . . . . ... . 8 1

Resu lts . .. ...... . . . ... . . . . . . . ... . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... ....... .. . . . . .. . . 8 1

Feed I ntake ... ......... . . . . . ... .................. .. . . . ....... . 8 1

v

Weight Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83

Feed Conversion . . . . . . . . �........... . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .... . 83

Nitrogen I ntake . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . ... .... . . .. ..... . .... ..... . . 84

Energy I ntake . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . .. .......... ..... . . . . . ... . . . 84

Nitrogen Retention . . . . . . .. .. . ...... .. . .... .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 84

Energy Retention . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . .. . 84

Body Composition . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . ... . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. 85

Fatty Acid Composition i n the Muscles ... ... . . . 87

Discussion . . . . . ... . . ... . . . . . . ... . . . . . .. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . 91

VI GENERAL DISCUSSION . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 95

V I I CONCLUSION . . . . . . .... . . . . . .... . . . . ..... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 1 00

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . ... . . . . . ... . . . . . ... .. . . . .. . ... ....... . . . . ...... .. .. . . . . . 1 02

APPENDICES . . .. . . . . . ..... .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .... .. . . . .. .. .. . .. .... ... ..... . . . . .. . . . . . . ......... 1 1 6

VITA .......... .............. .......................................................... ............ 140

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Composition of Experimental Diets . . ... . . . . . . . ......... . ... . . . ....... . . . 30

2 Effects of Palm Oil Levels on Performance of Broilers . .. ........... ... . . . ................ ...... . . .... . ................ . .. .. ....... 35

3 Performance of Male and Female Broilers.......................... 36

4 Effects Palm Oil Levels on Body Weight............. ...... .. ......... 37

5 Effects of Palm Oil Levels on the Body Composition of Broilers ........ ............ ....... ..... .. . . . .... .. ... .. ...... . . 39

6 Effect of Sex on the Body Composition of Broilers .... . . . . .... ... .... ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

7 Composition of Experimental Diets . ........ . .. . . . ... .. . . ... . . .. . . ....... 48

8 Fatty Acid Composition of the Diets (Calculated Analysis NRC 1 984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .... . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ... 49

9 Fatty Acid Composition of the Experimental Diets (Determined Analysis) .. ........... ....... .. . . . . . . . .. . . . ........ ....... 50

1 0 Effects of Palm Oi l Levels on Broi lers' Performance .... .. . . . . .... .. . . . . . .... .... .... . . . . . . . .... . .. . . . . . .. .. ...... . . . . . ...... 56

1 1 Performance of Male and Female Bro ilers .................. ........ 57

1 2 Effects of Palm Oi l Levels in I socaloric Diets on Body Weight .... ......... ; . ... . . ... .... .. .. ... ....... ... ........ . . .. ... 58

1 3 Effects of Palm Oil Levels on the Body Composition of Broi lers . . ... . .......... ... .. .. . .. . .. ... . .... ... .. . ........ . ... . 62

1 4 Effect of Sex on the Body Composition of Bro i lers. .... . . ... . . . . .. ....... .. ... ..... . ..... .............. .................... . ....... 63

1 5 Effects of Palm Oil Levels on Fatty Acid Content of Breast Muscles .......... . ..... .. ... ...... ... .. . .. ..... .. .. ....... 65

1 6 Effect of Sex on Fatty Acid Content of Breast Muscles .............. ...... .......................... ....................... 66

1 7 Effects of Palm Oi l Levels on Fatty Acid Content of Thigh Muscles .... .................... . .......................... . 68

vii

Table Page

1 8 Effect of Sex on Fatty Acid Content of Thigh Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

1 9 Composition of Experimental Diets . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

20 Fatty Acid Composition of the Diets (Calculated Analysis NRC 1 984) . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 78

21 Fatty Acid Composition of the Practical Diets as Determined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

22 Effects of Palm Oil and Soybean Oil Combination on Performance of Broilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

23 Effects of Palm Oil and Soybean Oil Combination on Body Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

24 Effects of Palm Oil and Soybean Oil Combination on the Body Composition of Broilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

25 Effects of Palm Oil and Soybean Oil Combination on Fatty Acid Content of Breast Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 88

26 Effects of Palm Oil and Soybean Oil Combination on Fatty Acid Content of Thigh Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

27 Fatty Acid Compositions of Palm Oil and Soybean Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 7

28 Fatty .A�id Common Names and Molecular Descnptlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 8

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 The Relationship Between Dietary Energy Levels and Feed Intake ....... ..... .... ................... ....... ......... . . ... 1 20

