Underutilized Plant Species in Far West Nepal

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Abstract: Underutilized plant species help to alleviate common food insufficiencies by providing alternative food supply. They also complement primary health care, furnishing raw materials where the cultivation of staple cereal crops is least feasible and health care is pursued indigenously. Research and promotion of extraction, utilization, and conservation of underutilized species lead to exploration of new staple crops and motivate people to consume in a sustainable manner. The present study describes the current status, uses, and management of underutilized plant species in Far West Nepal. The relative importance of 49 underutilized plant species was computed employing a Relative Importance (RI) technique. The use-values assigned to the species fall into six use-categories: beverage, fodder, food & edible, medicinal, vegetable and veterinary. A total of 22 species appeared in multiple use-categories, while the rest were characterized by a single use-category. Based on relative importance and frequency, Ficus semicordata, Debregesia longifolia, Girardinea diversifolia, Hydrocotyle nepalensis, Garuga pinnata, Aloe vera and Pyrus pashia offer the most potential for future. Underutilized plants proved important to folk medicine and food. These species persist because they remain useful to local people as means of subsistence, production, and primary health care. The findings are important so far as they point up the role of

underutilized plants in national food security policy and health care, spelling out their potentialities and cross cutting relationships. Keywords: Underutilized plants; Relative importance (RI); Ethnoveterinary use; Conservation; Nepal

Introduction

Approximately 75,000 species of plants world-wide are believed to be edible (Walters and Hamilton 1993). Of these, more than 7,000 species (about 1.65% of all plants) (Govaerts 2001) are cultivated or harvested in the wild (Rehm and Espig 1991; Wilson 1992). Nearly 3,000 species have at one time or other been consumed as food, but fewer than ten plant species satisfy over 90% of the world food demand (Wilkes 1981). Only nine crops (wheat, maize, rice, potato, barley, cassava, soybean, sugarcane, and oats) yield over 70% of the world’s food (Sattaur 1989). Over 50% of the daily global requirement of proteins and calories is met by just three crops (maize, wheat and rice) (FAO 1996a), and about 85% of our industrial forestry plantations are established with just three genera (Eucalyptus, Pinus, and Tectona) (Evans 1992). Modern crop production, therefore, relies on only a few plant species (Prescott-Allen and Prescott-

Underutilized Plant Species in Far West Nepal

Ripu M. KUNWAR1*, Laxmi MAHAT2, Lila N. SHARMA1, Keshab P. SHRESTHA3, Hiroo KOMINEE4, Rainer W. BUSSMANN5

1 Centre for Biological Conservation, Kirtipur-3, Nayabazar, Kathmandu, Nepal

2 GPO Box 19925, Kalanki-14, 44600, Kathmandu, Nepal

3 Natural History Museum, Swayambhu, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

4 Hatai Clinic, KYG Iryoukai Medical Association, 2-47-22 Togo Iryou Building 1F Nakacho,Tokyo, Japan

5 William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA

*Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected]

© Science Press and Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, CAS and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012

Received: 27 January 2012 Accepted: 20 July 2012

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Allen 1990), with commercialization of about 150-200 species on a significant global scale (Simpson and Ogorzaly 1995; Jaenicke and Hoschle-Zeledon 2006), meeting the world’s nutritional and primary health care needs. Among native Himalayan medicinal plants, only 20% are under cultivation, which is indicative of their under-exploitation and paucity of ethnobotanical research (Dhar et al. 2000). Over-dependence on a few plant species exacerbates many acute difficulties faced by communities with regard to food security, nutrition, health, ecosystem sustainability, and cultural integrity (Jaenicke and Hoschle-Zeledon 2006). Therefore, there are a large number of underexploited or underutilized plant species that may be of great benefit to the human community. Ethnobotanical surveys are important to document many of the less-known species grown, managed, and collected in rural areas (IPGRI 2002).

