UNIT 6 TOWARD A GLOBAL CIVILIZATION. CHAPTER 27 COLD WAR AND POSTWAR CHANGES.

UNIT 6

TOWARD A GLOBAL CIVILIZATION

CHAPTER 27

COLD WARAND

POSTWAR CHANGES

OVERVIEW

• The Cold War came to define international relations and, at times, even domestic politics. Social change produced upheavals in Western societies. Soviet repression relaxed somewhat after Stalin while still containing the pressures for change.

SECTION ONE – DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLD WARThe rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United States was the focus of the Cold War. The American Marshall Plan tried to make communism less attractive by providing billions of dollars to help rebuild Western Europe. Germany became divided into two states, with a divided city of Berlin inside East Germany. In 1949 Communists took control in China, and the Soviet detonation of an atomic bomb launched a U.S.-Soviet arms race. Soviet and Western alliance systems spanned the globe. The Cuban missile crisis presented the frightening prospect of nuclear war. American policymakers perceived non-Communist South Vietnam as a domino that must not be permitted to fall to communism. Despite the eventual communist victory, the domino theory proved to be unfounded.

SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPESection 2 The Soviet Union and Eastern EuropeAfter World War II, Stalinist economic policies brought dramatic economic growth, but at a high cost. Most of the growth was in heavy industry. Consumer goods remained hard to find. Stalin's successor, Nikita Krushchev, condemned Stalinist terror, increased the production of consumer goods, and loosened controls on writers, such as Alexander Solzhenitsyn. Krushchev's rash decisions, such as the plan to place missiles in Cuba, convinced colleagues to remove him from office in 1964. After World War II, Soviet forces had occupied all of Eastern Europe and part of the Balkans. The occupied states now became Soviet satellites. Yugoslavia was the exception and developed into an independent Communist state. In Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, attempts for reform threatened Soviet domination. In each case, the Soviet Union crushed these reforms by using threats or military force.

WESTERN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICAThe 1950s and 1960s were periods of dramatic economic growth in Western Europe. France and Germany both experienced rapid economic recoveries. In Great Britain, dire economic conditions forced Winston Churchill from power. The new Labor government set out to create a modern welfare state and began to dismantle the British empire. The formation of the European Economic Community created a powerful new trading bloc. Canada emerged as an industrial economy. In the United States, the New Deal had brought a long-term increase in the power of the federal government. Prosperity and Cold War suspicions defined the United States in the 1950s. Civil rights and the expansion of the New Deal were defining issues of the 1960s. Students protested U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. Simultaneously, a variety of issues sparked student revolts in Europe. Women began to fight against inequalities between the sexes.

CHAPTER 28

THE CONTEMPORARY WESTERN WORLD

OVER VIEW

• The last quarter of the twentieth century saw the end of the Cold War, the collapse of Communist rule in Eastern Europe, and economic unification of Western Europe. American popular culture had a global influence, as did the use of terrorism as a political tool.

SECTION ONEDECLINE OF THE SOVIET UNIONThe 1970s saw a relaxation of Cold War tensions, known as détente. The 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan brought back old fears of Soviet expansion. Tensions heightened further when Ronald Reagan called the Soviet Union an "evil empire" and began a new arms race. Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet leader of the 1970s, had been uninterested in reform. However, Mikhail Gorbachev, who came to power in 1985, saw the need for radical change to save an ailing economy. Gorbachev coupled his domestic reform plans with an easing of Communist party control over the republics of the Soviet Union. Agreements with the United States sharply reduced nuclear arms stockpiles. Gorbachev's reforms led to the break-up of the Soviet Union into independent republics. Post-Soviet Russian leaders had to contend with the attempt by Chechen rebels to break away from the Russian Republic. Meanwhile, the shift to a free-market economy produced economic hardship, social disarray, and a sharp rise in organized crime.

SECTION TWOEASTERN EUROPEThe collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe took varying forms in the late 1980s. In Poland the Solidarity trade union led a decade-long struggle for change. Often, the collapse of the Communist order was more sudden. In Czechoslovakia mass demonstrations ousted the Communists swiftly and with little violence. Ethnic pressures later led to the division of the country into Slovakia and the Czech Republic. The killing of thousands of peaceful demonstrators in Romania caused the army to withdraw its support for the repressive dictatorship. It quickly collapsed. Street protests also brought the fall of Communism—and the Berlin Wall—in East Germany. Free elections led to German reunification. Yugoslavia split into multiple republics. Calls for the formation of a Greater Serbia in the former Yugoslavia produced two wars in which NATO blocked Serbian attempts to annex Bosnia and strip Kosovo of its status as an autonomous province.

