Understanding the Politics of Heritage Chapter 1

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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?RodneyHarrison

Thischapterintroducestheconceptofheritageandexaminesitsvarioususesincontemporarysociety.Itthenprovidesabackgroundtothedevelopmentofcriticalheritagestudiesasanareaofacademicinterest,andinparticularthewayinwhichheritagestudieshasdevelopedinresponsetovariouscritiquesofcontemporarypoliticsandcultureinthecontextofdeindustrialisation,globalisationandtransnationalism.DrawingonacasestudyintheofficialdocumentationsurroundingtheHarryS.TrumanHistoricSiteinMissouri,USA,itdescribestheconceptofauthorisedheritagediscourses (AHD)insofarastheyareseentooperateinofficial,state-sanctionedheritageinitiatives.Wheretheotherchaptersinthebookcontainsubstantialcasestudiesaspartofthediscussionofthedifferentaspectsofthepoliticsofheritage,thischapterfocusesinsteadonkeyconcepts,definitionsandideascentraltounderstandingwhatheritageis,andonheritagestudiesasafieldofinquiry.Thechaptersuggeststhatcriticalheritagestudiesshouldbeconcernedwiththeseofficiallysanctionedheritagediscoursesandtherelationshipsofpowertheyfacilitateontheonehand,andthewaysinwhichheritageoperatesatthelocallevelincommunityandidentitybuildingontheother.Itprovidesanumberofexplicitideasandreferencepointstowhichtheauthorsoftheotherchapterswillreturnthroughthecourseofthebook.

IntroductionThischapterbeginswithtwophotographs:apictureoftheGreatBarrierReefinAustralia(Figure1.1)andapictureoftheMirCastlecomplexinBelarus(Figure1.2)Thephotographsappeartoshowverydifferenttypesofplace,inlocationsthatarewidelygeographicallyspaced.Oneoftheseisanaturalplace,theotherishumanlymade(abuilding,albeitaverygrandone).Inwhatwaysmightwecharacterisethesimilaritiesbetween thetwoplaces?Whatqualitiescanwefindthatlinkthem?Although theyareverydifferent,bothoftheseplacesareconsidered tobeheritage,indeedWorldheritage,andbotharelistedontheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)WorldHeritageList.Laterinthisbook(Chapter4)TheWorldHeritageListandtheorganisationthatrunsit,theInternationalCouncilonMonumentsandSites(ICOMOS),willbediscussedinmoredetail.Thisfirstchapterconcentrateson


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Understandingthepoliticsofheritage

6

A bird s-e ye vie w of the lin e ofth e ree fst re tch ingd ia go na llyu p ward s fro mthe lo wer le ftco rn er of the ph oto gra ph .A bo ve isa vis ta of po ols an dsa nd ba nks, w ith a cha nn elcr oss in git rig htt o left ,st re tch ing in toth e dist an ce .Th ere isa sma llc lu ster of ple asu re bo ats moo red byt h ee dge of th ere ef, an da no the rb oa ta littl e furt he ra way.

Figure1.1 TheGreatBarrierReef,WhitsundayCoast,Queensland,Australia.PhotographedbyWalterBibikow.Photo:JonArnoldImagesLtd/Alamy.

thewaysinwhichthesetwoverydifferententities, intwoverydifferentplaces,canbothbeunderstoodasheritage.TheGreatBarrierReefistheworldsmostextensivestretchofcoralreef.Thereefsystem,extendingfromjustsouthoftheTropicofCapricorn tothecoastalwatersofPapuaNewGuinea,comprisessome3400individualreefs,including760fringingreefs,whichrangeinsizefromunder1ha toover10,000haandextendformorethan2000kmofftheeastcoastofAustralia.TheGreatBarrierReefincludesarangeofmarineenvironmentsandformations,includingapproximately300coralcaysand618continentalislandswhichwereoncepartofthemainland.Thereefishometoanumberofrareandendangeredanimalandplantspeciesandcontainsover1500speciesoffish,400speciesofcoral,4000speciesofmolluscand242speciesofbirdsplusalargenumberofdifferentsponges,anemones,marinewormsandcrustaceansandothermarineinvertebrates.Thereefincludesfeedinggroundsfordugongs,severalspeciesofwhalesanddolphins,andnestinggroundsofgreenandloggerheadturtles(UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeWorldConservationMonitoringCentre,2008).


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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?

A summer day peo ple a rein sh irt sle eve s w ith larg e cro wd sa rou nd th emass ive co mple xo fM irC ast le.T h eca stl ea pp ears to b ere sid en tia lra the rth an d efe nsiv e, bu iltr ou nd asq u are en clo sed co urt ya rd, wit hch u nk ysq ua re bast io ns att he co rne rss urmo un ted byo ct ago n alto w erst o ppe d bys qu ats pir es. In th efo re gro un d,o n the ed ge of the gra ss an db esid e the pa th ,ve nd ors off er pict ure s and so uve nir sf or sale .

Figure1.2 TheMirCastlecomplex,RepublicofBelarus,2003.Unknownphotographer.Photo:UllsteinBildRussianPictureService.TheMirCastlecomplexissituatedonthebankofasmalllakeattheconfluenceoftheriverMiryankaandasmalltributaryintheGrodnoRegionofwhatisnowknownastheRepublicofBelarus.ThecastlewasbuiltinthelatefifteenthorearlysixteenthcenturyinastylethatarchitectsfamiliarwiththeformittookincentralEuropewouldrecogniseasGothic. It was subsequentlyextendedandreconstructed,firstinRenaissanceandtheninBaroquestyles.ThecastlesustainedseveredamageduringNapoleonsinvasionofRussiain1812andwasabandonedasaruin.Itwassubsequentlyrestoredattheendofthenineteenthcentury,atwhichtimethesurrounding

parklandreceivedextensive landscaping.MirCastleisconsidered tobeanexceptionalexampleofacentralEuropeancastle,reflectinginitsdesignandlayoutsuccessiveculturalinfluences(Gothic,RenaissanceandBaroque)aswellasthepoliticalandculturalconflicts thatcharacterise thehistoryoftheregion(UNESCO,2008).Whatmakestheseplacesheritage?Andwhatmakesthempartoftheworldsheritage?Theprocessofnominatingaplacefor inclusionontheWorldHeritageListinvolvesanassessmentofthewaysinwhichaplacemeetsa


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particularsetofcriteriaforinclusion.Thisargumentisdevelopedbyabodyrepresentingthesovereignstateoftheterritoryinwhichthesiteexistsandissubmittedtoacommitteeinchargeofassessingthenominations(seefurtherdiscussioninChapter4).Althoughitwouldbepossibletolookindetailatthecriteriaforinclusion,andatthevaluesimplicitinthecriteria,itisclearthatthesesitesaredefinedasheritagebythesheerfactthattheyhavebeenclassifiedassuchthroughinclusiononaheritageregister.Thisprocessbywhichanobject,placeorpracticereceivesformalrecognitionasheritageandisplacedonaheritageregistercanbetermedanofficialheritageprocess.Onceplacesbecomestatutoryentitiesandarerecognisedasbelongingtoheritagebytheirinclusiononanofficialheritagelist,theyarecreatedasofficialheritageandsubjecttoaseriesofassumptionsabouthowtheymustbetreateddifferentlyfromotherplaces.Forexample,officialheritageplacesmustbeactivelymanagedandconserved,andthereisanexpectationthatfundingmustbeallocatedtothemsothatthiscanoccur.Althoughbothoftheseplacesarerecognisedthroughtheir listingasbelongingtotheworldsheritage,theyhavearangeofdifferentmeaningsforthelocalpeoplewhointeractwiththemonaneverydaybasis.Forexample,theBarrierReef,whichisunderstoodtobeWorldHeritageonthebasisofitsbiodiversityandrecreationalvalues,isasourceofsustenance, livelihoodandspiritual inspirationfor themanydifferentgroupsofIndigenousAustralianswholivealongtheQueenslandcoastline.Theywouldtraditionallyunderstandtheirrelationshipwiththereefasoneofcustodianshipand therighttocontrolaccess,hunt,fishandgatherinitsenvirons.ClearlythereefspromotionasaWorldHeritagesiteimplies thatitisowned(at leastculturally)notonlybylocalpeoplebutalsobytheworldcommunity.Sothereisthepotentialforarangeofdifferentwaysofrelatingto,understandingthesignificanceof,andgivingmeaningtoheritageobjects,sitesandpractices.Thisrangeofvaluesofheritagemaynotbewellcateredforwithintraditionalwesternmodelsofheritageandofficialdefinitionsofheritage.In thiscase,suchdifferencesmaygiverisetoconflictoverwhohastherighttodetermineaccessandmanagementofdifferentpartsofthereef.Indeed,inmostcasestheofficialandthelocalwouldbethoughtofascompetingformsofheritage.Heritageitselfisadynamicprocesswhichinvolvescompetitionoverwhoseversionofthepast,andtheassociatedmoralandlegalrightswhichflowfromthisversionofthepast,willfindofficialrepresentation inthepresent.Thisbriefexampleembodiesthetwointer-relatedunderstandingsofheritagethatformthecentralfocusofthisbook:thelargelytopdownapproachtotheclassificationandpromotionofparticularplacesbythestateasanembodimentofregional,nationalorinternationalvalueswhichcreatesofficialheritage;andthebottomuprelationshipbetweenpeople,objects,placesandmemorieswhichformsthebasisfor thecreationofunofficialformsofheritage(usually)atthelocal level.Criticalheritagestudies, inits

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mostbasicsense,involvesthe investigationofthesetwoprocessesandtherelationshipbetween them.Heritagestudies isanexcitingnewinterdisciplinaryfieldof inquirywhichdrawsonarangeofacademicdisciplinesandskillsincludinghistory,archaeology,anthropology,sociology,arthistory,biology,geography,textualanalysisandvisualdiscrimination, tonamebutafew.Theaimofthisbookistoformanintroductiontoheritageasaglobalconcept,andcriticalheritagestudiesasafieldof inquiry.