Only a handful surveys on underutilized plants exist for Nepal (Shrestha 1987; Manandhar 1989; GoN 1992; Malla 1993; Regmi 1994, 2006; Shrestha 1995; Manandhar 1995a; Shrestha et al. 1995; Jha et al. 1996; Joshi et al. 2007; Marr et al. 2007; Bhattarai and Chaudhary 2009; Acharya and Acharya 2010). However, no study has specifically focused on Far Western part of the country. Much of the traditional knowledge from this potentially rich source is being lost at an alarming rate (Kunwar and Bussmann 2008). Cultural knowledge and plant genetic resources are being eroded, in part, as a consequence of the limited amount of research (Hamilton 2004). Increasing public awareness about underutilized plants was prompted by various international publications such as the CBD (1992), FAO (1996b) and CGIAR (2004).

According to Padulosi and Hoeschle-Zeledon (2004), the main characteristics of underutilized species are: their great importance in local production systems and consumption; their considerable ability to adapt to diverse agro-ecological niches and fringe areas; and their exclusion from mainstream research and development agendas and national policies. The present study attempts to catalogue the underutilized plants in Far Western Nepal and to document the ethnobotanical knowledge of the plants’ use, nomenclature, and management. Moreover, the study was designed to include the

underutilized plants in national food security policy, inferring their potentialities and cross cutting relationships (Regmi 2006). The term ‘underutilized’ analyzed herein, does not necessarily imply a total absence of human usage; the plants may be collected or nurtured as common property resources to meet a diverse number of needs.

1 Materials and Methods

1.1 Study area

Baitadi, Dadeldhura and Darchula districts form the western border of Nepal, lie adjacent to India and stretch between 29°01' N and 30°15' N latitude, 80°03' E and 81°09' E longitude. The districts span bioclimates from tropical to alpine and harbor varied topography, elevational gradients, and the associated forest products (Devkota and Karmacharya 2003; Pant and Panta 2004). Most of the areas of the districts are arid and inaccessible (Kunwar 2002). The remoteness of the districts isolates the region, limits government amenities to negligible levels, and prompts food deficiency (UNWFP 2006). Because of the dry and arid environment, cultivation of cereal crops is not very feasible (Jha et al. 1996). Collection of high value plants and their products is common in the districts because of the rugged terrain for both subsistence (domestic uses and primary health care) and commercial uses (Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008).

1.2 Field visits and data collection

Field visits were made during January-February 2007, March-April 2008 and January 2011. A total of 200 randomly selected local informants were interviewed. The informants resided in the following villages: Anarkholi, Dasharathchand, Jhulaghat, Khodpe, Kulau, Pancheswor, Patan, Salena, and Sera (Baitadi district); Brikham, Jakh, Jogbudha, Patram, and Rupal (Dadeldhura district); and Dumling, Gokule, Joljibi, Khalanga, Khar, Lali, and Uku (Darchula district). Primary data collection, which began after oral informed consent was obtained from the participating communities, consisted of group

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discussions, informal meetings, cross-checking, and field observations. Informal meetings were held in villages. The consultations were made using semi-structured checklists; the responses were categorized in accordance with ethnicity and gender.

All plant species encountered during field visits were recorded applying a free listing method (Quinlan et al. 2002) with the help of local assistants and research associates. The plant species were collected following Cunningham (2001), identified to species level using ethnotaxonomic information and secondary literature (Stainton and Polunin 1984; Stainton 1988), and displayed for further discussion among informants (discussion prompts). Common species and monospecific genera that were well known by their vernacular names were used only for discussion and not vouchered for further identification. The remaining unidentified species were collected, identified, and deposited in the National Herbarium and Plant Laboratory (KATH), Lalitpur, Nepal.

During discussions, matching information (e.g. uses of a given taxon) from at least three respondents (mentions) was counted as a common response and considered for further analysis (Reyes-Garcia et al. 2006). The species with common responses were assigned to the first, second, and third order following preference ranking (Martin 2004) based on a majority consensus. The first and second order species were discussed earlier (Kunwar et al. 2009; Kunwar et al. 2010a, 2010b). The third (lowest) category of plant species (those with the fewest (three or less) mentions for a particular use) was classified as “underutilized”. This category is discussed in the present paper. The information about vernacular names, local conservation status, indigenous usage, priority over the species, etc. was gleaned during discussions and is explained here.