2 The Relationship Between Dietary Energy Levels and Weight Gain... .. .. .. .................... .......... ........ ........ 1 21

3 The Relationship Between Dietary Energy Levels and Feed:Gain .. .. ...... ..... ... ..... ......... ............. ..... .. .... . . 1 22

4 The Relationship Between Dietary Energy Levels and Energy Intake .. ... .... .... ................ ....... . . . .. ... . .. . . . . . . 1 23

5 The Relationship Between Dietary Energy Levels and Carcass Protein............ ..... ...... . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . ....... .... 1 24

6 The Relationship Between Dietary Energy Levels and Carcass Fat . ... ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 25

7 The Relationship Between Palm Oi l Levels and Feed Intake ..... ... ..... . . ................... .. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 26

8 The Relationship Between Palm Oi l Levels and Weight Gain ...... ...... .................. ....... ..... . . .. ................. ... 1 27

9 The Relationship Between Palm Oi l Levels and Nitrogen Intake .. .... ... ... . ........ . ....... . . ........................... . . . . 1 28

1 0 The Relationship Between Palm Oil Levels and Energy I ntake .................. ... . .............. .. ... .... ....... . . . ... . . .. ... 1 29

11 The Effect of Palm Oil:Soybean Oi l Ratio on Linoleic Acid in Breast Muscles....... ...... .. ......... ... ............ 1 30

1 2 The Effect of Palm Oil:Soybean Oi l Ratio on Linolenic Acid in Breast Muscles . . ..... ...... .... .. ........... .... .. 1 31

1 3 The Effect of Palm Oi l:Soybean Oil Ratio on Linoleic Acid in Thigh Muscles..... .... .... .... .. . . . .. .. .. ... . .... .... 1 32

1 4 The Effect of Palm Oi l:Soybean Oi l Ratio on Linolenic Acid in Thigh Muscles.. . . .. . . ..... ...... . . . . . . . ....... . .. . . 1 33

1 5 Gas-Liquid Chromatograms of FAME from Reference Standard on a DEGS Packed Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 34

ix

Figure Page

16 Gas-Liquid Chromatograms of FAME from Breast Lipids Separated on a DEGS Packed Column . . . . . ..... .. . . ...... 136

17 Gas-Liquid Chromatograms of FAME from Thigh Lipids Separated on a DEGS Packed Column .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

x

B E

N E

M E

AME

P: E

E: P

C:P

CRD

FCR

SFA

PUFA

N RC

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

- Bioavailable Energy

- Net Energy

- Metabolisable Energy

- Apparent Metabolisable Energy

- Apparent Metabolisable Energy Corrected to zero nitrogen retention

- Protein: Energy Ratio

- Energy: Protein Ratio

- Calorie: Protein Ratio

- Chronic Respiratory Disease

- Feed Conversion Ratio

- Saturated Fatty Acid

- Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid

- National Research Council

AOAC - Association of Official Agricultural Chemists

BHT - Buterated Hydroxy Toluene

UGF - Unknown Growth Factor

ASS - Acidu lated Soybean-oil Soapstock

FAM E - Fatty Acid Methyl Ester

DEGS - Diethylene Glycol Succinate

GLC - Gas-liquid Chromatography

SAS - Statistical Analysis System

LSD - Least Significant Difference

xi

N - Normal ity

d - Day

g - Gram(s)

kg - Kilogram(s)

kcal - Kilocalorie(s)

h - Hour(s)

min - Minute(s)

m - Metre(s)

cm - Cetrimetre(s)

m m - Mil l imetre(s)

m l - Mi l l i l itre(s)

III - Microl itre(s)

v/V - Volume per Volume

w/w - Weight per Weight

xi i

Abstract of the thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Pertanian Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

A STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF HIGH ENERGY PALM OIL SUPPLEMENTED DIETS ON BROILERS GROWTH

UNDER TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT

By

Paichok Panja

September 1 991

Supervisor : Professor Dr. Syed Jalaludin bin Syed Salim

Faculty Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science

A series of experiments were conducted to study the effects of fat

add ed high energy diets on the performance of broilers under the warm

humid environment. Two types of fat namely palm oil and soybean oil,

either singly or mixed , were incorporated in the test diets at varying levels

(0 to 8%). Feeds were provided ad libitum and data on voluntary feed

intake , g rowth rate , feed conversion and carcass composition were

measured.

