Unit III Infant Development Psychology 30. Unit Objectives To understand biological changes during infancy. To understand cognitive changes during infancy.

Unit IIIInfant DevelopmentPsychology 30

Unit Objectives

• To understand biological changes during infancy. • To understand cognitive changes during

infancy. • To understand socioemotional changes

during infancy. • To understand the issues, challenges and

support systems from the perspectives of the micro-, exo-, and macrosystems of support (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

3.1 Unit Overview: Infancy • What roles do nature and nurture play in the development of an

infant? • How do the various domains influence development during

infancy?

• What are the sociocultural influences on human development?

What roles do nature and nurture play in the development of an infant?

•Discussion:▫ Which aspects of infant development that

might belong exclusively to either purely hereditary or inherited factors and those aspects which are a result of environmental influence

How do the various domains influence development during infancy?

•Review the larger developmental tasks for each of the three aspects:• Physical: crawling to walking • Cognitive: language development • Socioemotional: emotions, socialization,

attachment, and independence, beginnings of personality.

What are the sociocultural influences on human development?

• Using the template The Ecological Model, discuss how each of the levels influences infant development.

• Identify specific influences, programs, support services, people and places that influence infant development.

• Discuss the relative nature of the influences in terms of the degree of influence, in other words, is the microsystem level more important than the macrosystem level?

• Discuss also the specific support systems that might exist in your local community, town, or region that parents could access.

3.2Looking through the eyes of the infant

What is the process of physical development during infancy?

• The rapid growth that occurs in the early weeks and months after birth is quite extraordinary and mirrors embryonic development in important ways.

• A newborn's head is about one-fourth of its body length; a two-year-old's head is only one-fifth of its body length.

• This pattern of growth is called the cephalocaudal trend.

• Another growth pattern, the proximodistal trend, has growth moving from the centre (proximal part) of the body outward (to the more "distant" extremities). That is, the head and torso grow before the arms, legs, hands, and feet do (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 339).

What is the process of cognitive development during infancy?

• The information processing, or individual differences perspective does not describe infantile cognition in a series of steps or stages, rather this perspective emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes such as attention, memory and thinking.

• A considerable portion of infants’ knowledge of the world is built upon their developing perceptual skills. Essential to this cognitive construction of mental schemas are several key cognitive abilities:


• Categorization: Infants younger than six months can categorize objects on the basis of their shape, colour, angularity, location (above, below), density, relative size, and number (up to three objects). Experience becomes especially significant when we observe that as infants get older, they categorize in increasingly complex ways.


• Object and perceptual constancy is the realization that things remain what they are despite changes in the perspective of the viewer or the appearance of the object. Even though vision is the least developed sense at birth, by the age of three months infants are able to distinguish the boundaries of separate three-dimensional objects. This ability persists even when the objects are in motion. Further, infants quickly develop the awareness that the size and shape of an object remain the same despite changes in the object’s appearance due to changes in its location.


• Object permanence is the ability to understand that objects and people exist independently of one’s perception of them. Objects do not cease to exist simply because they are not immediately apparent. Infants’ ability to understand and even anticipate events, as well as to act effectively in the world, hinges on the capacity to identify cause and effect. An understanding of cause and effect relationships is basic to problem-solving ability, which explains why infants first demonstrate simple deductive skills as their cause-effect awareness is blossoming.


• Memory is central to the development of all cognitive abilities. In their first six months, babies have great difficulty storing new memories; however, they can remember providing that (1) the situations are real to life, (2) motivation is high and (3) reminder sessions occur (an association that serves as a reminder to stimulate memory).

• After they are six months old infants become capable of retaining information for longer periods of time and they can do so with less training and reminding.

• Toward the end of the first year a new memory ability is apparent: deferred imitation or the ability to remember and imitate behaviours that have been witnessed but never personally performed.

• By the end of the second year toddlers can now generalize their memories, moving from the particular details to the general concept just as they did with affordances and categories several months earlier (Berger, 2000, pp. 180-188).