Specific uses of plants were recorded and then totaled by their respective category for further analysis (Phillips 1996). The local importance of each species mentioned was calculated using Relative Importance (RI) (Bennett and Prance 2000). The RI emphasizes those plants that have the greatest absolute number of uses (Albuquerque et al. 2006).

RI was calculated using the formula:

RI = NUC + NT

where: NUC = number of use-categories of a given species divided by the total number of use-categories of the species; NT = number of uses attributed to a given species divided by the total number of uses of the species.

Individual species data were subjected to hierarchical cluster analysis (Hoft et al. 1999) employing the R (2.10.1) software package (R Development Core Team 2010) to establish similarities amongst different responses in relation to use value and distribution, using euclidean distance (Fowler et al. 1998).

2 Results and Discussion

2.1 Underutilized species

Because of the area’s natural unsuitability to cultivate staple cereal crops, local people have been relied on locally available wild plant resources. As in other regions (Etkin and Ross 1982; Gessler et al. 1998), many wild plants that are retained in local livelihoods (Bhattarai et al. 2011) are inseparable from indigenous food and therapeutic systems. In Nepal, about 85% of the population inhabits rural areas, and the use of nearby plant species has been crucial to the way of life of these populations (Chaudhary 1998). Altogether, 317 useful plant species were reported within the study area: 226 species from the Dadeldhura district, 225 from the Baitadi district and 211 from the Darchula district. Informants identified a total of 192 plant species that were frequently used and 125 species that were underutilized. The number of mentions for a given species ranged from 3 to 50. The plant mentioned most frequently was Cordyceps sinensis, which is popular as an aphrodisiac. Forty nine species fell into the least mentioned category (≤ 3 uses) and are further discussed below. Underutilized species represented six use-categories: beverage, fodder, food & edible, medicinal, vegetable, and veterinary. The underutilized species are characterized by multiple values (Etkin 2002; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003). A total of 22 species were mentioned for multiple use-categories; the rest fell into a single use-category.

Ficus semicordata, F. hispida, and Bauhinea

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purpurea each occurred in three use-categories. In terms of relative importance and relative frequency, F. semicordata, Debregesia longifolia, Girardinea diversifolia, Hydrocotyle nepalensis, Garuga pinnata, Aloe vera and Pyrus pashia were the top underutilized species with most potential for future use. Of 49 species, almost 90% were used in folk medicine, followed by 20% with ethnoveterinary uses and 15% with food value (Figure 1).

The usage of plants as ethnomedicine within the study area was consistent with the presence of at least one traditional healer for every 100 local people, compared to a ratio of one health worker for every 600 people. Underutilized plants that were used to supplement staple foods during periods of food deficit (Asfaw and Tadesse 2001) were also often put to ethnoveterinary and folkloric use. Twenty eight species were used in Baitadi district, mostly for their ethnomedicinal, and food value. Most of the 0.26 million people living in the district are under food deficit (Anonymous 2008). The usage of Setaria italica (Kaguno) as staple crop is common. The use of wild plants as famine foods is linked to food scarcity (Santayana et al. 2005).

Different parts of the plants used for various purposes (Figure 2). Both raw and dried fruits of sixteen species were frequently employed. Various preparations included decoctions, pastes, extracts, juices, gums, raw/fresh items, pulp, dry and powder. Raw products with local processing were particularly frequent.

2.2 Species resemblance

Cluster analysis, a technique of finding groups of similar items (Holland 2006) (Figure 3) showed a clear separation of values into eight cluster level. The two-cluster solution separates the species into two groups (17 species versus the rest) with differing use-values and distribution. These 17 species received the lowest cumulative values of relative importance and frequency, thus showing a distant relationship. The species presented in Figure 3 correspond numerically to the species order of Table 1.

The three clusters separated eight species, and the four clusters isolated another 14 species. The tree shows that Debregesia longifolia, Hydrocotyle nepalensis, and Girardinia diversifolia have

similar use values and distributions, and their values are closer, relatively to, Garuga pinnata and Ficus semicordata. All five species were common in the three study districts and scored the maximum use values. These five species were closer, again relatively, to Ficus hispida, Bauhinia purpurea, Pyrus pashia and Aloe vera with respect to their use values. Despite the fact that these species received maximum use values, and were common in study area, they were underutilized, and have great potential for consumption as food, fodder, ethnoveterinary medicine and ethnomedicine.