Whatisheritage?TheOxfordEnglishDictionarydefinesheritageaspropertythatisormaybeinherited;aninheritance,valued thingssuchashistoricbuildingsthathavebeenpasseddownfrompreviousgenerations,andrelatingtothingsofhistoricorculturalvaluethatareworthyofpreservation.Theemphasisoninheritance

and

conservation

is

important

here,

as

is

the

focus

on

property

,

thingsorbuildings.So(according totheOxfordEnglishDictionary,anyway),heritageissomethingthatcanbepassedfromonegenerationtothenext,something thatcanbeconservedorinherited,andsomethingthathashistoricorculturalvalue.Heritagemightbeunderstood tobeaphysicalobject:apieceofproperty,abuildingoraplacethat isable tobeownedandpassedontosomeoneelse.Inadditiontothesephysicalobjectsandplacesofheritagetherearealsovariouspracticesofheritagethatareconservedorhandeddownfromonegenerationtothenext.Languageisanimportantaspectofwhoweunderstandourselves tobe,anditislearnedandpassedfromadult tochild,fromgenerationtogeneration.Theseinvisibleorintangiblepracticesofheritage,suchaslanguage,culture,popularsong,literatureordress,areasimportantinhelpingustounderstandwhoweareasthephysicalobjectsandbuildingsthatwearemoreusedtothinkingofasheritage.Anotheraspectofthesepracticesofheritageisthewaysinwhichwegoaboutconservingthingsthechoiceswemakeaboutwhattoconservefromthepastandwhattodiscard:whichmemoriestokeep,andwhichtoforget;whichmemorialstomaintain,andwhichtoallowtobedemolished;whichbuildingstosave,andwhichonestoallowtobebuiltover.Practicesofheritagearecustomsandhabitswhich,althoughintangible,informwhoweareascollectives,andhelptocreateourcollectivesocialmemory.Weuseobjectsofheritage(artefacts,buildings,sites,landscapes)alongsidepracticesofheritage(languages,music,communitycommemorations,conservationandpreservationofobjectsormemoriesfromthepast)toshapeourideasaboutourpast,presentandfuture.Anotherwayofthinkingaboutthisdistinctionbetweenobjectsofheritageandpracticesofheritageistoconsider thedifferentperspectives throughwhichheritageisperceived.Foreveryobjectofheritagetherearealsoheritage


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practices.Howeveronegroupofpeople(say,professionalheritagemanagers)respondtoheritage,otherpeoplemayresponddifferently.Thus,aroundanobjectofheritage,theremaybevaluejudgementsbasedoninherentqualities(whichmayindeedplayadeterminingroleindesignatingtheobjectandconservingit),buttheremaywellbeothervalueswhichdrivetheuseoftheobject(associationsofpersonalornationalidentity,associationswithhistory,leisureetc.,asintheexampleofdesignationofHarryS.TrumansotherwisehumbledwellingasaNationalHistoricSitediscussed later inthischapter).Foreveryobjectoftangibleheritagethereisalsoanintangibleheritage thatwrapsarounditthelanguageweusetodescribeit,forexample,oritsplace insocialpracticeorreligion.Objectsofheritageareembeddedinanexperiencecreatedbyvariouskindsofusersandthepeoplewhoattempttomanagethisexperience.Ananalogoussituationexistsintheartworldinunderstandingaesthetics.Thereisnoartwithoutthespectator,andwhatthespectator(andcritic)makesoftheartworksitsalongsidewhattheartistintendedandwhatofficialculturedesignatesinadiscursiveandoftencontestedrelationship.Soinadditiontotheobjectsandpracticesofheritagethemselves,wealsoneedtobemindfulofvaryingperspectives, or subjectpositionsonheritage.ThehistorianandgeographerDavidLowenthalhaswrittenextensivelyontheimportantdistinctionbetweenheritageandhistory.Formanypeople,thewordheritageisprobablysynonymouswithhistory.However,historianshavecriticisedthemanyinstancesofrecreationofthepastintheimageofthepresentwhichoccurinmuseums,historichousesandheritagesitesthroughouttheworld,andhavesoughttodistance themselvesfromwhattheymightcharacteriseasbadhistory.AsLowenthalpointsoutinTheHeritageCrusadeandtheSpoilsofHistory,heritage isnothistoryatall:itisnotaninquiry intothepast,butacelebrationofit...aprofessionoffaithinapasttailoredtopresent-daypurposes(Lowenthal,1997,p.x).Heritagemustbeseenasseparatefromthepursuitofhistory,asitisconcernedwiththere-packagingofthepastforsomepurposeinthepresent.Thesepurposesmaybenationalisticones,asdiscussedinChapters3and4ofthisbook,oroperateatthelocal level,forexampleinthecaseofthelocalKenyanmuseumdiscussedin thecasestudyinChapter7.Heritagealsohasaseriesofspecificandclearlydefinedtechnicalandlegalmeanings.Forexample,thetwoplacesdiscussedearlier inthischapteraredelineatedasheritagebytheirinclusionontheWorldHeritageList.AsJohnCarman(2002,p.22)notes,heritageiscreatedinaprocessofcategorising.Theseplaceshaveanofficialpositionthathasaseriesofobligations,bothlegalandmoral,arisingfromtheir inclusiononthisregister.AsplacesontheWorldHeritageList theymustbeactivelyconserved,theyshouldhaveformaldocumentsandpoliciesinplacetodeterminetheirmanagement,andthereisanassumptionthattheywillbeable

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tobevisitedsothattheirvaluestoconservationandtheworldsheritagecanbeappreciated.Therearemanyotherformsofofficialcategorisation thatcanbeappliedtoheritagesitesatthenationalorstatelevel throughout theworld.Indeed,heritageasafieldofpracticeseems tobefulloflists.Theimpulsewithinheritagetocategorise isanimportantaspectofitscharacter.Themomentaplacereceivesofficialrecognitionasaheritagesite,itsrelationshipwiththelandscape inwhichitexistsandwiththepeoplewhouseitimmediatelychanges.Itsomehowbecomesaplace,objectorpracticeoutsidetheeveryday.Itisspecial,andsetapartfromtherealmofdailylife.Evenwhereplacesarenotofficiallyrecognisedasheritage,thewayinwhichtheyaresetapartandusedintheproductionofcollectivememoryservestodefinethemasheritage.Forexample,althoughitmightnotbelongonanyheritageregister,alocalsportsarenamightbethefocusforcollectiveunderstandingsof

alocal

community

and

its

past,

and

amaterialisation

of

local

memories,

hopesanddreams.Atthesametime,theprocessoflistingasiteasheritageinvolvesaseriesofvaluejudgementsaboutwhatisimportant,andhenceworthconserving,andwhatisnot.Thereisadialecticalrelationshipbetweentheeffectoflistingsomethingasheritage,anditsperceivedsignificanceandimportance tosociety.Someauthorswoulddefineheritage(oratleastofficialheritage)asthoseobjects,placesandpracticesthatcanbeformallyprotectedusingheritagelawsandcharters.Thekindsofheritagewearemostaccustomedtothinkingaboutinthiscategoryareparticularkindsofobjects,buildings,townsandlandscapes.Onecommonwayofclassifyingheritageistodistinguishbetweenculturalheritage(thosethingsmanufacturedbyhumans),andnaturalheritage(thosewhichhavenotbeenmanufacturedbyhumans).Whilethisseemslikeafairlyclear-cutdistinction,itimmediatelythrowsupaseriesofproblemsindistinguishingthesocialvaluesofthenaturalworld.ReturningtotheexampleoftheGreatBarrierReefdiscussedearlierinthischapter,fortheIndigenousAustralianswhosetraditionalcountryencompassesthereefandislands,thenaturalworldiscreatedandmaintainedbyculturalactivitiesandceremoniesinvolvingsomeaspectsofintangibleactionsuchassonganddance,andothermorepracticalactivitiessuchascontrolledburningofthelandscapeandsustainablehuntingandfishingpractices.ItwouldobviouslybeextremelydifficulttocharacterisethesevaluesofthenaturallandscapestoIndigenousAustraliansusingasystemthatdividesculturalandnaturalheritageandseesthevaluesofnaturallandscapesasbeingprimarilyecological.Heritageisinfactaverydifficultconcepttodefine.Mostpeoplewillhaveanideaofwhatheritageis,andwhatkindsofthingcouldbedescribedusingthetermheritage.Mostpeople, too,wouldrecognise theexistenceofanofficialheritagethatcouldbeopposedtotheirownpersonalorcollectiveone.For