Increasing palm oil level resulted in corresponding rise in the dietary

energy concentrations, it was found that broilers fed on higher energy

diets improved feed and energy consumption, daily weight gain and feed

conversion ratio. Total carcass fat content was found to increase at

higher levels of palm oil inclusions. When the level of p rotein was

adjusted to m aintain the calorie: protein ratio, the carcass fat content

remained relatively constant regardless of palm oil levels added into the

diets.

xiii

Fatty acid com position in the body was found to be infl u enced

greatly by dietary fat. When soybean oil was used instead of palm oil, the

amount of l inoleic and linolenic acids in the carcass was also increased

proportionately.

The results from these studies demonstrated the beneficiary effects

of added fat high energy diets to broilers in the tropics . In spite of the

adverse climatic conditions, the broilers especial ly those on high fat diet

were ab le to sustain higher productivity in terms of growth rate and feed

coversion ratio. This was only possible if the heat increment of broilers

was reduced as a consequence of the presence of fat in the diet.

xiv

Abstrak tesi s dikemukakan kepada Senat Univers it i Pertanian Malaysia bagi memenuhi syarat ijazah Doktor Falsafah

SATU KAJIAN KE ATAS KESAN MAKANAN TENAGA TINGGI TAMBAHAN MINYAK KELAPA SAWIT KEPAOA PERTUMBUHAN

AYAM PEOAGING 01 BAWAH SEKITARAN TROPIKA

Oleh

Paichok Panja

September 1 991

Penyelia: Professor Dr. Syed Jalaludin bin Syed Salim

Fakuti Kedoktoran Veterinar dan Sains Peternakan

Satu rangkaian ujikaji telah dijalankan untuk mengkaji kesan-kesan

makanan tenaga tinggi tambahan lemak ke atas prestasi ayam pedaging

di kawasan panas lembab. Dua jenis lemak iaitu minyak kelapa sawit dan

minyak kacang soya, sama ada send i rian atau d igabungkan, d icampurkan

bersam a makanan uj ian pad a berbagai aras (0 hingga 8%). Makanan

d iberi a d libitum d an data m engena i pengam bilan m akanan, kadar

pertumbuhan, pertukaran makanan dan komposisi karkas d iukur.

Peningkatan penambahan aras minyak kelapa sawit menghasi lkan

peningkatan yang serupa dalam kepekatan tenaga makanan. Ada lah

didapati iaitu ayam pedaging diberi makan makanan tenaga tinggi

memperbaiki pengambi lan makanan dan tenaganya, penambahan berat

harian dan kadar pertukaran makanan. Jumlah kandungan lemak karkas

adalah d idapati meningkat pada aras yang tinggi penambahan minyak

kelapa saw it." Apabi la aras protein diubahsuai dengan mengekalkan kadar

xv

kalori:protein, kandungan l emak karkas adalah lebih kurang dan t idak

be rgant u ng kepada a ras tam bahan minyak kelap a sawit kepada

makanan.

Komposisi asid lemak dalam badan dipengaruhi oleh lemak

makanan. Apabila minyak kacang soya d ig unakan daripada m inyak

kelapa sawit, jumlah asid linoleik dan asid linoleneik di dalam karkas juga

bertambah mengikut kadar tambahan dalam makanan.

Keputusan kajian menunjukkan kesan baik makanan tenaga tinggi

tam bahan lemak kepada ayam pedaging di tropika. Walau pun keadaan

ik l im yang tidak baik, ayam pedaging terutama yang memakan makanan

lemak tinggi mampu mengekal kan penge luaran tingg i dari seg i kadar

pe rtum buhan d an kad ar pertukaran makanan . Ini hanya m ungkin_

sekiranya penambahan haba ayam pedag ing d ikurangkan disebabkan

kehadi ran lemak dalam makanan.

xvi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The b roile r ind ustry in the t ropics is rapidly expanding and is

relatively efficient. However, the fu l l genetic potentia l of the broi l ers is

s e l d o m achieved d u e to a d v e r s e c l i m atic cond itions . The high

environmental temperature may reduce production efficiency and retard

growth. Under such circumstances, profitability of broi ler production is

reduced .

The effects of c l imatic stress on broile r g rowth has , to a certain

extent, been overcome by feeding high energy diet. It is not very cl ear

how high energy diet brings about this change. In order to formulate high

energy poultry rations for broiler, oil or fat of animal or plant origin is added

since ordinary feedstuffs cannot furnish sufficient energy to the required

level.

