Unit II Pollution engineering: Types of pollution, Air pollution: sources, effects, technology to combat air pollution and air quality standards. Technology to combat soil pollution: bioremediation, organic farming. 02 Hrs Pollution Definition: Any andesirable change in any of the property (physical, chemical, or biological characteristics) of any of the components of environment which leads to instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem is called pollution. The contaminat whcich brings about such changes is called polluatant. Although there are some natural pollutants such as volcanoes, pollution generally occurs because of human activity. Biodeg radable pollutan ts , like sewage cause no permanent damage if they are adequately dispersed, but non-biodegradable pollutants, such as lead, may be concentrated as they move up the food chain. Air pollution, associated with basic industries such as oil refining, chemicals, and iron and steel, as well as with the internal combustion engine, is probably the princi pal offende r, followed by water and land pollut ion. Prese nt-day proble ms of pollut ion includeacid rain and the burning offossil fuels to produce excessive carbon dioxide. Different types of pollution based on the part of environment which is polluted: 1. Air Poll uti on/a tmo sph eri c po llu tio n 2. Nois e or s ound poll ut ion 3. Water pollution /Hy dros phe ric poll uti on 4. Soil pol lut ion/ Lit hos pher ic po llu tio n 5. Ra dio act ive poll ut ion 6. Vi sual po llutio n 7. Ther ma l p ol lu ti on Air pollution: The air or atmosphere is said to be polluted if the concentration of any of the constituents increases or decreases drastically to cause harmful effect on human health or his environment. Noise or sound pollution: Noise excessive enough to cause psychological or physical damage is considered noise pollution.
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Technology to combat soil pollution: bioremediation,
organic farming. 02 Hrs
Pollution
Definition: Any andesirable change in any of the property (physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics) of any of the components of environment which leads to instability, disorder, harm
or discomfort to the ecosystem is called pollution. The contaminat whcich brings about suchchanges is called polluatant.
Although there are some natural pollutants such as volcanoes, pollution generally occurs because
of human activity. Biodegradable pollutants, like sewage cause no permanent damage if they are
adequately dispersed, but non-biodegradable pollutants, such as lead, may be concentrated as theymove up the food chain. Air pollution, associated with basic industries such as oil refining,
chemicals, and iron and steel, as well as with the internal combustion engine, is probably the
principal offender, followed by water and land pollution. Present-day problems of pollutioninclude acid rain and the burning of fossil fuels to produce excessive carbon dioxide.
Different types of pollution based on the part of environment which is polluted:
1. Air Pollution/atmospheric pollution
2. Noise or sound pollution3. Water pollution/Hydrospheric pollution
4. Soil pollution/Lithospheric pollution
5. Radioactive pollution
6. Visual pollution
7. Thermal pollution
Air pollution: The air or atmosphere is said to be polluted if the concentration of any of the
constituents increases or decreases drastically to cause harmful effect on human health or hisenvironment.
Noise or sound pollution: Noise excessive enough to cause psychological or physical damage is
Water pollution: Addition of undesirable substances to water that make it harmful to man, animal
and aquatic life causing significant changes in the normal activity is referred to as water pollution.
Soil pollution: Natural and synthetic materials that can adversely affect the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil thereby affecting the productivity is called as soil pollution.
Radioactive pollution: Pollution caused by the radioactive substances mainly in water is
radioactive pollution.
Visual pollution: Thus litter, billboards and auto junkyards are said to constitute visual pollution.
Thermal pollution: Waste heat that alters local climate or affects fish populations in rivers isdesignated thermal pollution.
Air pollution
Definition: The presence of natural and artificial substances in the atmospheric environment thataffect human health or well-being, or the well-being of any other specific organism.
Pragmatically, air pollution also applies to situations where contaminants impact structures
and artifacts or esthetic sensibilities (such as visibility or smell). Most artificial impurities are
injected into the atmosphere at or near the Earth's surface. The lower atmosphere (troposphere)cleanses itself of some of these pollutants in a few hours or days as the larger particles settle to the
surface and soluble gases and particles encounter precipitation or are removed through contact with
surface objects. Unfortunately, removal of some pollutants (eg., sulfates and nitrates) by precipitation and dry deposition results in acid deposition, which may cause serious environmental
damage. Also, mixing of the pollutants into the upper atmosphere may dilute the concentrations
near the Earth's surface, but can cause long-term changes in the chemistry of the upper atmosphere,including the ozone layer .