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example,manywouldhavevisitedanationalmuseuminthecountryinwhichtheylivebutwouldrecognisethattheartefactscontainedwithinitdonotdescribeentirelywhattheywouldunderstandastheirownhistoryandheritage(seealsoChapters6and7).Clearly,anyattempttocreateanofficialheritageisnecessarilybothpartialandselective.Thisgapbetween,ononehand,whatanindividualunderstands tobetheirheritageand,ontheotherhand,theofficialheritagepromotedandmanagedbythestateintroducesthepossibilityofmultipleheritages.Ithasbeensuggestedearlierthatheritagecouldbeunderstoodtoencompassobjects,placesandpracticesthathavesomesignificanceinthepresentwhichrelates tothepast.In2002duringtheUnitedNationsyearforculturalheritage,UNESCOproducedalistoftypesofculturalheritage(UNESCO,n.d.).Thisisonewayofdividingandcategorisingthemanytypesofobject,placeandpracticetowhichpeopleattributeheritagevalue.Itshouldnotbeconsideredanexhaustive

list,

but

it

gives

asense

of

the

diversity

of

things

that

might

be

consideredtobeofficialheritage:l culturalheritagesites(includingarchaeologicalsites,ruins,historic

buildings)l historiccities(urbanlandscapesandtheirconstituentpartsaswellas

ruinedcities)l culturallandscapes(includingparks,gardensandothermodified

landscapessuchaspastorallandsandfarms)l naturalsacredsites(placesthatpeoplerevereorholdimportantbutthat

havenoevidenceofhumanmodification,forexamplesacredmountains)l underwaterculturalheritage(forexampleshipwrecks)l museums(includingculturalmuseums,artgalleriesandhousemuseums)l movableculturalheritage(objectsasdiverseaspaintings,tractors,stone

toolsandcamerasthiscategorycoversanyformofobjectthat ismovableandthatisoutsideofanarchaeologicalcontext)

l handicraftsl documentaryanddigitalheritage(thearchivesandobjectsdeposited in

libraries, includingdigitalarchives)l cinematographicheritage(moviesandtheideastheyconvey)l oraltraditions(stories,historiesandtraditionsthatarenotwrittenbut

passedfromgenerationtogeneration)l languagesl festiveevents(festivalsandcarnivalsandthetraditions theyembody)l ritesandbeliefs(rituals,traditionsandreligiousbeliefs)l musicandsong

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l theperformingarts(theatre,drama,danceandmusic)l traditionalmedicinel literaturel culinary traditionsl traditionalsportsandgames.Someofthetypesofheritageareobjectsandplaces(physicalormaterialheritage)whileothersarepractices(intangibleheritage).However,manyofthesecategoriescrossbothtypesofheritage.Forexample,ritualpracticesmightinvolveincantations(intangible)aswellasritualobjects(physical).Soweshouldbecarefulofthinkingofthesecategoriesasclearcutordistinct.Inaddition,this listonlyincludesculturalheritage.Naturalheritageismostoftenthoughtaboutintermsoflandscapesandecologicalsystems,but itiscomprisedoffeaturessuchasplants,animals,naturallandscapesandlandforms,oceansandwaterbodies.Naturalheritageisvaluedforitsaestheticqualities,itscontributiontoecological,biologicalandgeologicalprocessesanditsprovisionofnaturalhabitatsfortheconservationofbiodiversity.Inthesamewaythatweperceiveboth tangibleandintangibleaspectsofculturalheritage,wecouldalsospeakof thetangibleaspectsofnaturalheritage(theplants,animalsandlandforms)alongsidetheintangible(itsaestheticqualitiesanditscontributiontobiodiversity).Anotheraspectofheritageistheideathatthingstendtobeclassifiedasheritageonlyinthelightofsomeriskoflosingthem.Theelementofpotentialorrealthreattoheritageofdestruction, lossordecaylinksheritagehistoricallyandpoliticallywiththeconservationmovement.Evenwhereabuildingorobjectisundernoimmediate threatofdestruction,itslistingonaheritageregisterisanactionwhichassumesapotentialthreatatsome timeinthefuture,fromwhichitisbeingprotectedbylegislationorlisting.Theconnectionbetweenheritageandthreatwillbecomemoreimportant inthelaterpartofthischapter.Heritageisa termthatisalsoquiteoftenusedtodescribeasetofvalues,orprinciples,whichrelatetothepast.So,forexample,itispossibleforafirmofestateagentstousethe terminitsnamenotonly tomeanthatitmarketsandsellsheritageproperties,butalsosimultaneously to invokeaseriesofmeaningsabouttraditionalvalueswhichareseenasdesirable inbuyingandsellingproperties.Wecanalsothinkhereaboutthevalueswhichareimplicitinmakingdecisionsaboutwhattoconserveandwhatnottoconserve,inthechoiceswemakeaboutwhatwedecidetolabelheritageandwhatviewassimplyoldoroutdated.Thesevaluesare implicitinculturalheritagemanagement.


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Governments,heritageregistersandthe canonOneaspectofunderstandingheritageisappreciatingtheenormousinfluenceofgovernmentsinmanagingandselectivelypromotingasheritagecertainaspectsofthephysicalenvironmentandparticular intangiblepracticesassociatedwithculture.Oneway inwhichgovernmentsareinvolved inheritageisthroughthemaintenance,fundingandpromotionofcertainplacesastouristdestinations.Wearealsoremindedhere,forexample,ofthemanywaysinwhichgovernmentsandnationsareinvolvedinthepreservationoflanguageasawayofpreservingheritageandculture.Languageispromotedandcontrolledbygovernments throughofficiallanguagepolicieswhichdetermine thestate languageandwhichoftenspecifycertaincontrolsontheuseoflanguagesotherthanthestatelanguage.Forexample,inFrance, theToubonLaw(Law94-665,whichcameintoforcein1994andisnamedfortheministerofculture,JacquesToubonwhosuggestedandpassedthe lawthroughtheFrenchparliament)specifiestheuseoftheFrenchlanguageinallgovernmentpublications,printadvertisements,billboards,workplaces,newspapers,state-fundedschoolsandcommercialcontracts.WemightalsothinkofthesuggestionbyFrenchpresidentNicolasSarkozy(president2007)in2008thatthecorrectmethodsforpreparingclassicitemsofFrenchcuisinemightbeconsideredforprotectionaspartoftheUNESCOWorldHeritageList.Atthetimeofwriting,thenominationisstillinpreparationforpresentationtotheUNESCOWorldHeritageCommittee.Inadditiontosuchpolicieswhichensurethepreservationofintangibleaspectsofculturalheritage,governmentsplayamajorroleinthemaintenanceandpromotionof listsordatabasesofheritage.Mostcountrieshaveanationalheritagelistofphysicalplacesandobjectswhichare thoughttoembodythevalues,spiritandhistoryof thenation.Inaddition,governmentsmayhavemulti-layeredsystemsofheritagewhichrecogniseahierarchyofheritageplacesandobjectsofnational,regionalandlocalsignificance.Theselists(andindeed, theWorldHeritageListdiscussedearlier)mightbe thoughtofasoffshootsoftheconceptofthecanon. The word canonderivesfrom theGreekwordforaruleormeasure,andthetermcametomeanthestandardbywhichsomethingcouldbeassessed.Theideaofacanonofworksofartdevelopedintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiestodescribeabodyofartistic

works

that

represent

the

height

of

aesthetic

and

artistic

merit

works

ofartjudgedbythosewhoarequalifiedinmattersoftasteandaestheticstobegreatworksofart.Similarly,a literarycanondescribesthosewritersandtheirworksthataredeemedtobegreat literature.Thecanonisaslipperyconcept,asitisnotdefinedspecifically,butthroughaprocessofpositioningthecanonisrepresentedbythoseworksofartthatareheldinartgalleriesandmuseumsanddiscussedinartbooks,andthoseworksofliteraturethatarecitedinliteraryanthologies.