2.3 Use value

There is diversity among underutilized plants and their products: they were undervalued and

Figure 1 Various use categories with the number of species used

Fodder , 6

Medicinal , 43

Veterinary, 10

Edible and food, 7

Beverage, 2Vegetable , 6

02468

1012141618

Fruits Whole plant

Roots Barks Tender shoots

Leaves Flowers Wood

Figure 2 Plant parts used for various purposes Statistics on the use of plant parts.

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their usage differed with respect to gender, ethnic groups/users, and spatial scales. Again, the magnitude and intensity of use varied with accessibility and availability. The underutilized plants, freely collected from government-owned forests, reinforce ritual and cultural values (Johns and Eyzaguirre 2002) and are likely to be frequently utilized by ethnic groups and tribal communities. Fagopyrum esculentum (buckwheat) is commonly consumed by native herdsmen in high altitude areas. Ethnic groups often collect and exploit a disproportionate amount of these plants to address their subsistence and accessory needs. Loss of these plants means a loss of important components of culture and religion (Akhtar 2001). Rural women are important in identifying, utilizing and conserving underutilized plants (Joshi et al. 2007). They hold and maintain the knowledge about gathering locations and seasons, preservation, processing, and culinary uses of such plants.

Instead of cultivating underutilized plants, most rural farmers prefer to collect them from government-owned forests. Only a few plant species, such as Fagopyrum esculentum, Amaranthus viridis, Swertia angustifolia, and Choerospondias axillaris, were cultivated at field-scale in the districts surveyed, for their current high market value. Again, there is a general

tendency among villagers in Nepal to preserve commonly utilized plants, particularly the edible, medicinal, fodder and high yield species on their farms (Pokharel 1998), thus neglecting underutilized plants. F. esculentum (buckwheat) has a large market potential as underutilized species (ABTRACO 2006).

Some plant species are underutilized due to market imperfections (Giuliani 2007). For example, Swertia angustifolia has long been known and appreciated. It is collected from local forests for home consumption, but it is only traded on a limited base because other crops are more competitive. Its underutilization is further compounded due to changing perception of local people, commercialization all over the world (Gadgil et al. 1993), and availability and accessibility of transport and increasing preferences towards allopathic medicines (Kunwar and Bussmann 2008). It is therefore argued that the plants which are infrequently used deserve more research and conservation priority (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2001).

Underutilization of certain species was particularly prevalent in accessible regions, where alternative sources for food and medicine are easily available. The underutilized species were locally abundant, implying that they are of limited valued

3741 49

47

48

34

38 44 42 43 33

35 36 39 40 45 46 23 32 31 30 28 29 1

01

927 26 24 25 21 22 1

11

215 13 14 18 16 17

208 9 6 7

15 4 2 3

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

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Figure 3 Cluster Dendrogram. Numerical numbers of cluster dendrogram represent species. Species name of each number is given in Table 1.

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Table 1 Underutilized plants and their local uses and relative importance

Plant name Local uses TUC RI RF 1. Ficus semicordata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Fodder fig (E), Khinyau(L,N), Moraceae, KU 07286

Fruits are edible and astringent. Plant is used as fodder. 3 0.56 1

2. Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook., Hyssop (E), Khochade (L), Sano ghortapre (N), Zupha (S), Apiaceae, KU 07228

Leaf for urinary problem, cuts and wounds. Plant is mixed with Coccinia grandis for treatment of piles. Leaf juice is given to livestock for urinary problems.

2 0.39 1

3. Debregesia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd., Wild rhea (E), Githi, Tashiari (L), Daar (N), Urticaceae

Wood is used to prepare wooden pots for storing milk and curd which is supposed to be useful for indigestion. Tender shoots are used as vegetable.

2 0.39 1

4. Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis, Large nettle (E), Chalne sisnu (L), Allo (N), Urticaceae

Tender shoots are cooked as vegetable. It is also useful in headache and joint pain. 2 0.39 1

5. Garuga pinnata Roxb., Garuga (E), Ramsin (L), Dabdabe (N), Burseraceae

Barks of three plants G pinnata, Erythrina arborescens and Ficus semicordata squeezed and the extract is useful in stomach disorder. Plant is used as fodder.