Sources of air pollution
I) Sources may be classified in a number of ways. Firstly,
o source = combustion of coal & oil (esp. coal), metallurgical process and hydrogensulphide gas from natural sources.
o can react with gases in atmosphere to form sulfuric acid ('acid rain'). SO2 and SO3
react with water to form sulphurous acid (H2SO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4)respectively. These acids cause irritation of eyes, nose and throat; they also
adversely affect aquatic life. SO2 also damages leather because of the formation of
H2SO4 on the leather surface which causes hydrolysis of leather proteins.
o High concentrations of SO2 cause chlorosis, plasmolysis, membrane damage,
reduced growth, yield and death.
o Exposure to SO2 can cause impairment of respiratory function, aggravation of
existing respiratory disease (especially bronchitis), and a decrease in the ability of
the lungs to clear foreign particles. It can also lead to increased mortality, especiallyif elevated levels of particulate matter (PM) are also present. Groups that appear most sensitive to the effects of SO2 include asthmatics and other individuals with
hyperactive airways, and individuals with chronic obstructive lung or
cardiovascular disease. Elderly people and children are also likely to be more
sensitive to SO2.o They play an important role in the formation of secondary pollutants called
photochemical smog (originally called as London smog). When they combine with
another air pollutant Hydrocarbons, they react with one another in the presence of sunlight and form a mixture of compounds including which appears as a blackish
haze called photochemical smog.
(smoke+fog=smog) (smog formed under the influence of sunlight is photochemical smog)
To form, it requires SOx, Hydrocarbons, water vapours, sunlight &
atmospheric inversion It is oxidative
• Nitrogen oxides - NO (nitric oxide) & NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) are major pollutants.
o source = motor vehicles, industry (burning fossil fuels) and volcanic eruption.
Nitrogen dioxide is also formed from the atmospheric nitrogen by electrical energy
of lighting and by natural ionizing radiation. The oxides of Nitrogen (NO 2) formabout 10% of air pollutants.
o can react with other gases in atmosphere to from nitric acid (HNO3) ('acid rain')
These acids cause irritation of eyes, nose and throat; they also adversely affectaquatic life.
o Nitrogen monoxide like Carbon monoxide lowers the oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood.o Being a strong reducing agent, NO2 react with metals, textiles and other
materials.
o Nitrogen oxides damage plants causing defoliation and necrosis.
o Nitrogen oxides play an important role in the formation of secondary pollutants
called photochemical smog (originally called as Los Angeles smog). When
Nitrogen oxides combine with another air pollutant Hydrocarbons, they react withone another in the presence of sunlight and forms a compound called PAN (Peroxy
Acetyl Nitrate) and ozone which appears as a yellowish brown haze calledphotochemical smog. PAN cause eye irritation, soar throat, respiratory irritationand so on. After about 12 hours of exposure cardiopulmonary (heart) activities are
impaired.
(smoke+fog=smog)
(smog formed under the influence of sunlight is photochemical smog)
To form, it requires Nox, Hydrocarbons, water vapours, sunlight &
o trace amounts of at least 600 toxic substances (such as lead and mercury) produced
by human activities sources of mercury = burning coal and waste (such as medical wastes)
Mercury is an element that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. Most people
and wildlife can generally tolerate the extremely low levels of this naturallyoccuring substance. When mercury enters the body it becomes concentrated
in tissue, an effect known as bioaccumulation. Because this element is toxic
at very low concentrations, even slight increases in the minuteconcentrations naturally present in the environment can have serious effects
on humans and wildlife. Once mercury enters the water it can be converted
to its most toxic form, methyl mercury, by bacteria or chemical reactions.Methyl mercury is absorbed by tiny aquatic organisms, which are then eaten
by small fish. The chemical is stored in the fish tissue and is passed on at
increasing concentrations to larger predator fish. People and wildlife at the
top of the food chain are consequently exposed to elevated amounts of
methyl mercury through the contaminated fish they consume.
SUMMARY of Effects of Air Pollutants
The major concern with air pollution relates to its effects on humans. Since most people spendmost of their time indoors, there has been increased interest in air-pollution concentrations in
homes, workplaces, and shopping areas. Much of the early information on health effects came
from occupational health studies completed prior to the implementation of general air-qualitystandards.