SECTION THREEEUROPE AND NORTH AMERICAEconomic problems plagued the West during the 1970s. A sharp increase in oil prices had ripple effects in most countries. After 1970 Western European nations moved toward economic union. A socialist, François Mitterand, tried unsuccessfully to remedy France's problems by expanding government ownership of business. Margaret Thatcher's budget cuts in Great Britain proved more successful but caused widespread poverty in old industrial areas. Although an economic boom in the 1980s at first helped West Germany absorb East Germany, German reunification proved to be more costly than originally thought. Subsequent economic problems led to a wave of anti-immigrant and neo-Nazi activity. In the United States, Jimmy Carter lost his reelection bid under the cloud of a hostage crisis and high inflation. Ronald Reagan made cutbacks in social programs but ordered a costly military buildup. Richard Nixon and Bill Clinton both left office under a cloud of misconduct. While Clinton oversaw an economic recovery, his legal problems helped elect a Republican, George W. Bush. In Canada, the province of Quebec came close to seceding during the 1990s.

SECTION FOURWESTERN SOCIETY AND CULTURESince 1970 the number of women in the work force has continued to rise, although women have continued to earn less than men. Issues of particular concern to women have gained prominence in political debates. Acts of terror have become a regular feature of Western society. One of the most destructive acts occurred in September 2001, when terrorists piloted airplanes into the World Trade Center Towers in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., killing thousands. Wartime technological advances, such as computers and jet aircraft, have been adapted for peacetime use. Critics of rapid scientific and technological change point to damaging effects on the environment and the food supply. Fears of a collapse in values sparked a religious revival during the twentieth century. Americans dominated the art world after World War II and shaped popular culture.

CHAPTER 29

LATIN AMERICA

OVERVIEW

• Economic crises after World War II brought military rule in some Latin American countries and revolution in others. Democracy did not take hold in most of Latin America until the late twentieth century

Section oneGeneral trends in Latin AmericaDuring the Great Depression, Latin American leaders encouraged the development of local industries. The policy failed to end Latin America's dependence on the advanced industrial nations largely because the new industries had to import most of their supplies and equipment. Economic problems led to political instability and dictatorships. The United States tried to discourage Latin American nations from intervening in each other's affairs by creating the Organization of American States. This did not discourage the United States from intervening from time to time to protect its own interests. The pressure of mounting foreign debt helped end the dictatorships. Newly formed democracies in the late 1980s had to face urban crowding, poverty, and illegal drug trade. Latin American artists and writers have had a prominent role in society. Magic realism has been an important literary contribution.

Section TwoMexico, Cuba and Central AmericaPolitical and economic crises in Mexico and Latin America sometimes resulted in revolution and at other times brought foreign intervention or gradual political change. In Mexico economic and political challenges gradually convinced the ruling party to let other parties compete for—and win—power. Fidel Castro's Communist government came to power in Cuba in 1959 and remained in control after the collapse of the Soviet Union despite deteriorating economic conditions. In El Salvador, the United States provided military aid to crush leftist guerrillas. The conflict subsided after at least 75,000 people died. In the late 1970s, the Marxist Sandinistas overthrew the Somoza-family dictatorship in Nicaragua. After a bruising struggle with American-backed Contra rebels, they held elections and were defeated. In Panama, the United States backed a military ruler, Manuel Noriega, but later invaded the country and jailed Noriega on drug-trafficking charges.

Section ThreeThe Nations of South AmericaMany countries in South America alternated between elected government and military rule during the second half of the twentieth century. Some dictators, such as Argentina's Juan Péron, were highly popular. Growing income inequality destabilized many South American societies. In Brazil, reduced government interference in the economy led to run-away inflation. The policies of Salvador Allende, a Marxist elected in Chile, led to a military coup by General Augusto Pinochet. Protests against human rights abuses under Pinochet eventually forced him to restore democracy. Other democracies were formed in the late 1980s. However, instability and peasant unrest in Peru brought a return to dictatorship under the elected leader Alberto Fujimori. His ouster in 2000 restored democracy. Colombia's democracy is very old but has been wracked by problems and has often involved harsh repression. Lawless drug cartels have been an insoluble problem.

CHAPTER 30

AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

OVERVIEW

• African states gained independence after World War II, but troubling conditions and undemocratic rule remain widespread. The Middle East has been the site of much conflict. The Islamic revival has affected the lives of people throughout the Middle East.

Section OneIndependence in AfricaIndependent African states emerged after World War II with high hopes for democracy. Many African leaders advocated Western-style capitalism. Others called for an African form of socialism. Pan-Africanism was also a popular political creed, although African unity never became a political reality. Indeed, bloody wars between competing ethnic groups have been common. Economic challenges have included the need to import technology and manufactured goods, and to confront rapid population growth and drought. AIDS has become widespread. Despite attempts at democracy, one-party states and corrupt military regimes have been more typical. However, protest has brought some democratic change. The struggle to end apartheid resulted in the election of anti-apartheid leader Nelson Mandela as president of South Africa. Pockets of Western culture in Africa's cities contrast with the traditional life in rural areas. Tension between traditional and modern practices has been a dilemma for many Africans and is reflected in African art and literature.