What is the process of socioemotional development during infancy?

•The infancy stage is characterized by rapid growth and development, most particularly in the socioemotional aspect.

•Some theorists suggest that the early socialization skills and trends that emerge in infancy serve as the basis for all social development for the rest of the lifespan.

3.5.1 Temperament•What do temperament and personality mean? •What are the basic temperaments of newborn babies? •How do different infant temperaments influence parenting? •What emotions do infants display?

What do temperament and personality mean?• Researchers who study personality have found what

are called the “big five” dimensions of temperament:▫Extroversion: the tendency to be outgoing, assertive,

and active ▫Agreeableness: the tendency to be kind, helpful, and

easygoing ▫Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized,

deliberate, and conforming ▫Neuroticism: the tendency to be anxious, moody, and

self-punishing ▫Openness: the tendency to be imaginative, curious,

artistic and welcoming of new experiences (Baron et al., 1998, p. 336).

What are the basic temperaments of newborn babies?•In terms of combinations of the basic

temperaments of newborns, most young infants can be described as being one of three types: ▫about 40 percent are easy, ▫about 15 percent are slow to warm up, and ▫about 10 percent are difficult (Berger,

2000, p. 221).

How do different infant temperaments influence parenting?• The following conclusions were recently reached by

temperament experts Ann Sanson and Mary Rothbart (1995):▫ Attention to and respect for individuality. An important

implication of taking children’s individuality seriously is that it becomes difficult to generate prescriptions for “good parenting” other than possibly specifying that parents need to be sensitive and flexible. Parents need to be sensitive to the infant's signals and needs. A goal of parenting may be accomplished in one way with one child, in another way with another child, depending on the child's temperament characteristics. Individuality of temperament should always be considered rather than trying to fit all children into the same mold.

How do different infant temperaments influence parenting?

▫ Structuring the child's environment. Crowded, noisy environments may pose greater problems for some children such as the “difficult” child, than for others. A fearful, withdrawing child might benefit from a slower entry into new contexts.

▫ The “difficult child” and packaged parenting programs. Acknowledgement that some children are harder to parent is often helpful and advice on how to handle particular difficult temperament characteristics can also be useful. However, weighted against these potential advantages are several disadvantages. Whether a particular characteristic is difficult depends on its fit with the environment, whereas the notion of difficult temperament suggests the problem rests solely with the child. To label a child “difficult” also has the danger of becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy. If a child is identified as “difficult”, the labeling may serve to maintain that categorization (Santrock, 1999, p. 181).

What emotions does an infant display?•Some other emotions, and their

approximate time of emergence include: ▫Anger, surprise, sadness – three to four

months ▫Fear – five to seven months ▫Shame/shyness – six to eight months ▫Contempt, guilt – two years (Santrock,

1999, p. 185).

3.5.2 Early Socialization•What is attachment? •How does attachment develop in infants? •What are the types of attachments that infants form with their caregivers? •What are the short- and long-term effects of social deprivation? •What are the short- and long-term effects of social privation?

What is attachment?•Attachment is an intense emotional

relationship that is specific to two people, that endures over time, and in which prolonged separation from the partner is accompanied by stress and sorrow. Whilst this definition applies to attachment formation at any point in the life cycle, our first attachment is crucial for healthy development since it acts as a prototype for all later relationships (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 328).

How does attachment develop in infants?The attachment process can be divided into several phases:• The first (preattachment phase) lasts until about three months

of age. From about six weeks babies develop an attraction to other human beings in preference to inanimate environmental features. At about six weeks they engage in behaviours such as nestling, gurgling, and smiling which are directed to just about anyone (indeed, for this reason, smiling is referred to as social smiling).

• At about three months, infants begin to distinguish between people and can discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people. Although the social smile disappears infants will allow strangers to handle and look after them without becoming noticeably distressed, providing the stranger gives adequate care. This indiscriminate attachment phase lasts until around seven months.