Air pollution principally injures the respiratory system, and health effects can be studied through
three approaches, clinical, epidemiological, and toxicological. Clinical studies use human subjects
in controlled laboratory conditions, epidemiological studies assess human subjects (health records)in real-world conditions, and toxicological studies are conducted on animals or simple cellular
systems. Of course, epidemiological studies are the most closely related to actual conditions, but
they are the most difficult to interpret because of the lack of control and the subsequent problemswith statistical analysis. Another difficulty arises because of differences in response among
different people. For example, elderly asthmatics are likely to be more strongly affected by sulfur
dioxide than the teenage members of a hiking club.
Damage to vegetation by air pollution is of many kinds. Sulfur dioxide may damage field cropssuch as alfalfa and trees such as pines, especially during the growing season. Both hydrogen
fluoride (HF) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in high concentrations have been shown to be harmful to
citrus trees and ornamental plants, which are of economic, importance in central Florida. Ozoneand ethylene are other contaminants that cause damage to certain kinds of vegetation.
Air pollution can affect the dynamics of the atmosphere through changes in longwave and
shortwave radiation processes. Particles can absorb or reflect incoming short-wave solar radiation,
keeping it from the Earth's surface during the day. Greenhouse gases can absorb long-wave
radiation emitted by the Earth's surface and atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide, methane, fluorocarbons, nitrous oxides, ozone, and water vapor are importantgreenhouse gases. These represent a class of gases that selectively absorb long-wave radiation.
This effect warms the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and surface higher than would befound in the absence of an atmosphere (the greenhouse effect). Because the amount of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere is rising, there is a possibility that the temperature of the atmosphere willgradually rise, possibly resulting in a general warming of the global climate over a time period of
several generations.
Researchers are also concerned with pollution of the stratosphere (10–50 km or 6–30 mi above theEarth's surface) by aircraft and by broad surface sources. The stratosphere is important, because it
contains the ozone layer, which absorbs part of the Sun's short-wave radiation and keeps it from
reaching the surface. If the ozone layer is significantly depleted, an increase in skin cancer in
humans is expected. Each 1% loss of ozone is estimated to increase the skin cancer rate 3–6%.
Visibility is reduced as concentrations of aerosols or particles increase. The particles do not just
affect visibility by themselves but also act as condensation nuclei for cloud or haze formation. In
each of the three serious air-pollution episodes discussed above, smog (smoke and fog) were
present with greatly reduced visibility.
Air pollution control measures:
There are 5 methods of controlling air pollution. They are
1. Proper planning of industrial area like zoning.2. Dilution of source discharge by use of tall stalks.
3. Using source correction methods4. Vegetation and
5. Use of controlling equipments
1. Proper planning of industrial area like zoning
Air pollution can be effectively controlled by adopting the zoning system at the planning stage
itself.
Cumulative zoning in the past has resulted in less availability of land for industries.
Permissible system: Modified system of Cumulative zoning, though this system has also resulted
in crowding of industrial zones with other uses besides industry.
Exclusive zoning system: which provides for compatible uses for each zone, excluding other uses.
In this system a separate zone or area is set aside for industries (known as industrial area or
industrial zone), thereby reducing the ill effects of air pollution on urban dwellers. By proper
zoning, the planning of the city should be done such that residential areas and heavy industries are
not located too close to teach other. This is achieved by providing a green belt between the
industries and the township.
In India, zoning system varies from city to city. For example, in the industrial estate of Bangalore, only three zones are provided for light, medium and large industries. Bombay plan has
listed four zones, 1. Small repairing and light manufacturing units, permissible in residential areas,
2. Service industrial zone, 3. Special industrial zone and 4. General industrial zone.
2. Dilution of source discharge by use of tall stacks
The atmosphere, like natural stream, possesses self-cleansing properties, which continuously clean
and remove the pollutants from the atmosphere under natural conditions, provided the pollutants
are discharged in the atmosphere judiciously so that effective dispersion takes place. If the
pollutants are carried away to some distance or taken to high altitudes, they are reduced in
concentration by diffusion and dilution. The pollutants are taken to high altitudes by means of tall
stacks. The height of the stack should be such that the maximum ground level concentration, which
varies inversely with the square of the stack height, is within the permissible limits. Tall stacks
penetrate the inversion layer and disperse the contaminants easily so that ground level
concentration is less harmful. Dilution of pollutants in air depends on atmospheric temperature and
speed and direction of the wind.