The fats usually used in poultry feeds are tal low and vegetable oils

such as soybean oil , rapeseed oil , coconut oil or corn oil, depending on

the cost and location where these oils are available.

Malaysia produces a large amount of palm oil . Palm oil is relatively

cheaper compared to other imported fats and it possesses many good

qualities such as a high level of saturated fatty acids as well as vitamin E

(antioxidant agent), which make it more stable.

The addition of fat or oil to grower diets can improve efficiency and

increases digestibility of both broiler and pig. For laying hen, the addition

1

2

of some fat in layer's diets increases egg production and improves feed

efficiency.

Although m uch work have been done on the utilization of animal

and vegetable fats , reports on the use of palm oil in poultry feeds a re

limited.

Very little information is available on the use of palm oil as a source

of energy for improving growth performance and carcass composition,

especially under the warm climate. There is thus a need to study (i) the

role of high energy diet for broiler production in the tropics and (ii) to

evaluate the relative advantage of different types of vegetable oil as an

energy source.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Broiler Production in the Tropic

Poult ry eggs and meat provide the cheapest sou rce of animal

protein for the population. When compared to other livestock, pou ltry has,

by far, the quickest and highest rate of tu rnover. The consu m ption of

poultry m eat is higher than other kinds of m eat. Over the past two

decades, poultry farming has been developed on commercial lines and

has contributed very significantly to the overa l l economy of the country

(Oh, 1984).

Poultry production in the region can be broadly categorised into

backyard or small scale subsistence production, semi-intensive production

and intensive or confinement rearing. Genera l ly, free range rearing is

commonly practised on subsistence and small broiler grow-out operations

whereas the raising of pullets , layers and breeders is basical ly kept to

confinement rearing (Leong , 1982).

Backyard or small scale subsistence production, often referred to as

the extensive or free range system, is mainly confined to rural household .

Small chicken coops and small sheds are built to provide night shelters in

the compound of the household . Production basica l ly caters for family

consu mption. Scavenging on scraps, grass clippings, picking of spilled

padi around the vicinity of the household farm is the feeding pattern.

3

4

Sometimes smal l supplementation of compounded poultry mash is made

from available ingredients. Generally, productivity is low.

Semi-intensive systems of production are a com bination of the

intensive system of brooding and range rearing during the growing period.

Brooding boxes, each housing 1 00 chicks, are used. Pou ltry d roppings

serve as a fertilizer for soil. Home mixed feeds and commercial feeds are

provided. A typical flock size of table or meat bird is small , between 1 ,000

to 2 ,000 birds. This kind of production system is popular and com monly

practised and the majority of the country's supply of table or meat birds

are produced in this way.

Intensive production, commonly referred to as the confinement

system , is widely practised and adopted. Rearing of pul lets is normally in

colony pens and layers are kept in one or two tier battery systems.

Modern husbandry practices and good management are often observed in

most breeding farm operations. Management of broilers or breeding stock

a re eith e r on d ee p litter floors or raised f loors of wood en slats or

reinforced wirem esh or g rid. Raised f loor systems are genera l ly more

popular among broiler farmers. Flock size can vary from 10,000 to 50,000

birds or more for broiler or breeding farms and layer flock sizes vary from

3,000 to 20,000 layers.

There a re very few large integ rated pou l t ry operations in the

country. The number is slowly increasing since the profit margin is higher

when broilers are produced in an integrated system. Und er this system,

rearing of broilers is contracted out to farmers who are provided with

chicks and feeds. On reaching market weight the broilers are returned to

the operators for slaughter and marketing.

5

Poultry farmers general ly are progressive and responsive to new

technological innovations. It is for these reasons that technology transfer

process is relatively sucessful, thus resulting in the rapid expansion of

poultry production in the country.

There are a number of factors affecting broiler production in the

tropics. These are climate , disease, marketing, feed and feeding, and

management.

Climate

The effect of cl imate on poultry production is of great concern to

poultry keepers in the tropics. The average annual temperature in the

tropics is about 26 . 5°e to 300e but it may vary from 1 ooe to 43°e at

different seasons. In addition, there can be wide temperature fluctuations

between day and night. Relative humidity could be low or high depending

on the rainfal l. C limate can influence poultry production by its indirect

effects on the food supply, disease vectors, and water availabil ity; or it can

have a direct effect on the animal itself (Vohra, 1982).