How does attachment develop in infants?• From this time, infants begin to develop specific attachments

and actively seek the proximity of certain people (particularly the mother). They become stressed when separated (separation anxiety). This discriminate attachment phase occurs when infants can reliably distinguish the mother from other people and have developed object permanence. At around seven or eight months infants avoid proximity with unfamiliar people and some, though not all, display a fear of strangers response which includes crying and/or trying to move away.

• From about nine months onwards infants become increasingly independent of the caregiver. This is called the multiple attachments phase and strong additional bonds are formed with other major caregivers such as the father, grandparents, siblings, and with other infants (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 329).

What are the types of attachments that infants form with their caregivers?

• Infants display a strong innate tendency to become attached to one particular person (monotropy), and the attachment to the mother is qualitatively different from any subsequent attachments.

• However, there is little difference in how children form attachments to mothers and fathers, despite the latter's lack of bonding hormones.

• Although the infant's attachments vary in strength, multiple attachments seem to be the rule, and the mother is not always/necessarily the main attachment (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 330).

What are the types of attachments that infants form with their caregivers?

• Anxious-avoidant (15%)• Typical behaviour: Baby largely ignores caregiver. Play is little affected by whether

caregiver is present or absent. No or few signs of distress when caregiver leaves and actively ignores or avoids caregiver on return. Distress is caused by being alone rather than being left by the caregiver. Can be as easily comforted by a stranger as by the caregiver. In fact, both adults are treated in a very similar way.

• Securely attached (70%)• Typical behaviour: Baby plays happily while the caregiver is present, whether the stranger

is present or not. Caregiver is largely 'ignored' because the baby trusts that care will be provided if needed. Clearly distressed when caregiver leaves and play is considerably reduced. Seeks immediate contact with caregiver on return, is quickly calmed down and resumes play. The distress is caused by the caregiver's absence, not being alone. Although the stranger can provide some comfort, stranger and caregiver are treated very differently.

• Anxious-resistant (15%)• Typical behaviour: Baby is fussy and wary while the caregiver is present. Cries a lot more

and explores much less than other two types and has difficulty in using caregiver as a safe base. Very distressed when caregiver leaves, seeks contact on return, but simultaneously shows anger and resists contact (may approach caregiver and reach out to be picked up, but then struggles to get down again). This demonstrates the baby's ambivalence towards the caregiver. Does not return readily to play. Actively resists stranger's efforts to make contact (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 330).

What are the short- and long-term effects of social deprivation?• Short-term separation is likely to be most distressing between

the age of seven to eight months (when the infant has just formed an attachment) and three years, with the period between 12 and 18 months being associated with maximum distress.

• The child's ability to hold a mental image of the absent primary caregiver is one of the variables associated with age, as the child’s limited understanding of language.

• Thus, because young children do not understand the meaning of phrases like 'in a few days' or 'next week', it is difficult to explain to them if the separation is only temporary.

• Although there are wide variations within the genders, boys are generally more distressed and vulnerable than girls.

• Additionally, and irrespective of gender, any behaviour problems such as aggressiveness, that existed before the separation are likely to be accentuated (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p.338).

What are the short- and long-term effects of social privation?• Privation is the failure to develop an attachment to any individual. • In humans, it is usually (but not necessarily) associated with children

reared in institutions, either from or shortly after birth. • Victims of extreme privation show a clinical picture of deficits,

including motor retardation, absent or very rudimentary vocal and symbolic language, grossly retarded perceptuomotor skills, poor emotional expression, lack of attachment behaviour, and social withdrawal.

• The early combination of profound language deficit and apathy/withdrawal from social contact, leads to special difficulties in developing a normal range and quality of relationships later on.

• However, whilst adverse early life experiences may have serious lasting effects on development in some circumstances, this is not universal or inevitable.

• In the absence of genetic or congenital abnormalities, victims of extreme privation have an excellent prognosis (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 338).