Disadvantage: It is a short term contact measure, which in reality brings about highly undesirable
long range effects. This is so because dilution only dilutes the contaminants to levels at which their
harmful effects are less noticeable near their original source whereas at a considerable distance
from the source, there contaminants eventually come down in some from or another.
3. Using source correction methods: This method is known as air pollution prevention at source.
This can be achieved through:
a. Change in raw materials b. Process changes and
c. Equipment or replacement.d. Maintenance of equipment
a. Change in raw material: If one type of the raw material, currently in use results in air pollution problem while a substitute material, which may be of purer grade, does not, the substitution will be
more desirable. The raw material in current use may contain certain ingredient which is not
essential for the process by which contributes to pollution, the non-essential ingredient should be
removed through prior processing so that pollution can be minimized. (Low sulphur fuel which has
less pollution potential can be used as an alternative to high sulphur fuels.).Comparatively more
refined liquid petroleum gas (LPG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) can be used instead of
traditional high contaminant fuels such as coal.
b. Process modification: Atmospheric pollutants emissions can sometimes be reduced by
adopting modified or new processes.
1. If coal is washed before pulverized, then fly ash emissions are considerably reduced.
2. If air intake of boiler furnace is adjusted, then excess fly ash emissions at power plantscan be reduced.
3. Use of exhaust hoods and ducts over several types of industrial ovens have not only
reduced pollutants but also have resulted in the recovery of valuable solvents that couldhave become air pollutants.
4. Similarly volatile substances can be recovered by condensation and the non
condensable gases can be recycled for additional reactions.
c. Equipment modification or replacement: Old equipment, which contributes to greater degreeof air pollution, can be modified or completely replaced.
1. Smoke, carbon monoxide and fumes can be reduced if open hearth furnaces are
replaced with controlled basic oxygen furnaces or electric furnaces.
2. In petroleum refineries, loss of hydrocarbon vapours from storage tanks due toevaporation, temperature changes or displacement during filling, etc., can be reduced
by designing the storage tanks with floating roof covers.
3. Pressuring the storage tanks in the above case can also give similar results.
d. Maintenance of equipment
An appreciable amount of pollution is caused due to poor maintenance of the equipment,which includes the leakage around ducts, pipes, valves and pumps etc. emissions of pollutants due
to negligence can be minimized by a routine check-up of the seals and gaskets.
4. Vegetation
Plants contribute towards controlling air pollution by utilizing carbon dioxide and releasingoxygen in the process of photosynthesis. This purifies the air removal of gaseous pollutants (CO2)
for the respiration of men and animals. Gaseous pollutants like carbon monoxide are fixed by some
plants, namely Coleus blumeri, Ficus variegate and Phascolus vulgaris. Species of Pinus, Quercus,
Pyrus, Juniperus and Vitis depollute the air by metabolizing nitrogen oxides. Plenty of trees should be planted, especially around those areas which are declared as high risk areas of pollution.
5. Control at source by equipment
The most effective means of dealing with the problem of air pollution is to prevent emission at the
source itself. In the case of industrial pollutants, it is often achieved by investigating variousapproaches at an early stage of the process. Design, development and selecting of those methods
should be emphasized which do not contribute to air pollution. Pollution control equipments are
generally classified into two types.
The particulate matter from gas stream can be removed at source using various types of control
equipment. Various methods are available, but to select the required equipment certain basic data
must be available. The required data are:
1. Quality of gas to be treated and its variation with time.2. Nature and concentration of matter to be removed.
3. Temperature and pressure of gas stream.
4. Nature of the gas phase.
Particulates Control:Gravity settling chambers
A typical horizontal flow gravity settling chamber is constructed in the form of a longhorizontal box with inlet, outlet, and dust collection hoppers. The dust-laden air stream enters the
unit at the inlet, then enters the expansion section, which causes the air velocity to be reduced and particles to settle by gravity. Gravitation force may be employed to remove particulatesin settling chambers when the settling velocity is greater than about 0.12 m/s. Thechambers are provided with enlarged areas to minimize horizontal velocities andallow time for the vertical velocity to carry the particle to the floor. The chamberusually operates with velocity between 0.5 and 2.8 m/s, although for best operatingresults the gas flow should be uniformly maintained at less than 0.3 m/s.