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Whenwestarttothinkofalistofheritageasasortofcanonitraisesanumberofquestions.Whoarethepeoplewhodeterminewhatisonthelistandwhatisnot?Whatvaluesunderliethejudgements thatspecifywhichplacesandobjectsshouldberepresented?Howdoweassesswhicharethegreatheritageobjectsandplacesandwhicharenot?Howdoescreatingsuchalistincludeandexcludedifferentmembersofsociety?Itisnowwidelyrecognisedthattheideaofacanonislinkedcloselywiththatofnation(Mitchell,2005),andthatcanonsmightbeunderstoodtorepresentideologicaltoolsthatcirculatethevaluesonwhichparticularvisionsofnationhoodareestablished.Creationofaclassofthingsthatareseentobethegreatestexpressionsofculture

promotes,inturn,narrativesaboutthesetofvaluesthatareseentobethemostworthyinthepreservationofaparticularformofstatesociety.Theheritagelist, likethe literaryorartisticcanon,iscontrolledbyputtingthepowertoestablishthecanonintothehandsofexpertswhoaresanctionedbythestate.It

is

important

to

point

out

that

heritage

is

arather

strange

kind

of

canon.

It

is

unlike the canon of modern art as it is usually understood, for example, since thecriteriathatconstituteitarediverseratherthanunified.Modernartisdefinedbycurrentcanonsoftasteandthesecreateseparatecanonsfordifferentideologies,suchasafeministcanon,orasocialhistoryofartcanon.Thesecanco-exist,buteachmaintainsitsownconsistentidentity.Theheritagecanon,ifmeasuredbytheWorldHeritageList(oranationalheritagelist)finishesupasasinglelist,butonewhichisdeterminedbyawiderangeofconsiderations.Itisalsoimportanttomakethepointthatheritageisfundamentallyaneconomicactivity.This iseasilyoverlookedincriticalapproachesthatfocusontheroleofheritageintheproductionofstateideologies(Ashworthetal.,2007,p.40).Muchofwhatmotivatestheinvolvementofthestateandotherorganisationsinheritageisrelatedtotheeconomicpotentialofheritageanditsconnectionswith tourism.Therelationshipbetweenheritageandtourism isexaminedlaterinthischapter,butitwouldberemisstoneglectamentionhereoftheeconomic imperativeofheritageforgovernments.

ThereisnosuchthingasheritageThefirstpartofthischapterpresentedarangeofdefinitionsofheritagethatderivefromeverydayandtechnicalusesoftheterm.Hereaseriesofapproachestoheritageareintroducedbywayofaparticularacademicdebateaboutheritage.Giventhefocusonpreservationandconservation,heritageasaprofessionalfieldhasmoreoftenbeenaboutdoingthanthinking;ithasfocusedmoreontechnicalpracticesofconservationandprocessesofheritagemanagementthanoncriticaldiscussionofthenatureofheritageandwhywethinkparticularobjects,placesandpracticesmightbeconsideredmoreworthythanothersofconservationandprotection.Butmorerecentlyscholarshave


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beguntoquestionthevalueofheritageanditsroleincontemporarysociety.ArchaeologistLaurajaneSmith,whohaswrittenextensivelyinthefieldofcriticalheritagestudies,writesthereis,really,nosuchthingasheritage(2006,p.11).Whatcouldshemeanbythisstatement?Howcantherebelegislation toprotectheritageifitdoesnot,insomeway,exist?Inmakingthisboldstatement,Smithisdrawingonamucholderdebateaboutheritagethatbegan intheUKduringthe1980s.Thisdebatehasbeenveryinfluentialinformingthefieldofcriticalheritagestudiesasitexiststoday,notonlyintheUK,butthroughoutthepartsoftheworldinwhichwesternformsofheritageconservationoperate,andintheincreasingly largenumbersofnon-westerncountrieswhoareengagedinaglobalbusinessofheritagethrough theroleoftheWorldHeritageListinpromotingplacesofnationalimportanceastouristdestinations.Thenextsectionoutlinesthisdebateandtheideasthathavebothfedintoanddevelopedfromit,asanintroductiontocritical

heritage

studies

as

afi

eldof

academic

research

(this

characterisation

of

thedebateisstronglyinfluencedbyBoswell,1999).Theheritage industryInthelate1980sEnglishacademicRobertHewisoncoined thephraseheritageindustrytodescribewhatheconsidered tobethesanitisationandcommercialisationoftheversionofthepastproducedasheritageintheUK.Hesuggested thatheritagewasastructurelargelyimposedfromabovetocaptureamiddle-classnostalgiaforthepastasagoldenageinthecontextofaclimateofdecline.Hewisonbelievedthattheriseofheritageasaformofpopularentertainmentdistracted itspatronsfromdevelopinganinterest incontemporaryartandcriticalculture,providingtheminsteadwithaviewofculturethatwasfinishedandcomplete(andfirmlyinthepast).HepointedtothewidespreadperceptionofculturalandeconomicdeclinethatbecameafeatureofBritainsperceptionof itselfasanationinthedecadesfollowing theSecondWorldWar:

Inthefaceofapparentdeclineanddisintegration,itisnotsurprisingthatthepastseemsabetterplace.Yetit isirrecoverable,forwearecondemnedtoliveperpetuallyinthepresent.Whatmatters isnotthepast,butourrelationshipwithit.Asindividuals,oursecurityandidentitydependlargelyontheknowledgewehaveofourpersonalandfamilyhistory; thelanguageandcustomswhichgovernoursociallivesrelyfortheirmeaningonacontinuitybetweenpastandpresent.Yetattimesthepaceofchange,anditsconsequences,aresoradicalthatnotonlyischangeperceivedasdecline,butthere isthethreatofrupturewithourpast lives.

(Hewison,1987,pp.435)

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Thecontext inwhichHewisonwaswritingwasimportantinshapinghiscriticismofheritageasaphenomenon.HisbookTheHeritageIndustryisasmuchareflectiononthechangesthatoccurwithinasocietyasaresultofdeindustrialisation,globalisationand transnationalism(inparticular,theimpactofrapidandwidespreadinternalmigrationandimmigrationonthesenseofrootednessthatpeoplecouldexperience inparticularplaces intheUKinthe1980s,andthenostalgiathathesawasaresponsetothissenseofuprootedness)asitisacriticismofheritageitself.HenotedthatthepostwarperiodintheUKcoincidedwithaperiodofgrowthintheestablishmentofmuseumsandinawidespreadsenseofnostalgia,notforthepastasitwasexperiencedbutforasanitisedversionofthepastthatwasre-imaginedthroughtheheritageindustryasautopia,inopposition totheperceivedproblemsofthepresent:

Theimpulse topreserve thepast ispartofthe impulsetopreserve theself.

Without

knowing

where

we

have

been,

it

is

diffi

cultto

know

wherewearegoing.Thepastisthefoundationofindividualandcollectiveidentity,objectsfrom thepastarethesourceofsignificanceasculturalsymbols.Continuitybetweenpastandpresentcreatesasenseofsequenceoutofaleatorychaosand,sincechangeisinevitable,astablesystemoforderedmeaningsenablesus tocopewithbothinnovationanddecay.Thenostalgicimpulseisanimportantagency inadjustmenttocrisis, it isasocialemollientandreinforcesnationalidentitywhenconfidenceisweakenedorthreatened.

(Hewison,1987,p.47)TheacademicPatrickWrighthadpublishedabooksome twoyearsearlierthanTheHeritageIndustry titledOnLivinginanOldCountry(1985).LikeHewison,WrightwasconcernedwiththeincreasingmuseumificationoftheUK,andthewaysinwhichheritagemightactasadistractionfromengagingwiththeissuesofthepresent.Wrightarguedthatvariouspiecesofheritagelegislation thatwereputforwardbytheConservativegovernmentcouldbereadastherevivalofthepatriotismoftheSecondWorldWar,andconnectedthisConservativepatriotism totheeventsoftheFalklandsconflict.LikeHewison,hewasalsocriticalofthetimelessnessofthepresentationofthepastformedaspartofthe interpretationofheritagesites:

Nationalheritageinvolves theextractionofhistoryoftheideaofhistoricalsignificanceandpotentialfromadenigratedeverydaylifeand itsrestagingordisplayincertainsanctionedsites,events,imagesandconceptions.Inthisprocesshistoryisredefinedasthehistorical,anditbecomestheobjectofasimilarly transformedandgeneralisedpublicattention...Abstractedandredeployed,historyseemstobepurgedofpoliticaltension;itbecomesaunifyingspectacle,


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thesettlingofalldisputes.Liketheguidedtourasitproceedsfromsitetosanctionedsite,thenationalpastoccursinadimensionofitsownadimensioninwhichweappeartorememberonlyinordertoforget.