2 0.35 1

6. Bauhinia purpurea Linn., Ebony (E), Taki (L,N), Fabaceae, KU 07249

Plant is used as fodder. Bark is astringent. Fresh flowers are administered orally to livestock for diarrhea and dysentery.

3 0.56 0.66

7. Ficus hispida Linn.f., Khasreti (L,N), Malayu (S), Moraceae, KU 07288 Fruits are edible and astringent. 3 0.54 0.66

8. Aloe vera (Linn.) Burm .f., Indian aloe (E), Rambans, Hattibar (L), Ghiukumari (N), Ghritkumari (S), Liliaceae

Plant leaf is used to get relief from burning. 1 0.18 1

9. Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Wild pear (E), Mael (L,N), Rosaceae, KU 07201

Grinded fruits flour is given to cattle for more milking. 1 0.18 1

10. Terminalia bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb, Bustard myrobalan (E), Barro (N), Aksha (S), Combretaceae, KU 07280

Fruits are useful in stomach disorders and cough. If taken excessive, cause vomiting. Fruit decoction is given to livestock for diarrhea.

2 0.41 0.66

11. Ocimum gratissimum Linn., Large basil, Fevers plant (E), Babari (N), Lamiaceae, KU 07200

Fresh leaves are used as tea. Whole plant is taken for diuretic, asthma and rheumatism. 2 0.41 0.66

12. Ficus benghalensis Linn., Banyan tree (E), Bar (L,N), Vatah (S), Moraceae, KU 07287

Bark juice is applied on pains and rheumatism. Bark decoction is used in skin diseases of livestock. 2 0.39 0.66

13. Amaranthus viridis Linn., Amaranth, Chinese spinach, thorny pigweed (E), Chuwa, Range sag (L), Lunde (N), Amaranthaceae

Tender leaves are used as vegetable and taken for diarrhea. 2 0.37 0.66

14. Erythrina arborescens Roxb., Coral tree (E), Aejingo (L), Phaledo (N), Fabaceae, KU 07202

Plant bark extract is anthelmintic. Plant is also given to livestock as fodder. 2 0.37 0.66

15. Morus serrata Roxb., Himalayan mulberry (E), Kimbu (L,N), Moraceae Root juice is anthelmintic. Fruits are edible. 2 0.37 0.66

16. Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) Burt. & Hill, Nepalese hogplum (E), Lapsi (L,N), Anacardiaceae

Fruits are edible and used to make pickles. They are used as an alternative of vitamin C. 2 0.35 0.66

17. Saccharun spontaneum Linn., Thatch grass (E), Kans (L,N), Kasah (S), Poaceae, KU 07281

Root extract is anthelmintic. 2 0.35 0.66

18. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb., Sugar palm (E), Khajur (L,N), Arecaceae, KU 07282 Root powder is used as food and useful in toothache. 2 0.35 0.66

19. Rhus javanica Linn., Sumac (E), Bhakildo (L), Bhakiamilo (N), Anacardiaceae

Ripe fruits are used as appetizer for both human and livestock. 2 0.35 0.66

20. Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Chiretin (E), Chirayito (L,N) Gentianaceae, KU 554/00

Root juice is used in promptly reduce the body temperature and is useful in asthma. 1 0.22 0.66

-To be continued-

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Table 1 Underutilized plants and their local uses and relative importance (- continued-)

Plant name Local uses TUC RI RF 21. Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle, Meda (E), Khiraula (L,N), Meda (S), Liliaceae, KU 07219

Root is appetizing, tonic and aphrodisiac. 1 0.22 0.66

22. Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl, Mat rush (E), Jire jhar (L), Pani mothe, Dubi Kahamdo (N), Cyperaceae