Settling chamber design based on laminar flow requires either a very large sizeor large number of trays with an awkward shape of chamber. The laminar chamberhas the advantage of giving theoretically perfect collection efficiency for particles of the designated size but is of little practical value since the efficiency drops off rapidlywith smaller particles. The most practical flow in the settling chamber will probably beturbulent rather than laminar. Thus, turbulent chamber offers a more practical design
concept. The chamber should be reasonably designed for the removal of 99% of theparticles. Here an improved type of settling chamber is the baffle chamber beeing used; the
baffles cause sudden changes of the direction of the air stream thus enhancing particle separation
and collection. The motion thus induced is superimposed on the motion due to gravity. Thus,
particle collection is accomplished by a combination of gravity and an inertial effect. Particles as
small as 10 to 20 µm can be collected. The settling chamber with baffles is more compact and
requires less space then the simple gravity settling chamber. Settling chambers are the simplest and crudest PCE and are best used upstream of
more efficient collectors. They can then reduce the load, improve the performance and extend the
life of the more efficient and more expensive device, and the dust can be recovered more easily.
Settling chambers have been used in many industries, including metal refining, foodstuffs, and
power plants.The advantages of settling chambers include: low cost of construction and maintenance;
few maintenance problems; relatively low pressure drops; temperature and pressure limitationsimposed only by the materials of construction used; dry disposal of solid particulates. The
disadvantages include large space requirements and relatively low overall collection efficiency.
Cyclone separators
The most widely used mechanical collector is the cyclone. Instead of gravitational force,
centrifugal force is utilized by cyclone separators to separate the particulate matter from the
polluted gas. Centrifugal force several times greater than gravitational force can be generated by
spinning gas stream and this quality makes cyclone separators more effective in removing much
smaller particulates than can possibly be removed by gravitational settling chambers. A simple
cyclone separator consists of a cylinder with a conical base. A tangential inlet discharging near the
top and an outlet for discharging the particulates is present at the base of the cone.
Mechanism of action: The mechanism depends on centrifugal force instead of gravity to separate particles from gas stream. The generated centrifugal force can be several times greater than the
gravitational force. Therefore, particles that can be removed in centrifugal collection are much
smaller than those that can be removed in gravity settling chambers. Reverse flow cyclone
consists of a cylindrical shell, a conical base dust hopper and an inlet where the dust laden gas
enters tangentially. The dust laden gas enters tangentially, receives a rotating motion and
generates a centrifugal force due to which the particulates are thrown to the cyclone walls as the
gas spirals upwards inside the cone (i.e., flow reverses to form an inner vortex which leaves flow
through the outlet). Particles slide down the walls of the cone and into the hopper. The operating
or separating efficiency of cyclone depends on the magnitude of the centrifugal force exerted on
the particles. The greater the centrifugal force, the greater the separating efficiency.
Like settling chambers, cyclones are frequently used as pre-treatment units to precede other,higher-efficiency air cleaning devices.
The advantages of settling chambers apply also to cyclones, and in addition cyclones can be usedover a broad range of pressures and temperatures, from below ambient to above 1000oC. Their
performance is insensitive to inlet dust concentration at the inlet; efficiency can increase with
increasing particle concentration; and they can be used effectively for the removal of liquiddroplets from gases, as in the discharge from absorption columns. The disadvantage is the low
efficiency for airborne particles finer than 5 µm.
Fabric filters
Filtration is one of the oldest and most widely used methods for separation of particulates from acarrier gas. A filter is a porous structure composed of a granular or fibrous material, which retains
the particulates and allows the gas to pass through the voids of the filter. Small particles are
initially retained on the fabric by direct interception, inertial impaction, diffusion and gravitational
settling. The filter is constructed of any material compatible with the carrier gas and particulates
and may be arranged in fabric, cloth filters or deep-bed filters.
Fibrous and deep-bed filters have large void spaces amounting from 97 to 99 % of the total
volume. Fabric filters are made in the form of tubular bags or cloth envelopes and are suitable for a
dust loading of the order of 1 g/m3. They are capable of removing dust particles as small as 0.5
microns and will remove substantial quantities of particles of which are closed and lower ends are
attached to an inlet manifold. The hopper at the bottom serves as a collector for the dust. The gas
entering through the inlet pipe strikes a baffle plate, which causes the larger particles to fall into
the hopper due to gravity. The carrier gas then flows upward into the tubes and then outward
through the fabric, leaving the particulate matter as a cake on the inside of the bags. The filter
efficiency during pre-coat formation is low but increases as the pre-coat formed, until a final
efficiency of over 99% is achieved. The pre-coat acts as a part of the filter medium, which further
helps in the removal of particulates. Many such bags are hung in a baghouse. For efficient filtration
and a longer life, the filter bags must be cleaned occasionally by a mechanical shaker to prevent
too many particulate layers from building up on the inside surfaces of the bag.