(Wright,1985,

p.

69)

ThesecritiquesofheritageintheUKcentredonthewaysinwhichheritagedistractedpeoplefromengagingwiththeirpresentandfuture.Bothauthorsemployedabreadandcircusesanalogyinarguingthatheritage, likethepopularmedia,wasadiversionwhichpreventedpeoplefromengagingwiththeproblemsofthepresent:

Heritage ...hasenclosedthe latetwentiethcenturyinabelljarintowhichnoideascanenter,and,justascrucially,fromwhichnonecanescape.TheanswerisnottoemptythemuseumsandselluptheNationalTrust,buttodevelopacriticalculturewhichengagesinadialoguebetweenpastandpresent.Wemustridourselvesoftheideathat thepresenthasnothingtocontributetotheachievementsofthepast,rather,wemustacceptitsbestelements,andimproveonthem...Thedefinitionofthosevaluesmustnotbelefttoaminoritywhoareablethroughtheiraccesstotheotherwiseexclusiveinstitutionsofculturetoarticulatetheonlyacceptablemeaningsofpastandpresent.Itmustbeacollaborativeprocesssharedbyanopencommunitywhichacceptsbothconflictandchange.

(Hewison,1987,p.144)We

need

to

pause

to

make

adistinction

between

two

criticisms

of

heritage

whichseemboundtogetherhere.Thereisacriticismoffalseconsciousnessofthepastthepresentationofthepastinaninaccuratemannerwhichcanbecorrectedorremediedbybetteruseofhistoryinheritageinterpretation.Thereisalsoacriticismofnostalgiaandanxietythatmaybeproducedbyanaccurateunderstandingofpasthistoricalevents(worldwars,lossofempireanditsinfluenceetc.)butthatdirectattentionawayfromthefuture.Itneedstobekeptinmindthatnostalgiaisseparatefromfalseconsciousness.Nomatterhowaccuratelyhistoryisrepresentedbyheritage,itcanalwaysbedirectedtowardsparticularends.Theproblemwithofficialformsofheritageisnotsomuchthatitisbogushistorybutthatitisoftendirectedtowardsestablishingparticularnationalnarrativesinreactiontotheinfluenceofglobalisationontheonehand,andthelocalontheother.Wecanseethegrowthofheritageinthesecondpartofthetwentiethcenturyas,atleastinpart,areactiontothewayinwhichglobalisation,migrationandtransnationalismhadbeguntoerodethepowerofthenation-state.Inthisguise,heritageisprimarilyaboutestablishingasetofsocial,religiousandpoliticalnormsthatthenation-staterequirestocontrolitscitizens,throughanemphasisontheconnectionbetweenitscontemporaryimpositionofvariousstatecontrolsandthenationspast.

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HeritageaspopularcultureHewisonspositionwascriticisedbyaseriesofcommentators.TheBritishMarxisthistorianRaphaelSamuelnotedinTheatresofMemory(1994)that thescaleofpopular interestinthepastandtheroleofthatinterestinprocessesofsocialtransformationarguedagainstHewisonsconnectionofheritagewithConservative interests.HecriticisedHewisonsconnectionofheritagewithConservativepoliticalinterests,arguingcogentlythatheritageandthepast hadbeensuccessfully lobbiedasacatch-cryforarangeofpoliticalpositionsand interests; inparticular,heritagehadservedtomakethepastmoredemocratic, throughanemphasisonthe livesofordinary people.Healsosaw therootsofpopularinterestinthepastasstretchingbackfarearlier thanthepoliticaleraofdecline suggestedbyHewison:

Thenewversionof thenationalpast,notwithstanding theeffortsoftheNationalTrust topromoteacountry-houseversionofEnglishness,isinconceivablymoredemocratic thanearlierones,offeringmorepointsofaccess toordinarypeople,andawiderformofbelonging.Indeed,eveninthecaseofthecountryhouse,anewattentionisnowlavishedonlifebelowthestairs (theservantskitchen)whiletheownersthemselves(orthelive-in trustees)areatpainstoprojectthemselvesasleadingprivatelives ordinary peopleinfamily occupation.Familyhistorysocieties,practisingdo-ityourselfscholarshipandfilling therecordofficesandthe localhistorylibrarywithsearchers,havedemocratizedgenealogy,treatingapprenticeshipindenturesasasymbolicequivalentofthecoatofarms,baptismalcertificatesasthatof titledeeds.Theyencouragepeopletolookdownratherthanupinreconstituting theirroots,not toestablishlinkswiththenobleandgreat...

(Samuel,1994,p.160)Samuelwasquicktoemphasiseheritagenotonlyasapotentiallydemocraticphenomenon,butalsotoseeinthesocialpracticessurroundingheritage thepossibilityforpromotingsocialchange.Anadvocateofthepotentiallytransformativepowerofhistory,andoftheroleofheritageinproducingdiversityandscaffoldingmulticulturalism insociety,Samueldescribedheritageasasocialprocess:

Conservation isnotaneventbutaprocess,thestartofacycleofdevelopmentratherthan(oraswellas)anattempt toarrestthemarchoftime.Themerefactofpreservation,evenifitisintendedtodonomorethanstabilize,necessarily involvesawholeseriesofinnovations,ifonlytoarrestthepleasingdecay.Whatmaybeginasarescue


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operation,designedtopreservetherelicsofthepast,passesbydegreeintoaworkofrestoration inwhichanewenvironmenthastobefabricatedinordertoturnfragmentsintoameaningfulwhole.

(Samuel,1994,p.303)ItisdifficulttoarguewithSamuelspointaboutthepopularinterestinheritage,asitiswiththegrass-rootsinvolvementofpeopleandcommunitiesinappealstoconserveparticularformsofheritage.Forexample,SAVEBritainsHeritage,aninfluentialcampaigningbodywhichworkstoconserveBritisharchitecturalheritage,wasformedasadirectresultofthepublicreactiontotheexhibitionTheDestructionof theCountryHouseheldat theVictoriaandAlbertMuseum(V&A)ofdecorativeartsanddesignin1974.However,itisnotreallyenoughtosaythat itwasformed inresponse topublicoutcryweneedtothinkaboutwhothispublicis.Inthiscase,itisprobablyfairtosaythatthepublicwhoattendedtheexhibitionattheV&Awerewelleducated,middle-classpeoplewithaninterestinarchitecture.Butthisphenomenonofthemovementofheritageintothepublicsphereasaformofpopularentertainmentoutsideofthemuseumandintopublicspacescautionsagainstseeingheritageasentirelysomethingthatisimposedfromabove.HeritageandtourismJohnUrrys(1990)criticismsofHewisonsTheHeritageIndustrytookanotherform,providingausefulcorrectivetothewayinwhichbothWrightandHewisonhadcriticisedheritageasfalsehistory.Focusingparticularlyonmuseums,hesuggestedthattouristsaresociallydifferentiated,soanargumentthattheyarelulledintoblindconsumptionbytheheritageindustry,ashadbeensuggestedbyHewison,couldnotholdtrue.UrrydrewananalogywithFrenchphilosopherMichelFoucaultsconceptofthegazetodevelop theideaofatouristgaze.Thetouristgazeisawayofperceivingorrelatingtoplaceswhichcutsthemofffromtherealworldandemphasises theexoticaspectsofthetouristexperience.Itisdirectedbycollectionsofsymbolsandsignstofallonplacesthathavebeenpreviouslyimaginedaspleasurablebythemediasurroundingthe tourist industry.Photographs,films,booksandmagazinesallowtheimagesoftourismandleisuretobeconstantlyproducedandreproduced.Thehistoryofthedevelopmentofthetouristgazeshowsthatitisnotnaturalortobetakenforgranted,butdevelopedunderspecifichistoricalcircumstances, inparticular theexponentialgrowthofpersonaltravelinthesecondpartofthetwentiethcentury.Nonetheless,itowesitsrootstoearlierconfigurationsoftravelandtourism,suchastheGrandTour(thestandarditineraryoftravelundertakenbyupper-classEuropeansintheperiodfromthe lateseventeenthcenturyuntil themid-nineteenthcenturywhich

