136 United Nations E-Government Survey 2012 Notes Chapter 1 1 World Bank Institute (2010). 2 World Bank (2011c). As of July 2011 the World Bank classified a country with a gross national income per capita of greater than USD 12,276 as high income. 3 For details on the four stages, see the methodology section of the statistical annex. 4 Oceania’s jump in the 2008 average was due to the exclusion of four countries from the ranking due to unavailability of key indicators, which pulled up the index. 5 Seychelles: National ICT Policy. 6 The usa.gov website is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3 on whole-of-government. 7 Egov Magazine (2011). 8 ictQatar Supreme Council of Information & Communication Technology (2011). 9 European Commission Community Research and Development Information Service (2011). 10 European Commission Information Society (2011). 11 Teisesforumas (2012). 12 United Nations Statistics Division grouping (2011c) (4 October) is basis for LDCs classification. 13 UNDP Crisis Prevention and Recovery Report 2008 (http://www.undp.org/cpr/content/ economic_recovery/PCERreport.pdf). Chapter 2 1 A transactional service is defined as a two-way interaction between the government and the citizen, for example involving online payments. 2 United Nations (2011a). 3 For a full list, see UNEP Ministries of Environment website at http://www.unep.org/ resources/gov/MEnvironment.asp. 4 See in particular Agenda 21 (principle 10) and Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (paras. 110, 112 and 128). 5 UNEP (2005). 6 UNEP (2010). Chapter 3 1 See Christensen and Laegried (2007). 2 OECD (2006). 3 Bharosa and others (2010). 4 LaVigne (2001) and Raffat (2006). 5 Busson and Keravel (2005). 6 United Nations (2008). 7 For the additional characteristics see Krenner, Johanna and others. 8 For the stages see Wimmer, Maria A. (2002). 9 W3C (2009). 10 Pascual (2003) on issues of how to build an appropriate government information and software architecture. 11 This section draws on Busson and Keravel (2005). 12 See Sethi and Sethi. 13 Ibid. 14 See Chatzidimitriou and Koumpis (2008). 15 Ibid. 16 See Kubicek and Hagen (2000). 17 Busson and Keravel. 18 See “Online Collaboration” in Fortune magazine, vol. 164, no. 6, 17 October 2011, special advertising section. 19 Ibid. 20 See Wimmer and Traunmüller (2002) 21 Roy and Longford (2008). 22 See Franzel and Coursey (2004). 23 Rabaiah, Abdelbaset and Vandijck (2009). 24 Ibid. Chapter 4 1 Multichannel service delivery has been used by the private sector for more than 30 years (e.g., ATMs have been in use in the financial sector since the late 1960s. 2 European Commission (2008). 3 Voigt (2011). 4 Ecotec Research and Consulting (2009). 5 World Bank (2011a). 6 Justmeans (2010). 7 According to ITU, there are nearly six billion mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide and more than four billion of those are in developing countries. In addition, more than 90 per cent of the world’s population now lives within range of a cellular network, a figure that has doubled in the past ten years. People are moving rapidly from 2G to 3G platforms in both developed and developing countries. In 2011, a total of 159 economies worldwide launched 3G services commercially and the number of active mobile-broadband subscriptions increased to almost 1.2 billion. 8 OECD and ITU (2011). 9 GSM Association (2011). 10 Singapore (2011). 11 Malaysia (2011). 12 Malta (2011). 13 Çam (2010). 14 Klievnik and Jannsen (2008). 15 Ibid. 16 Mexico (2011). 17 Bold (2011). 18 New Zealand, Citylink (2011). 19 Ontario Ministry of Government Services (2011). 20 European Commission (2004). 21 See Von and Haldenwang (2002). 22 Ibid. 23 Mahapatra and Sahu (2008). 24 ITU (2011a). 25 Ibid. 26 W3C (2008). 27 Susanto and Goodwin (2010). 28 ITU (2010). 29 Hall (2008). 30 See Botterman (2008) and Millard (2009). 31 van Veenstra and Janssen (2010). 32 See many studies and stories at http://www. ukonlinecentres.com. 33 European Commission. (2004). 34 W3C (2009). 35 See Singh and Sahu (2008); Chen, Huang, and Hsiao (2006); Ebbers, Pieterson, and Noordman (2008) Notes
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136
United Nations E-Government Survey 2012Notes
Chapter 1
1 World Bank Institute (2010).
2 World Bank (2011c). As of July 2011 the World
Bank classifi ed a country with a gross national
income per capita of greater than USD 12,276
as high income.