The advantages of fabric filters include high efficiency for fine particles, ease of operation and
maintenance, dry disposal of solid particles. The disadvantages include relatively high installationand operating costs, limitations for use in high temperatures and in handling sticky materials.
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)
Electrostatic precipitators are the most popular methods for efficient removal of fine solids and
liquids from gas streams: they can have collecting efficiencies of over 99%. A high potentialelectric field is established between discharge and collecting electrodes of opposite polarity. The
discharge electrode is of small cross sectional area, such as a wire or piece of flat stock, and the
collection electrode is large in surface area, such as a plate. The dust-laden gas to be cleaned passes
through the field. At a critical voltage, the gas molecules are ionized at or near the surface of thedischarge electrode. Ions of the same polarity as the discharge electrode attach themselves to
neutral dust particles, which are then attracted to the collecting plate. On contact with the
collecting surface, dust particles lose their charge and can then be easily removed by vibration,
washing or by gravity.
The advantages of ESPs include: high collection efficiency for small particles; low operating pressure drops; temperature and pressure limitations imposed only by the construction materials
used; dry disposal of solid particles. The disadvantages include large space requirements, high
cost, and need for skilled operation and maintenance. The success of a precipitator depends notonly on the quality of the system but also on adequate operation and maintenance; therefore, well-
trained operators are required.
Scrubbers
Scrubber is a device used to entrap a targeted object using a scrubbing medium. The scrubbingmedium can be selected based on the properties of the pollutant and the carrier gas in the exhaust.
In a scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the suitable scrubbing medium,
by spraying, by forcing through, by sucking out or by some other contact method. The scrubbing
media entraps the targeted pollutant by physical phenomenon like simple capture, adsorption, etc.or by chemical phenomenon like absorption, dissolution, ion exchange, etc.
Based on the type of scrubbing media used, the scrubbers are of two types, dry scrubbers and wet
scrubbers. In dry scrubbers solid scrubbing media like activated granular charcoal, activated
alumina, zeolt, etc. been used
Scrubbers can be designed to collect particulate matter and/or gaseous pollutants. Wet scrubbersremove dust particles by capturing them in liquid droplets. Wet scrubbers remove pollutant gases
by dissolving or absorbing them into the liquid. Wet scrubbers are widely used in cleaning
contaminated gas streams because of their ability to remove effectively both particulate and
gaseous pollutants. They are designed to incorporate small dust particles into larger water droplets,which can then be removed by simple mechanisms such as gravity, impaction on baffles, or by
centrifugal collectors. The droplets are produced, for example, by spray nozzles, by the shearing aliquid film with the gas stream, or by the motion of a mechanically driven rotor, and principles
used to incorporate the dust into droplets include inertial impaction, direct interception, diffusion,
Advantages and disadvantages
For particulate control, wet scrubbers (also referred to as wet collectors) are evaluated against
fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators (ESPs). Some advantages of wet scrubbers over thesedevices are as follows:
• Wet scrubbers have the ability to handle high temperatures and moisture.
• In wet scrubbers, the inlet gases are cooled, resulting in smaller overall size of equipment.
• Wet scrubbers can remove both gases and particulate matter.• Wet scrubbers can neutralize corrosive gases.
Some disadvantages of wet scrubbers include corrosion, the need for entrainment separation or
mist removal to obtain high efficiencies and the need for treatment or reuse of spent liquid.
vadose zone to the groundwater, and a treatment technology used to treat the groundwater may be
combined to treat the vadose zone soil. Additional such technologies are described under
alternatives to SVE. More typically, SVE is a favorable economic remedy, and toxic vapors will
require treatment to prevent their release to the atmosphere.