Plant extract is useful in pimples, boils and wounds. 1 0.20 0.66

23. Indigofera atropurpurea Rottl. ex DC., Sakhino (L,N), Fabaceae Tender buds are used as vegetable. 1 0.20 0.66

24. Abrus precatorius Linn., Crab’s eye (E), Ratigedi (N), Gunja (S), Fabaceae, KU 07209

Fruits are used in catarrhal diseases. 1 0.18 0.66

25. Elephantopus scaber Linn., Prickly leaved elephants foot (E), Gomukhi (L,N), Satamulika (S), Asteraceae, KU 07208

Root is given to control vomiting. 1 0.18 0.66

26. Impatiens balsamina Linn., Patpate (L), Tiri (N), Balsaminaceae, KU 570/00 Plant extract is used as hair growth promoter. 1 0.18 0.66

27. Vetiveria zizanoides (Linn.) Nash, Vetiver (E), Kush (L), Khas (N), Usirah, Sugandhimulah (S), Poaceae, KU 07268

Root juice is useful in purifying blood. 1 0.18 0.66

28. Cassia fistula Linn., Indian laburnum (E), Amaltas (L), Rajbriksha (N), Suvarnakha (S), Fabaceae, KU 07204

Fruit pulp is used as diuretic. 1 0.18 0.66

29. Cucumis sativa Linn., Airelu (L), Ban kankri (N), Cucurbitaceae Fruits are useful in chronic fever. 1 0.18 0.66

30. Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude, Aayanr (L), Angeree (N), Ericaceae

Tender shoots extract is applied for skin diseases of livestock. 1 0.18 0.66

31. Maesa chisia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Belaune L,N), Myrsinaceae Root juice is used as diuretic. 1 0.18 0.66

32. Sarcococca coriacea (Hook.) Sweet, Telparo (L), Phitphitia (N), Buxaceae Root juice is given to treat fever. 1 0.18 0.66

33. Rosa sericea Lindl., Himalayan rose (E), Jangali gulaf (L,N), Rosaceae

Flower paste is used in headache. Fruits are edible and abortifacient. 2 0.39 0.33

34. Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers., Kutmiro (L,N), Lauraceae

Plant is used as fodder. Bark decoction is given for inflammation. 2 0.37 0.33

35. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench., Buckwheat (E), Phapar(L,N), Polygonaceae, KU 07292

Tender shoots are used as vegetable. Leaves are useful in skin diseases. 2 0.37 0.33

36. Jasminum humile Linn. Yellow jasmine (E), Jai (N), Oleaceae, KU 07293

Flowers and leaves are astringent. Tender shoots and leaves are used as tea. 2 0.37 0.33

37. Rapidophora glauca (Wall.) Schott, Haddijor (L), Kanchino (N), Araceae

Fruits are aphrodisiac. Tender shoots are used as vegetable. 2 0.37 0.33

38. Tricosanthes tricuspidata Lour., Indreni (L,N), Cucurbitaceae Fruit juice is useful in otitis and rhinitis. 1 0.20 0.33

39. Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt, Ivy Guard (E), Matkakadi (L), Golkankri (N), Bimbika (S), Cucurbitaceae

Root juice is useful in uterine discharge and fruits in jaundice. 1 0.20 0.33

40. Pleione humulis (Sm.) D.Don, Manidana (L), Bhuisungava (N), Orchidaceae, KU 07294

Plant pseudobulb is used as galactogogue for livestock. 1 0.20 0.33

41. Acmella calva (DC.) Jansen, Marethi (L,N), Asteraceae

Plant paste is used against snake bite. Inflorescence is used as appetizer. 1 0.20 0.33

42. Setaria italica (Linn.) Beauvois, Foxtail millet (E), Kagno (L,N), Kangu (S), Poaceae

Fruit is consumed as food. 1 0.18 0.33

43. Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D.Don, Kukurdaina (L,N), Smilacaceae, KU 101/00

Root decoction is used in venereal disease. 1 0.18 0.33

-To be continued-

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within the local geographic area. Aloe (Aloe vera) for example, is cultivated or grows wild in hedgerows in barren areas and is considered to be underutilized, although the leaves are used to get relief from burns. Aloe is, nevertheless, widely harvested in other parts of the country and traded globally (Gruere et al. 2006). The Egyptian Book of Remedies (ca. 1500 BC) notes the use of aloe in curing infections, treating the skin, and preparing drugs that were chiefly used as laxatives (Potterton 1983; Lust 1986). Nepalese folklore notes that A. vera (Ghiukumari) juice is effective for cuts, burns and wounds (Shrestha and Dhillion 2003; Bhattarai et al. 2009). It is used as an antidiabetic (Yongchaiyudha et al. 1996), and a hypoglycaemic in India (Ghannnam et al. 1986).