3 For details on the four stages, see the
methodology section of the statistical annex.
4 Oceania’s jump in the 2008 average was due
to the exclusion of four countries from the
ranking due to unavailability of key indicators,
which pulled up the index.
5 Seychelles: National ICT Policy.
6 The usa.gov website is discussed in more
detail in Chapter 3 on whole-of-government.
7 Egov Magazine (2011).
8 ictQatar Supreme Council of Information &
Communication Technology (2011).
9 European Commission Community Research
and Development Information Service (2011).
10 European Commission Information Society
(2011).
11 Teisesforumas (2012).
12 United Nations Statistics Division grouping
(2011c) (4 October) is basis for LDCs
classifi cation.
13 UNDP Crisis Prevention and Recovery Report
2008 (http://www.undp.org/cpr/content/
economic_recovery/PCERreport.pdf).
Chapter 2
1 A transactional service is defi ned as a two-way
interaction between the government and the
citizen, for example involving online payments.
2 United Nations (2011a).
3 For a full list, see UNEP Ministries of
Environment website at http://www.unep.org/
resources/gov/MEnvironment.asp.
4 See in particular Agenda 21 (principle 10) and
Report of the World Summit on Sustainable
Development (paras. 110, 112 and 128).
5 UNEP (2005).
6 UNEP (2010).
Chapter 3
1 See Christensen and Laegried (2007).
2 OECD (2006).
3 Bharosa and others (2010).
4 LaVigne (2001) and Raffat (2006).
5 Busson and Keravel (2005).
6 United Nations (2008).
7 For the additional characteristics see Krenner,
Johanna and others.
8 For the stages see Wimmer, Maria A. (2002).
9 W3C (2009).
10 Pascual (2003) on issues of how to build an
appropriate government information and
software architecture.
11 This section draws on Busson and Keravel
(2005).
12 See Sethi and Sethi.
13 Ibid.
14 See Chatzidimitriou and Koumpis (2008).
15 Ibid.
16 See Kubicek and Hagen (2000).
17 Busson and Keravel.
18 See “Online Collaboration” in Fortune
magazine, vol. 164, no. 6, 17 October 2011,
special advertising section.
19 Ibid.
20 See Wimmer and Traunmüller (2002)
21 Roy and Longford (2008).
22 See Franzel and Coursey (2004).
23 Rabaiah, Abdelbaset and Vandijck (2009).
24 Ibid.
Chapter 4
1 Multichannel service delivery has been used by
the private sector for more than 30 years (e.g.,
ATMs have been in use in the fi nancial sector
since the late 1960s.
2 European Commission (2008).
3 Voigt (2011).
4 Ecotec Research and Consulting (2009).
5 World Bank (2011a).
6 Justmeans (2010).
7 According to ITU, there are nearly six billion
mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide
and more than four billion of those are in
developing countries. In addition, more than
90 per cent of the world’s population now
lives within range of a cellular network, a
fi gure that has doubled in the past ten years.
People are moving rapidly from 2G to 3G
platforms in both developed and developing
countries. In 2011, a total of 159 economies
worldwide launched 3G services commercially
and the number of active mobile-broadband
subscriptions increased to almost 1.2 billion.
8 OECD and ITU (2011).
9 GSM Association (2011).
10 Singapore (2011).
11 Malaysia (2011).
12 Malta (2011).
13 Çam (2010).
14 Klievnik and Jannsen (2008).
15 Ibid.
16 Mexico (2011).
17 Bold (2011).
18 New Zealand, Citylink (2011).
19 Ontario Ministry of Government Services
(2011).
20 European Commission (2004).
21 See Von and Haldenwang (2002).
22 Ibid.
23 Mahapatra and Sahu (2008).
24 ITU (2011a).
25 Ibid.
26 W3C (2008).
27 Susanto and Goodwin (2010).
28 ITU (2010).
29 Hall (2008).
30 See Botterman (2008) and Millard (2009).
31 van Veenstra and Janssen (2010).
32 See many studies and stories at http://www.
ukonlinecentres.com.
33 European Commission. (2004).
34 W3C (2009).
35 See Singh and Sahu (2008); Chen, Huang,
and Hsiao (2006); Ebbers, Pieterson, and
Noordman (2008)
Notes
137
United Nations E-Government Survey 2012 Notes
Chapter 5
1 Segger and Khalfan (2004).
2 See World Bank (2009).
3 Barzilai-Nahon (2006).
4 Chen and Wellman (2005).
5 Corrocher and Ordanini (2002).
6 Sciadas (2005).
7 Norris and others (Eds.) (2001) and
Mossberger and others (2003). Reference is
made to the different applications and uses of
online information to engage and participate
in public life.