20


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wasintendedtoeducateandactasarightofpassageforthosewhotookit),andinBritain,theloveaffairwiththeBritishsea-sideresortwhichhaditshey-dayin themid-twentiethcentury.Tourismandheritagemustbeseentobedirectlyrelatedaspartofthefundamentallyeconomicaspectofheritage.Atvarious levels,whetherstate,regionalorlocal, tourismisrequiredtopayforthepromotionandmaintenanceofheritage,whileheritageisrequiredtobringinthetourismthatbuysservicesandpromotesastates,regionsorlocalitysbrand.Heritagethereforeneedstourism,justasitneedspoliticalsupport,anditisthisthatcreatesmanyofthecontradictionsthathaveledtothecritiquesoftheheritageindustryrelating toissuesofauthenticity,historicalaccuracyandaccess.Theconnectionbetweenheritageandtravelmightbeseentohaveamuchdeeperhistory.Thefifth-centuryBCEGreekhistorianHerodotusmadealistoftheSevenWondersoftheWorld,thegreatmonumentsoftheMediterraneanRim,whichwasreproducedinancientHellenicguidebooks.Herodotus originallistwasrediscoveredduring theMiddleAgeswhensimilarlistsofwonders werebeingproduced.WhatisdifferentabouttheWorldHeritageLististhat,asaphenomenonofthelaterpartofthetwentiethcenturyreflectingthe influenceofglobalisation,migrationandtransnationalism,itspreadaparticular,westernideal ofheritage.Thisimageofheritage,andparticularlyWorldHeritageasacanonofheritageplaces,begantocirculatefreelyandtobecomewidelyavailablefortheconsumptionofpeoplethroughout theworld.Another importantdifference istheaccelerationintransformingplacesintoheritage whatHewisonandWrightreferredtoasmuseumification whichinvolvesthealmostfetishisticcreationofdozensofdifferent listsof typesofheritage.Hewisonconnectedthisgrowthinheritageanditscommodificationwiththeexperienceofpostmodernityandtheconstantrateofchangeinthelaterpartofthetwentiethcentury.Thegrowthinheritageasanindustrycanbedocumentedatabroadlevelbygraphingthenumberofculturalheritagepolicydocumentsdevelopedbythemajorinternationalorganisationsinvolved inthemanagementofheritage inthewesternworld.Theseorganisationsinclude theCouncilofEurope,theInternationalCouncilofMuseums(ICOM),theInternationalCouncilonMonumentsandSites(ICOMOS), theInternationalCommitteeonArchaeologicalHeritageManagement(ICAHM,acommitteeofICOMOS),theInternationalFederationofLibraryAssociationsandInstitutions(IFLA),theOrganizationofWorldHeritageCities(OWHC), theUnitedNationsEducation,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)andtheWorldMonumentsFund(WMF).Thegraphofnumbersofpolicydocumentsoverthecourseofthetwentiethcentury,as theorganisationscame intobeing,showsamajorperiodofgrowthafterthe1960sand1970s(seeFigure1.3).


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Ab lo ckgr a ph de mo nstr ati ngt h ein cre asi ngv o lu me of cu ltu ralh e rita ge po licy d ocu ments fro mth e1 87 0st o the 19 90 s.O ne isr eco rd ed in th efir st de cad e; no ne in the 18 80 sa nd 18 90s; o ne in the firs t deca d eo fth etw e ntie th ce ntu ry (1 900 1 909 );n o mo re un tilt he 19 30 sw he nfo ur po licy d ocu ments a re note d ;n one in th e1 94 0s; in the fift ie sa retu rn to th ele ve lo fth e thir tie s;a nd a ste ad yris e to7 in th esi xti es, 12 in th ese ve ntie s,1 3 in the e igh ties; th en a hu ge rise to 34 in th en ine tie s.

Figure 1.3 Cultural heritage policy documents by decade, 18702000, adapted from Getty Conservation

Institute (2008) (see full list in the Appendix)

Urrywasinterestedinexplainingthepoweroftheconsumertotransformthesocialroleofthemuseum.Hesuggestedthattheconsumerhasamajorroleinselectingwhatworksandwhatdoesnotinheritage.Itisnotpossibletosetupamuseumjustanywhereconsumersareinterestedinauthenticityandinotherthingsthatdictatetheirchoices,andtheyarenotblindly ledbyatopdowncreationofheritagebythestate:

Hewison ignorestheenormously importantpopularbasesof theconservationmovement.Forexample,likePatrickWrightheseestheNationalTrustasonegiganticsystemofoutdoorrelieffortheoldupperclasses tomaintaintheirstatelyhomes.Butthisistoignorethewidespreadsupportforsuchconservation.IndeedSamuelpointsoutthattheNationalTrustwithnearly1.5millionmembersisthelargestmassorganisationinBritain...moreover,muchoftheearlyconservationmovementwasplebeianincharacterforexamplerailwaypreservation, industrialarchaeology,steamtractionralliesandthe likeinthe1960s,wellbefore themoreobviousindicatorsofeconomicdeclinematerialised inBritain.

(Urry,1990,p.110)TheoutcomeofUrrysdiscussionofheritagewastoshiftthebalanceofthecritiqueofheritageawayfromwhetherornotheritagewasgoodhistorytotherealisationthatheritagewastoalargeextentco-createdbyitsconsumers.

22


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24

Th elo fty sp ace w ith in the D omea tth e entr an ce to th eT uta nk hamu nE xhib iti on .Th e sho pe xito cc u pie sth e low er thir d ofth e imag e.A bo ve ita hu ge po ste r(t he w idth o fth esh o p)d isp la ysa n ima ge of Tu tan k h amun sfa ce an d the da teso f th ee xhib iti on .A glimp se of the str uct ure o fth eD o me is visib le to th erig h t.

Figure1.5 EntrancetotheTutankhamunandtheGoldenAgeofthePharaohsexhibitionattheO2Dome,London,2008.PhotographedbyRodneyHarrison.Photo:RodneyHarrison.Notethattheexhibitionposterhasbeenmadetoresembleamovieposter.Ironically,itwastothissamecommercialisationofheritageandthepastthatarchaeologistKevinWalsh(1992)turnedinsupportoftheideasputforwardbyHewison inTheHeritageIndustry.WalsharguedinhisbookTheRepresentationofthePastthattheboominheritageandmuseumshasledtoanincreasingcommercialisationofheritagewhichdistancespeoplefromtheir


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ownheritage.Hesuggestedthatthedistancingfromeconomicprocessesasymptomofglobalmassmarketsthathasbeenoccurringsince theEnlightenmenthascontributedtoalossofsenseofplace,andthat theheritageindustry(anditsroleinproducingformsofdesirerelating tonostalgia)feedsoffthis.Lossofasenseofplacecreatesaneedtodevelopandconsumeheritageproductsthatbridgewhatpeopleperceive tobeaneverincreasinggapbetweenpastandpresent.WalshusedanargumentsimilartooneemployedbyDavidLowenthalinThePastisaForeignCountry(1985)andlaterinTheHeritageCrusadeandtheSpoilsofHistory(1997).Lowenthalsuggestedthatparadoxicallythemorepeopleattempttoknowthepast,thefurthertheydistancethemselvesfromitastheyreplacetherealityofthepastwithanidealisedversionthatlooksmoreliketheirownreality.Heritage isnotinherentIwanttoreturntoSmithscontentionthatthereisnosuchthingasheritage.Inarguingthatthereareonlyopinionsanddebatesaboutheritageand thatheritageisnotsomethingthat isself-defining,Smithischallengingamodelthatseesheritageasanintrinsicvalueofanobject,placeorpractice.Anintrinsicvalueisonethatisbuilt-intoanobject,practiceorplace;itbelongstothebasicandessentialfeaturesthatmakesomethingwhatitis.Undersuchamodelofheritage,heritageobjects,placesandpracticesareattributedparticularvaluesbytheprofessionalswhoareinvolved inassessingandmanagingheritage,suchasarchitects,archaeologists,anthropologists,engineersandhistorians.Withtime,thesevaluesbecomereasonablyfixedandunquestioned.Thisknowledge,aswellastheweightofauthoritygiventoheritageprofessionals,givestheimpressionthat theprocessofassessingheritagevalueissimplyoneofuncoveringtheheritagevaluesthatalreadyexistinanobject,placeorpractice.Wemightthinkofsuchamodelofheritageastaxonomic:itassumesthatthereisapre-existingorderedhierarchyofheritageobjects,placesandpracticesintheworld.Theideathatheritageisinherentandthatitssignificanceisintrinsictoitleadstoafocusonthephysicalfabricofheritage.Ifvalueisinherent,itfollowsthatheritagemustbecontainedwithinthephysicalfabricofabuildingorobject,orinthematerial thingsassociatedwithheritagepractices.Theimplicationofthis taxonomicviewpointwhichholdsthatheritage isintrinsictoanobject,placeorpracticeisthatadefinitivelistofheritagecanbecreated.Thisideaiscloselylinkedtotheideaofanartisticorliterarycanonaspreviouslydiscussed.Mostpractitionerswouldnowrecognise thatheritagevalueisnotintrinsic;valueissomethingthatisattributedtoanobject,placeorpracticebyparticularpeopleataparticular timeforparticularreasons.Smithischallengingaprocess thatattachespermanent legalconditionstocertainplacesorthings.Sheisarguingthatallobjectsofheritageneedtobe