Setaria italica (Kaguno), an annual herbaceous crop found in some areas of Far Western Nepal is only produced and consumed as a staple crop there. It is grown in small and scattered patches (Bastakoti and Sharma, 2008) and used in mountain regions (Salick et al. 2006; Rokaya et al. 2010) but has no economic significance (Khadka 2000). In India, however, it is used as a diuretic, astringent, and cooling agent (Katewa and Jain 2003). The shift from traditional subsistence to commercial agriculture has been advancing during the last few years, and the area under cultivation of many traditional crops has been greatly reduced (Maikhuri et al. 2000), pushing underutilized crops to the brink of extinction.

Despite their potential for food and medicine (Padulosi et al. 2002), Choerospondias axillaris (Lapsi) (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2003; Poudel 2003; GoN 2007; Gurung et al. 2008), Ficus benghalensis (Bar) (Jain et al. 2004; Kunwar and Bussmann 2006; Joshi 2008; Acharya and Acharya 2010) and Terminalia bellirica (Barro) (Joshi and Joshi 2000; Watanabe et al. 2005; Joshi 2008; Burlakoti and Kunwar 2008; Bhattarai et al. 2009), were underexploited in the study area. Pickle and processed candies of C. axillaris are popular among the natives in Far Western Nepal; however, its potential as timber and medicine source was under-recognized. The hypoglycemic effects of different compounds obtained from F. benghalensis have been reported (Geetha et al. 1994). The plant produces taxifolin, which exhibits anti-inflammatory property (Darwish 2002), and its latex is considered as a hair-growth promoter (Kala et al. 2004). However, within the study area, only the plant bark was utilized (for rheumatism and pain in human use, and skin diseases affecting livestock). The juice of immature Terminalia fruits is taken orally by the Raute tribe (nomadic hunters in Dadeldhura district) to treat fever (Manandhar 1995b). The use of Terminalia as a remedy for stomach disorders and cough was reported for other ethnic groups of the same district.

Underutilized edible fruits, such as Rosa sericea (Himalayan Rose), C. axillaris (Nepalese hog plum), Morus serrata (Himalayan mulberry),

Table 1 Underutilized plants and their local uses and relative importance (-continued-)

Plant name Local uses TUC RI RF 44. Cynoglossum zeylanicum Thunb. ex. Lehm., Kodakuro, Musekudo(L), Chakchira, Bhedekuro (N), Boraginaceae, KU 07203

Plant is used for healing wounds and cuts. 1 0.18 0.33

45. Delphinium brunonianum Royle, Rocket larkspur (E), Maure (L,N), Ranunculaceae, KU 508/00

Dried roots are valued in toothache. 1 0.18 0.33

46. Piptanthus nepalensis (Hook) D.Don Solsaino (L), Fabaceae

Decoction of bark is useful in taking out the thorns from wounds. 1 0.18 0.33

47. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze, Flame of forest (E), Dhak (L), Palans (N), Palasha (S), Fabaceae, KU 07205

Bark gum is used in diarrhoea and dysentery. 1 0.18 0.33

48. Ipomoea carnea Jacq., Behay (L), Besram (N), Convolvulaceae, KU 07206

Leaf and tender shoot extract is given to treat wounds of cattle. 1 0.18 0.33

49. Solanum nigrum Linn., Black nightshade (E), Bihi (L,N), Kakamachi (S), Solanaceae, KU 07207

Berries are used in heart diseases. 1 0.18 0.33

Note: TUC = Total used categories, E = English, L = Local, N = Nepali, S = Sanskrit, RI = Relative Importance, RF = Relative Frequency

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F. hispida, and F. semicordata (Fig), can be processed by small-scale entrepreneurs into juices, jams, candy etc. and sold in community shops or local supermarkets. R. sericea flowers are used against headache, and its fruits are considered as an abortifacient. The fruits are edible and sweet in taste (Bhattarai and Chaudhary 2009). F. hispida fruits are edible and are used as an astringent within the study area. They also are effective as a coolant, aphrodisiac, galactagogue and emetic (Kirtikar and Basu 1987). A fruit mixture with honey is a good antihemorrhagic (Nadkarni 1996).

Vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanoides) is used ritually for purifying blood, and has great potential for soil stabilization, when grown in contours along a slope. In addition, vetiver has potential as material for thatching, rope making, and basket weaving, and its roots contain valuable oil that is used in the perfume industry as a base for aftershaves (Jaenicke and Hoschle-Zeledon 2006). Species of Amaranthus (Thorny pigweed) are popular because of the nutritional properties of their grains and leaves (Stallknecht and Schulz-Schaeffer 1993). However, they are underutilized (Acharya and Anderson 2009) and only the tender leaves are used locally as vegetable and taken medicinally for diarrhea. The bruised leaves are applied directly to eczema, psoriasis, and rashes by the Negritos of the Philippines for their mucilaginous properties (Quisumbing 1951). In India the roots are used as a decoction for treating eczema and cobra bites and scorpion stings (Chopra et al. 1958; Kirtikar and Basu 1981).

Ocimum gratissimum, the fever’s plant belong to the family of Labiateae, is limitedly used as a tea, a diuretic, against asthma and rheumatism, as well as a flavoring agent in soups and sauces. Additionally, its essential oils have anti-microbial properties (Moundipa et al. 2005), and can serve to prevent damage by insects and fungi in food storage (Eze et al. 2006). The leaf extract is generally believed to cure respiratory infections (Lasisi and Ajuwon 2002), epilepsy, high fever and mental illness (Osifo 1992). O. gratissimum is also used to cure diarrhea, headache, ophthalmic (ocular) diseases, skin diseases, pneumonia, cough, fever, conjunctivitis, as well as digestive disorders (Obuekwe and Obuekwe 2002; Sofowora 1993). The under-exploitation of the local plants could also be attributed to the limitations of

infrastructure, communication, transport, markets, and increasing preferences towards allopathic medicines.

2.4 Conservation

Since ancient times, underutilized plants have been one of the most important sources of food and medicine in western Nepal, where access to modern amenities is limited (Kunwar and Bussmann 2008). The underutilized and wild plants of the region might therefore have the potential to complement local livelihoods (Aryal et al. 2009), in particular to replace or supplement high-value plant species which have often been overexploited (Subedi 2006). Moreover, underutilized species are often found growing in fringe and marginal habitats (Pastor et al. 2006). Despite the fact that the importance of these plants to Nepalese subsistence, economy and culture has long been reported (Kunwar and Adhikari 2005), the use potential of these plants remains under-recognized, perhaps as a result of lack of awareness, research capacity, market, transportation and communication. Land-use and habitat change, over exploitation, deforestation and climate change exacerbate the situation. The underutilized plants are often poorly managed, thanks to little interest shown by local communities. More research on underutilized plants, their proper identification, documentation and utilization, along with sustainable management, is necessary through both government and community based institutions (Sthapit et al. 2003).

3 Conclusions

Underutilized plant species persist because they are still useful to local people as a means of subsistence, production, and primary health care. The species provide key supplements to the main diet and are of considerable medicinal and cultural importance. Yet, plants have long been grown, collected, managed, and utilized in various ways for subsistence and primary health care, some plants are underutilized due to a lack of information, research and access. Underutilized species are declining, threatening local people’s socio-economic and cultural integrity, as well as the

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environment. Ensuring a sustainable future for this resource is a national imperative.

Acknowledgements

The first author is grateful to Missouri Botanical Garden for providing financial support to carry out field visits and collect information

regarding ethnobotany and ethnoveterinary. Thanks are also due to Canadian Center for International Studies and Co-operation (CECI), Kathmandu, International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Lalitpur for providing facilities for field studies and data analysis. Finally we extend our thanks to local people, who gave invaluable time and cooperation during field visits.

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