8 DiMaggio and Hargittai (2001).
9 Modarres (2011); Segev and Ahituv (2010).
10 One common analogy is the 80/20 factor: 80
per cent of profi t is made by serving the most
affl uent 20 per cent, thus pushing IT designers
to create products specifi cally for the affl uent.
See, for example http://www.digitaldivide.org.
11 The content of table 1 is not exhaustive.
It is based on Barzilai-Nahon (2006). For
more on the theory of social construction of
technology, see Pinch and Bijker (1984); Dijk
and Hacker (2003); Corrocher and Ordanini
(2002); Selhofer and Mayringer (2001);
Sciadas (2005); Modarres (2011); and Segev
and Ahituv (2010).
12 Pick and Azari (2008).
13 Charalabidis and Loukis (2011).
14 Modarres (2011).
15 Rao (2000).
16 Wolff and Castro (2003).
17 Torsen (2005).
18 Vicente and Lopez (2010).
19 A security feature consisting of a string of
distorted letters and numbers that users are
supposed to read and retype before they
register for a new service or send an e-mail.
20 See http://accessibility.egovmon.no/en/
pagecheck.
21 W3C launched the Web Accessibility Initiative
in April 1997. WAI has developed a detailed set
of Web Content Accessibility Guidelines – WCA
Guidelines 1.0 and associated checklists, which
aim to promote accessible designs and to make
content understandable and navigable.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid. A word of caution is in order. First, the
actual number of tests carried out on each
site varies widely from site to site due to the
fact that the number of testable features
varies from site to site. For example, a very
complex, feature-rich website may have
hundreds of testable features. A very simple
site, by contrast, may have only a handful of
testable features. Thus, all else being equal,
it is likely that simple sites will pass a higher
proportion of tests than more complex sites.
This fact renders cross-country comparisons
diffi cult. Second, websites are highly
dynamic; they change frequently as content
is updated, revised, and retired. Thus, to
thoroughly assess a country’s commitment to
accessibility via the e-accessibility checker,
it would be necessary to repeat test runs
through time – to minimize the effect of any
occasional errors or oversight on the part of
website maintainers.
24 Estonia, Finland and Spain have declared
access to the Internet as a legal right of their
citizens. See, for example, ITU (2010).
25 Web Accessibility Initiative.
26 Olaya (2010).
27 ComScore Press Release (2010).
28 Ibid.
29 Adult economic activity rate refers to the
percentage of the population aged 15 and over
that is economically active. See United Nations
Statistics Division (2011b).
30 The higher average of female economic
activity in Africa can be explained by the
small-N factor: only two African countries,
Ethiopia and Botswana, offer vulnerability
sections on their national websites. These
two countries have high degrees of female
economic activity – 80.7 per cent and 72.3 per
cent of their populations, respectively.
31 Dasgupta and others (2005).
32 Tolbert and Mossberg (2006).
33 For instance, a disability often results in
poverty, and conversely, living in poverty
increases the likelihood of acquiring a
disability. See, for example, D’Aubin (2007).
34 ITU (2011b).
35 See World Bank data at http://data.
worldbank.org/about/country-classifi cations.
36 See World Bank data at http://data.
worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD.
37 UNDP (2011).
38 ITU (2011d).
39 ITU (2011e).
40 IFAD.
41 ITU (2011b).
42 ILO (2011).
43 Yung and others (2010).
44 Schluter and Kragelj (2007).
45 Barzilai-Nahon (2006). For more on the theory
of social construction of technology, see Pinch
and Bijker (1984).
46 Stoiciu (2011).
47 Vicente and Lopez (2010).
Chapter 6
1 United Nations (2010).
2 Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
(2002).
3 Society of IT Management (2008).
4 In Bahrain, e-government services are not
used regularly by the respondents, and this
can be clearly shown in their responses to
the question. Most of them (75 per cent)
choose the answer “when needed.” See Alzaki
(2009); Sahraoui (2005); and AlSobhi, Kamal
and Weerakkody (2010).
5 Yih-Jeou Wang (2009).
6 Australian Government Information
Management Offi ce (2009).