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constantlyre-evaluatedandtestedbysocialpractices,needsanddesires.Herargumentisessentiallythatheritageisculturallyascribed,ratherthanintrinsictothings.Whilethismightatfirstglanceappeartobearatheracademicpoint,itisalinchpinofcriticalheritagestudies.Throughoutthesecondpartofthetwentiethcenturytheincreasedrecognitionofculturaldiversityandthecontributionofmulticulturalism towesternsocietiescreatedaconundrum.Howcouldtheoldideasaboutafixedcanonofheritage,whichwasestablished torepresentnationswithclosedborders,cometostandforincreasingnumbersofdiasporiccommunitiesofdifferentethnicoriginwhowereforced,orwhoelected,torelocatetoareasawayfrom theirsettled territoriesandwhonowmadesuchacontribution tothecharacterandmake-upofnation-statesinwesternsocieties?(See,forexample,Anderson,2006.)Thischallenge,coupledwitharecognitionthatheritagevaluescouldnotbeseenasintrinsic, led tothedevelopmentoftheconcept

of

representativeness,

and

ashift

away

from

the

idea

of

asingle

canonofheritage.Representativeness inheritagerecognises thatthoseinpositionsofpowercannotalwaysanticipatetheplacesthatthediverserangeofmembersofsocietywillfindimportant.However,throughconservingarepresentativesampleofthediverserangeofplaces,objectsandpractices thatcouldreasonablybycalledheritage,wesafeguardtheprotectionofasampleofplacesandthingswhichmayberecognisedasheritagenoworinthefuture.Arepresentativeheritageplaceorobjectderivesitsvaluesfromtheextenttowhichitcanactasanexemplarofaclassofplaceortypeofobject.However,itneedstobeunderstoodthatthiswasnotatotalshiftinideals,andthatbothofthesewaysofunderstandingheritagearestilltaxonomicinnatureandstillinvolve theproductionoflistsofheritage.Amorefundamentalchallenge,whichwillbetakenupinsubsequentchaptersofthisbook, isthatofnon-westerncultureswhichemphasise theintangibleaspectsofheritage.Thishasledtoamodelofmanagingandassessingvalues,rather thanlistsofheritage items.Therecognition thatit isimpossibletoconserveanexampleofeverythinggeneratesashifttowardsathresholds-basedheritagesystem,wherethingsmustbeassessedagainstaseriesofcriteriatoqualifyforheritagestatus.Theinfluencesofthesechangingsystemsofheritagewillbecomeclearasyouworkyourwaythroughthechaptersofthisbook.

Heritageandcontrol:theauthorisedheritagediscourseAnythingthatanauthority(suchasthestate)designatesasworthyofconservationsubsequentlyentersthepoliticalarena.Alongsideanythoughtorfeelingwemighthaveasindividualsaboutanobject,placeorpractice there

26


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willbeapowerfulandinfluentialsetofjudgementsfromthisauthoritywhichimpactsonus.Smithsargumentisthatthereisadominantwesterndiscourse,orsetofideasaboutheritage,whichshereferstoasanauthorised(orauthorising)heritagediscourse,orAHD.WewillbereturningtotheconceptoftheAHDthroughoutthisbook.TheAHDisintegrallyboundupinthecreationof liststhatrepresent thecanonofheritage.Itisasetofideas thatworkstonormalisearangeofassumptionsabout thenatureandmeaningofheritageandtoprivilegeparticularpractices,especially thoseofheritageprofessionalsandthestate.Conversely,theAHDcanalsobeseentoexcludeawholerangeofpopularideasandpracticesrelatingtoheritage.SmithdrawsoncasestudiesfromtheUK,AustraliaandtheUSAtoillustrateherarguments.ThispartofthechapterlooksindetailattheconceptoftheAHDasdevelopedbySmith toillustratehowthisparticularsetofideasaboutheritageismademanifest:thewaysinwhichheritageconservationoperatesatalocalorregionallevelthroughthedocuments,protocols,lawsandchartersthatgovern thewayheritage isassessed,nominatedandprotected.Smithsuggests thattheofficialrepresentationofheritagehasavarietyofcharacteristics thatservetoexcludethegeneralpublicfromhavingaroleinheritageandemphasiseaviewofheritage thatcanonlybeengagedwithpassively.Sheseestheofficialdiscourseofheritageasfocusedonaestheticallypleasingormonumentalthings,andthereforefocusedlargelyonmaterialobjectsandplaces,ratherthanonpracticesortheintangibleattachmentsbetweenpeopleandthings.Shesuggeststhatthedocumentsandchartersthatgovernheritagedesignateparticularprofessionalsasexpertsandhenceasthelegitimatespokespeopleforthepast; theytendtopromotetheexperiencesandvaluesofelitesocialclasses,andtheideathatheritageisboundedandcontainedwithinobjectsandsitesthatareabletobedelineatedsothattheycanbemanaged.Wecanseehowthesediscoursesofheritagearemadeconcrete inheritagepracticebylookingattheInternationalCharterfortheConservationandRestorationofMonumentsandSites(1964)(knownastheVeniceCharter).TheVeniceCharter,adoptedbytheSecondInternationalCongressofArchitectsandTechniciansofHistoricMonuments,meetinginVenicein1964,wasaseriesofinternationalprinciplestoguidethepreservationandrestorationofancientbuildings.ThephilosophybehindtheVeniceCharterhashadamajorimpactonallsubsequentofficialdefinitionsofheritageandtheprocessesofculturalheritagemanagement.AtthecentreoftheVeniceCharter lie theconceptofauthenticityandanunderstandingoftheimportanceofmaintaining thehistoricalandphysicalcontextofasiteorbuilding.TheCharterstates thatmonumentsaretobeconservednotonlyfortheiraestheticvaluesasworksofartbutalsoashistoricalevidence.Itsetsdowntheprinciplesofpreservation,whichrelateto


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therestorationofbuildingswithworkfromdifferentperiods.Initsemphasisonaestheticvaluesandworksofart,itmakesimplicitreferencetotheideaofheritageasmonumentalandgrand,aswellastotheideaofacanonofheritage.TheCharterbeginswiththesewords:Imbuedwithamessagefromthepast,thehistoricmonumentsofgenerationsofpeopleremaintothepresentdayaslivingwitnessesoftheirage-oldtraditions.Peoplearebecomingmoreandmoreconsciousoftheunityofhumanvaluesandregardancientmonumentsasacommonheritage.Thecommonresponsibility tosafeguardthemforfuturegenerations isrecognized.Itisourdutytohandthemoninthefullrichnessoftheirauthenticity.

(ICOMOS,[1964]1996)ItispossibletoseethelineageofawholeseriesofconceptsaboutheritageintheVeniceCharter.ThisquoterevealsaveryimportantaspectoftheAHDinvolvingtheabstractionofmeaningofobjects,placesandpracticesofheritagethatcome tobeseenasrepresentativeofsomethingaestheticorhistoricinarathergeneralisedway.TheAHDremovesheritageobjects,placesandpracticesfrom theirhistoricalcontextandencouragespeopletoviewthemassymbolsof thenationalcharacter,ofaparticularperiodinhistory,orofaparticularbuildingtype.Indoingso,theyarestrippedoftheirparticularmeaningsandgivenaseriesofnewlycreatedassociations.TheCharterestablishes theinherentvaluesofheritage,andtherelationshipbetweenthevalueofheritageanditsfabricthroughitsemphasisonauthenticity.InArticle7itgoesontoreinforcethisnotion:

ARTICLE7.Amonumentisinseparablefrom thehistorytowhich itbearswitnessandfromthesettinginwhichitoccurs.Themovingofallorpartofamonumentcannotbeallowedexceptwhere thesafeguardingof thatmonumentdemands itorwhereitisjustifiedbynationalorinternational interestofparamount importance.

(ICOMOS,[1964]1996)IdeasabouttheinherentvalueofheritagearerepeatedinArticle15throughthefocusonthevalueofheritagewhichcanberevealedsothatitsmeaningcan

be

read

:

everymeansmustbe taken tofacilitate theunderstandingofthemonumentandtorevealitwithouteverdistortingitsmeaning.

(ICOMOS,[1964]1996)TheCharterisfocusedalmostexclusivelyonparticularkindsofmaterialheritage,namelybuildingsandmonuments,andonthetechnicalaspectsof

28


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architecturalconservation.Onceagain,weseeanemphasisonspecialistsastheexpertsinheritageconservationandmanagement:

ARTICLE2.Theconservationandrestorationofmonumentsmusthaverecoursetoallthesciencesandtechniqueswhichcancontributetothestudyandsafeguardingofthearchitecturalheritage.ARTICLE9.Theprocessofrestorationisahighlyspecializedoperation.Itsaimistopreserveandrevealtheaestheticandhistoricvalueofthemonumentandisbasedonrespectfororiginalmaterialandauthenticdocuments.Itmuststopatthepointwhereconjecturebegins,andinthiscasemoreoveranyextraworkwhichisindispensablemust

bedistinctfromthearchitecturalcompositionandmustbearacontemporarystamp.Therestorationinanycasemustbeprecededandfollowedbyanarchaeologicalandhistoricalstudyofthemonument.