Like other developing countries in the tropics, Malaysia too is facing

p roble m s that i m pe d e t h e rapid d evelopm ent of poult ry industry .

Intensification of production has resulted in increase disease occurrence,

marketing, and mangement constraints as well as shortages of feeds .

These constraints unless overcome, will restrict the growth of the poultry

industry (Oh, 1987).

6

Disease

I ntensive poultry production in the tropics under stressful c limatic

conditions is manifested by a high preval ence of functional disorders ,

morbidity and sometimes mortality.

A major health chal l enge to the pou ltry industry is to reduce the

occu rrence of chronic respiratory disease (CRD) comp lex in the flock.

CRD com plex occurs most commonly among the poorly managed farms

where environmental conditions are neglected . The Newcastle Disease in

poultry continues to cause great financial losses to the pou ltry industry

despite improvement in live and inactivated vaccines . Although intensive

vaccination is practised , periodic outbreaks of the disease contin ue to

appear in many areas. This could be due to other factors which influence

the response of the birds to vaccination.

Marketing

The present marketing structure and practices involving middlemen

and other intermediaries, especially in broi lers, do not ensure proper

returns to the producers and fair prices to consumers. The trading strategy

and a bility of a few whol esalers to control and dictate broile r p rices

sometimes cause un reasonable f luctuations. At times, broiler and egg

farmers have to bear the conseq uences of over prod uction d u e to

excessive chick supply from local hatcheries and influx of hatching eggs

and live�birds smuggled from neighbouring countries.

Efforts made by farmers to overcome the present problem in broiler

marketing system have been unsuccessful because of lack of organization

and co-operation among themselves, their dependence on credit from

7

middlemen and also their inability to fullfil contract or volume commitments

individually. Broiler farmers affected by large price fluctuations are asking

for d rastic changes such as an integrated appoarch to broiler production

and broiler processing with farmers having a share in the processing

b u siness. Thu s , tog ether with fu rthe r p rocessi ng and co-operative

marketing could help, to a certain extent, to stabilize the market. Under

normal circumstances, the farmer's profit margin for eggs is better than

broilers.

Feed and Feeding

The challenge facing the poultry industry is the continuous search

for ways to minimize production costs . Since feed accounts for 62% and

73% of the total cost of producing broilers and eggs respectively, a logical

approach would be to reduce the feed costs by increasing the utilization of

local ly g rown feeds and agricultural by-products and the use of proper

equipment to minimize physical wastage of feed.

Besides cost, another problem in animal feeds is quality. In the

absence of legislation on quality control of animal feeds, the quality of the

feed products would remain questionable. With the eventual implementa­

tion of the Animal Feed Act, product quality wil l be assured and maintained.

Management

Most of the information on poultry management are obtained from

the developed countries. I mported technologies are modified to suit the

local environment and have been successfully used. However, there are

stil l many areas which cou ld be studied and improved viz. housing and

8

equipments to suit the local conditions, health and disease control , feeding

management and husbandry practices and large scale integrated farming

systems.

Measu rements of performance through careful analysis of farm

records wi l l provide producers with data to help them in comparing and

determin ing the i r own com petati ve pos ition with in industry. With the

exception of the larger farms, data col lection in the medium and smal l

farms is haphazard. The collected data are often not analyzed or used as

a manage ment tool to increase profitability. The importance of well-kept

records, data col lection and analysis should be emphasised to producers.

Regulation of Voluntary Intake

Animals eat to satisfy thei r energy requirements, and the nutrient

requirements of animals frequently depend upon their bioavailable energy

(BE) inta_kes. Accord ing to Brody (1 945) lithe B vitamins, which function

as general metabolic catalysts, are needed in di rect proportion to the total

energy m etabol ism, or in d i rect proportion to the total caloric food intake"

wh i l e K leiber ( 1 945) concluded that: "a ration is def icient in any food

constitu ent whos e add i t i on increases the total eff ic i ency of energ y

utilization. II These statements imply that B E should be the base line for

establishing nutrient requirements.

Browne (1922) observed that in the fowls the appetite is control led

by the p resence of food in crop. As the crop empties, it sti m ulates the

birds to eat. However, later, Hill (1 971 a) stated that 'the crop of the broiler

chicken appeared almost functionless.' The apparent contradiction can be

explained by the availabi l ity of feed. The modern broiler ch icken is offered