7 Pavilenene (2011).
8 Deloitte (2010).
9 OECD (2009).
10 World Bank (2011b).
11 Smith (2010).
12 Norazah, Suk and Ramayah (2010).
13 European Commission (2010a).
14 Katims (2011).
15 Howard (2011).
16 Al-Jaghoub, Al-Yaseen and Al-Hourani (2010);
Al-Sobi, Faris, Vishanth Weerakkody and
Al-Shafi (2009); Yonazi, Jim, Sol and Boonstra
(2010); Vencatachellum and Pudaruth (2010).
17 Australian Government Information
Management Offi ce (2008) and (2009).
18 Foresee (2011);
Morris and Alawadhi (2009).
19 Smith (2010).
20 Wang (2009).
21 Norway (2011).
22 Ross, Hutton and Peng. (2004).
23 Yong (2004).
24 ForeSee Results, Inc. (2011).
25 Cap Gemini (2009).
26 EU (2009).
27 Dwivedi, Selamat and Lal (2011);
Yeo (2011).
28 ITU (2011c).
29 Smith (2010).
30 European Commission (2010b).
31 Public Technology (2005)
32 Madden and Zickuhr (2011).
33 Pew Research Center (2010).
34 Nielsen Wire (2010).
35 European Commission, Directorate General
Communication (2010).
36 Human Capital Institute (2010).
37 Social media strategy (2010).
38 Human Capital Institute (2010).
39 Shah (2010).
40 Hopkins (2011).
41 United Kingdom (2011).
42 United Kingdom, Cabinet Offi ce (2011).
43 Pizzicannella (2010).
44 Boyle and Harris (2009).
45 UNDP (2008).
46 Bart (2011).
47 Niehaves (2008).
48 See Dubai Government.
49 Prima and Rolianabt (2011).
50 In comparison, only 43 countries (22 per
cent) have a self-promotional section, such
as asking users to link to the site or providing
information on events related to promoting the
portal. More than half of these 43 countries
are developing countries and one (Sierra
Leone) is even a least developed country.
51 See United States Internal Revenue Service
website at http://www/irs.gov/efi le/
article/0,,id=11986,00.html.
52 World Economic Forum (2011).
138
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143
United Nations E-Government Survey 2012 Regional groupings
Map 7.1 Regional groupings
CaribbeanAntigua and BarbudaBahamasBarbadosCubaDominicaDominican RepublicGrenadaHaitiJamaicaSaint Kitts and NevisSaint LuciaSaint Vincent and the GrenadinesTrinidad and Tobago
Central AmericaBelizeCosta RicaEl SalvadorGuatemalaHondurasMexicoNicaraguaPanama
Northern AmericaCanadaUnited States of America
South AmericaArgentinaBoliviaBrazilChileColombiaEcuadorGuyanaParaguayPeruSurinameUruguayVenezuela
Eastern AfricaBurundiComorosDjiboutiEritreaEthiopiaKenyaMadagascarMalawiMauritiusMozambiqueRwandaSeychellesSomaliaUgandaUnited Republic of TanzaniaZambiaZimbabwe
Middle AfricaAngolaCameroonCentral African RepublicChadCongoDemocratic Republic of the CongoEquatorial GuineaGabonSão Tomé and Príncipe
South-Eastern AsiaBrunei DarussalamCambodiaIndonesiaLao People’s Democratic RepublicMalaysiaMyanmarPhilippinesSingaporeThailandTimor-LesteViet Nam
Western AsiaArmeniaAzerbaijanBahrainCyprusGeorgiaIraqIsraelJordanKuwaitLebanonOmanQatarSaudi ArabiaSyrian Arab RepublicTurkeyUnited Arab EmiratesYemen
Australia and New ZealandAustraliaNew Zealand
MelanesiaFijiPapua New GuineaSolomon IslandsVanuatu
MicronesiaKiribatiMarshall IslandsMicronesia (Federated States of)NauruPalau
PolynesiaSamoaTongaTuvalu
Eastern EuropeBelarusBulgariaCzech RepublicHungaryPolandRepublic of MoldovaRomaniaRussian FederationSlovakiaUkraine
Northern EuropeDenmarkEstoniaFinlandIcelandIrelandLatviaLithuaniaNorwaySwedenUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Southern EuropeAlbaniaAndorraBosnia and HerzegovinaCroatiaGreeceItalyMaltaMontenegroPortugalSan MarinoSerbiaSloveniaSpainTFYRO Macedonia
Western EuropeAustriaBelgiumFranceGermanyLiechtensteinLuxembourgMonacoNetherlandsSwitzerland
AfricaAmericas Asia OceaniaEurope
Disclaimer: The designations nations em-ployed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concern-ing the legal status of any country, terri-tory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.