Section TwoConflict in the Middle EastA 1947 United Nations resolution divided Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state. However, the problem of Palestinian refugees from that time has persisted. During the 1950s Gamal Abdel Nasser became the leader of the Pan-Arab movement. Nasser's confrontation with Israel led to the Six Day War, in which Israel gained large pieces of territory and brought one million more Palestinians under its control. During the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, oil price hikes led to economic problems in Europe and the United States. The intifada, a popular Palestinian uprising, led to negotiations on Palestinian autonomy, although progress has been slow. A revolution in Iran ended American ties with a close ally and led to an Islamic republic ruled by Islamic law. Iran and Iraq fought a brutal war. Iraqi President Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait but was forced to withdraw after an American-led force organized to free Kuwait. In Afghanistan, rule of the country has shifted from Communist supporters to the Islamic Taliban and now an alliance. Conservative Muslims have increasingly enforced Islamic behavior in the Middle East.

Chapter 31

Asia and the pacific

overview

• Mao and the Communists took control of China and turned it into a military power. India split into three countries—India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Japan and the "Asian Tigers" became economic powerhouses. Australia and New Zealand have drawn closer to Asia

Seciton OneCommunist ChinaChinese Communists defeated the Nationalists in 1949, and Chiang Kai-shek and his supporters fled to Taiwan to set up their own government. Under Mao Zedong's disastrous Great Leap Forward program, vast communes were formed to boost farm production. Instead, millions of people starved. During the Proletarian Cultural Revolution, Mao tried to wipe out old ways and ideas. Reformers, led by Deng Xiaoping, seized power after Mao's death, ended the revolution, and turned to modernization. Fears of Communist expansion led to the Korean War, in which Chinese troops and United Nations troops (mainly American) clashed. Tensions between China and the Soviet Union led to ties between the United States and China in the early 1970s. Growing discontentment with Chinese Communist rule has created pockets of dissent in recent years, while Western nations have worried over China's military strength.

Section TwoIndependent States in South and Southeast AsiaAfter World War II, India was divided into Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan. India experienced an industrial boom, but population growth, poverty, and ethnic tensions have become growing problems. East Pakistan became the state of Bangladesh. Both Pakistan and Bangladesh are poor and politically unstable. Southeast Asian colonies gradually gained independence. France reluctantly allowed the creation of a Communist North Vietnam and a non-Communist South Vietnam. After French withdrawal, American troops were involved in a protracted war. After the United States withdrew, the Communists unified Vietnam. Communists took power in Laos and Cambodia, but U.S. fears of "falling dominoes" were not realized. A popular uprising in the Philippines overthrew corrupt president Ferdinand Marcos.

South Asia

Section ThreeJapan and the PacificAn American occupying force remodeled many aspects of Japanese society along Western lines to discourage a resurgence of Japanese militarism. The newly democratic Japan emerged as a giant economic power. The "Asian Tigers"—South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong—have also been economic success stories. Authoritarian rule has given way to democracy in all but Singapore. Taiwan is home to the Republic of China, founded by Chiang Kai-shek after the Communist victory in mainland China. Australia and New Zealand have long identified themselves with Europe. Both are military allies of the United States. However, recent trends in trade and immigration have drawn them closer to Asia.

Chapter 32

Challenges and hopes for the future

OVERVIEW

• Stunning developments in science, technology, industry, and agriculture have been offset by the political, economic, and environmental costs of these advances. New types of organizations have given governments and people new ways to respond to the world's challenges.

SECTION ONETHE CHALLENGES OF OUR WORLDThe world has seen great developments in science, technology, industry, and agriculture. Space travel and high-speed communications have opened up new frontiers. The flip side of these developments has been a range of problems that affect growing numbers of people, and the risks of damage to the environment have grown considerably. Globalization has broken down many barriers between nations, and interest in democracy has revived. Yet populations have exploded, the gap between the rich and the poor has increased, and hunger and disease remain widespread. Regional, ethnic, and religious conflicts often spread across borders. The end of the Cold War has reduced fears of a global nuclear war, but fears of powerful weapons in terrorist hands have increased. The gender gap has narrowed, but less so in developing countries

SECTION TWOGLOBAL VISIONSThe global nature of many problems in the twentieth century has led to the development of global organizations. The United Nations, formed at the end of World War II, has been an important body in which nations can voice concerns and address problems. Citizen groups have responded to a host of challenges—from the dangers of nuclear power to nonviolence. Nongovernmental organizations have allowed citizens to expand their influence on issues such as religion, disarmament, the environment, and human rights. Yet political, ethnic, and religious disputes have often interfered with the resolution of such issues. One lesson of history is that being involved in the affairs of society may create opportunities to make wise choices, even in an age that is often crisis laden and chaotic