Commonly applied technologies for treating gases and vapor include the following: absorption,
adsorption, condensation, thermal oxidation (catalytic and non-catalytic) and biofiltration. Each of
these treatment techniques are typically economic over a certain range of concentrations, and are
better suited to treat some pollutants than others. Because pollutant concentrations from SVE
operations often decrease over the period of treatment from a moderate (about 1000 ppm) to low
(about 10 ppm or less) level, condensation and absorption have rarely been used for SVE.1[1] Those
two processes also do not destroy the pollutant, but they can be combined with processes that do
destroy the compounds. Those two technologies will not be discussed further here.
Adsorption
Adsorption is an interfacial phenomenon, molecules adhere at the surface of the solid adsorbent. A
large surface area is required to collect the pollutant molecules resulting in a larger physical size
and container. Adsorption from dilute gas streams is complicated by the occurrence of high
humidity and the presence of other compounds whose removal is not desired, but which also
occupy adsorption sites. Competition for adsorption sites reduces the capacity of the adsorbent for
the target molecules. At high relative humidity, a phenomenon known as "capillary condensation"
results in further loss of adsorption capacity further increasing the need for adsorbent and the size
of the unit. Although hydrophobic adsorbents are now available, used in industrial applications,
and perform better under high humidity conditions than granular activated carbon GAC, they aretoo expensive for use with non-regenerable systems. Adsorption systems used for SVE operation
have traditionally been non-regenerable systems because of the low concentrations. Since
pollutants are only trapped, and not destroyed by adsorption, disposal of the spent adsorbent must
be taken into consideration, since it may need to be treated as a hazardous waste.
Absorption
The removal of one or more selected components from a gas mixture by absorption is probably the
most important operation in the control of gaseous pollutant emissions. Absorption is a process in
which a gaseous pollutant is dissolved in a liquid. Water is the most commonly used absorbent
liquid. As the gas stream passes through the liquid, the liquid absorbs the gas, in much the sameway that sugar is absorbed in a glass of water when stirred. Absorption is commonly used to
recover products or to purify gas streams that have high concentrations of organic compounds.
Absorption equipment is designed to get as much mixing between the gas and liquid as possible.
Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and there are various types of absorption equipment.
The principal types of gas absorption equipment include
spray towers, packed columns, spray chambers, and venture
scrubbers. The packed column is by far the most commonly
used for the absorption of gaseous pollutants. The packed
column absorber has a column filled with an inert (non-
reactive) substance, such as plastic or ceramic, which
increases the liquid surface area for the liquid/gas interface.
The inert material helps to maximize the absorption
capability of the column. In addition, the introduction of the
gas and liquid at opposite ends of the column causes mixing
to be more efficient because of the counter-current flow
through the column. In general, absorbers can achieve
removal efficiencies grater than 95 percent. One potential problem with absorption is the
generation of waste-water, which converts an air pollution problem to a water pollution problem.
Incineration
Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used to control the emissions of organic
compounds from process industries. This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a
substance through the combination of oxygen with a combustible material in the presence of heat.
When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is converted to carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Incomplete combustion will result in some pollutants being released into the atmosphere. Smoke is
one indication of incomplete combustion. Equipment used to control waste gases by combustion
can be divided in three categories: direct combustion or flaring, thermal incineration and catalytic
incineration. Choosing the proper device depends on many factors, including type of hazardouscontaminants in the waste stream, concentration of combustibles in the stream, process flow rate,
control requirements, and an economic evaluation.
A direct combustor or flare is a device in which air and all the combustible waste gases react at
the burner. Complete combustion must occur instantaneously since there is no residence chamber.
Flares are commonly used for disposal of waste gases during process upsets, such as those that
take place when a process is started or shut down. A flare can be used to control almost any
emission stream containing volatile organic compounds. Studies conducted by EPA have shown
that the destruction efficiency of a flare is about 98 percent.
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are standards established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency that apply for outdoor air throughout the country. Primary
standards are designed to protect human health, including sensitive populations such as children,
the elderly, and individuals suffering from respiratory disease. Secondary standards are designed to protect public welfare (e.g. building facades, visibility, crops, and domestic animals).
NAAQS requires the EPA to set standards on eight criteria pollutants:
1. Ozone (O3)
2. Particulate Matter
o PM10, course particles: 2.5 micrometers (μm) to 10 μm in size (although current
implementation includes all particles 10 μg or less in the standard)
o PM2.5, fine particles: 2.5 μm in size or less
3. Carbon monoxide (CO)
4. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)5. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)6. Lead (Pb)