(ICOMOS,[1964]1996)TheideasaboutheritagethatSmithdescribesusingtheconceptoftheAHDcirculatenotonlyatthenationalorgloballevelbutfilterdowntoimpactonthewayinwhichheritageismanaged,presentedandunderstoodasaconceptatthelocallevel.Thenextpartofthechaptershowshowtheseabstractconceptsaremadeoperational inheritagemanagementinNorthAmericathrough thecasestudyoftheHarryS.TrumanNationalHistoricSiteinMissouri.

Casestudy:

Harry

S.

Truman

National

Historic

Site,

Missouri,USAHarryS.TrumanNationalHistoricSitewasgazetted(listedontheregisterofhistoricproperties)on23May1983andopenedtothepublicasahousemuseumon15May1984afterMrsBessTruman(neWallace)donated thehometotheUSnationinherwill.BessTrumansgrandfather,GeorgePorterfieldGates,built thefourteen-room, two-and-a-halfstoreyQueenAnnestylehouseover theperiod186795.Itwasthehouseinwhichthethirty-thirdUSpresidentHarryS.Trumanlivedduring theperiodfromhismarriage toBessWallaceon28June1919untilhisdeathon26December1972.ThehistoricsiteoriginallyincludedjusttheTrumanHome,howeveraseriesofotherpropertiesknownas theTrumanFarm,theNolandHomeandthetwoWallaceHomesassociatedwiththelifeofTrumanwereaddedtothesiteintheyearsthatfollowed(seeFigures1.61.8).TheheritagevaluesofthissiteareexpressedbytheUSDepartmentoftheInteriorNationalParkService, theownersandmanagersofthesite,inthisway:


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TheHarrySTrumanHistoricSite ...contains tangibleevidenceofhislifeathomebefore,during,andafterhispresidencyplaceswhereforcesmoldedandnurturedhim.ThesignificanceofHarrySTrumanNationalHistoricSite isderivedfromthetimeHarryTrumanservedasthethirty-thirdpresidentoftheUnitedStates,from19451953.Yettheparkincludesphysicalevidenceofaperiodlastingfrom1867through1982.ThisspanoftimerepresentsnearlytheentirecontextofHarryTrumanslife,andencompassesallmajorparkstructures:Trumanhome,Nolandhome,WallacehomesandTrumanfarmhouse ...Mostofhis idealsconcerningreligion,socialresponsibility,financialstabilityandpoliticswerederivedfromthepeoplewholivedhere,aswellasfromhisownexperiencesin thesesurroundings.Therefore, theparksstorycanbeextendedbackwards to the1867date,so longasanyinterpretationofthese

times

has

direct

bearing

on,

and

gives

the

visitor

insight

into,

HarryTrumanaspresidentoftheUnitedStates.

(NationalParkService,USDepartmentoftheInterior,1999,p.6)

30

A sub sta nti al thre e -sto re ycl ap bo ard ho use ,ir reg ula rin p lan ,w ith ve ran da s,a pro je ctin g ba yo nth e rig ht,a n dta ll,n arr ow sa sh w ind ow s.T he en tra nce isu n de rth efr on tv era nd au pa fli gh to ffo ur bro ad ste ps. Th eh ou se is surr ou nd ed by law n san d shru b s,w ith a lamp-p o stin th ele ft fo reg rou nd .

Figure1.6 TheHarryS.TrumanHome,219N.DelawareStreet,Independence,Missouri.Unknownphotographer.Photo:DavidR.FrazierPhotolibrary,Inc./Alamy.


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Thisplacemightbeunderstoodasaclassofheritageplaceknownasahousemuseum asitemaintainedasitwas togivethepublicaninsightintothelifeofapersonorpersonsperceivedtohavebeenhistoricallyimportant.And,indeed,thestatementofsignificancereproducedinpartabovecertainlymakesitclearthatthesignificanceofthepropertyliesentirelyinitsabilitytogivethevisitor insight intoHarryTrumanaspresidentoftheUnitedStates. The statementofsignificancegivestheimpressionthatthesignificanceofthesiteisembodiedwithinthephysicalmaterialof theplaceanditscontents:itcontainstangibleevidence of thepresidentandhislife,andthismaterialevidencehastheabilitytoprovideaninsightintohisideasandtheeventsofhispresidency.Thisfocusonthetangibleandmaterial,alongwiththeratherpleasingsettingof thehomeanditscontents,seemsconsistentwithSmithscontention thatthedominantwesterndiscourseofheritage isfocusedonmaterial thingsratherthanintangiblepractices.

A la rge ,co mfort ab lesi tti ng roo mwit h pro ject in gb ayw in do ws at the fa ren d, furn ish e dw ith armch a irs, ase tte e, smalle r cha irs, occ asi on al tab les an da p atte rn ed rug. A lon g-c ase cl ock sta n dsi nth e corn e ro fth ero om. The fu rn iture is tra dit io nali n styl ew ith so mea ntiq ue pie ce s.L igh tin gi sb yw all- moun te dlig h tsa nd tab le lamps.

Figure1.7 ThesittingroomoftheTrumanHome,asinterpretedtothesitevisitor.PhotographedbyJackE.Boucher,HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey.LibraryofCongress,PrintsandPhotographsDivision,HABSMO,48INDEP,3.


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32

Atw o-s to reyc la pb oa rdh ou se of thre e bays , rect an gu lari n pla n,w ith a ve ran da sha din gt he fro ntd o or and tw o gro un d-flo o rw ind ow s.M rs Yo un gis se ate din a ro ckin gc ha iro n the gra ss be low th eve ra nd a, with h er dau gh ters ta nd ing on h erri gh ta nd Ha rryT ru man be hin dh er an dto h erle ft.

Figure1.8 GrandviewFarm,Missouri,c.19069.Unknownphotographer.Photo:Corbis.Lefttoright:MarthaEllenTruman,hermotherHarrietLouisaYoung,andHarryTruman.WhileTrumanhimselfdidnotbelongtotheupperclasses,hecanbeseenasbelongingtotheelite classesthroughhisverypowerfulroleasthepresidentoftheUSA.AsyouwillseefromthephotographsinFigures1.6and1.7,theTrumanHome isaratherhumbledwellingforapresident.Nonetheless,theTrumanHomedoesdemonstrate thefeatures thatSmithoutlines,aseventhoughthestructureitselfisreasonablyhumble,itgainsitssignificancethrough itsassociationwithpowerandcelebrity.Itderivesitsstatusasaheritagesite through itsassociationwiththebiggestandbest importanthistoricalfiguresandgreatevents.Thehomeanditscontentsarepresentedinamannerthat isbothaestheticallypleasingandfamiliar tovisitorsasahousemuseum.AnotherwayinwhichtheTrumanHomeconforms toSmithsmodelisthroughthenotionthatthereissomeinherentvirtuetothisplacethatshapedTrumanscharacterandthatcannowberead bythevisitor.Theassociationofthehomewithagreathistoricalfigure isconsistentwiththeconceptoftheAHD.Butanotherkeypointwhichemergesfromaclosereadingofthetextisthatthewordassociated signifiesintangible heritage.Itwouldbeimpossible toreadthisbuildingasTrumanshomewithouttheinterpretive


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textsthattellusabouttheconnectionbetweenTrumanandthehouse.Sothereisarathersubtle interplaybetween thetangibleandintangibleaspectsofheritagethataredisplayedin thetext.TheAHDbalancestheideaof theinherentsignificanceofthefabricofthebuildingagainstassociation, inthiscase,withTrumanaspresidentandwhathisrelativelymodestoriginsmeanforcurrentnotionsofUSdemocracy.TheUSDepartmentoftheInteriorNationalParkServiceGeneralManagementPlan(1999)specifiesaseriesoffurtherstudiestobecarriedouttoassistwiththeunderstandingandmanagementoftheHarryS.TrumanHistoricSite.Theseincludeanarchaeologicaloverviewandassessment,culturallandscapereports,historicresourcesstudies,long-terminterpretiveplan,andwildlifeandvegetationsurveys.Thesereportswouldbeprepared,inthisorder,byanarchaeologist,aculturalgeographerorlandscapearchitect,ahistorian,aninterpretationspecialist,andazoologistandbotanist.Inspecifyingtheformofplanning

documents

required,

the

management

plan

establishes

the

expertise

ofparticularprofessionalsinassessinganddocumentingtheheritagesignificanceofthesite.Inthisway,thegeneralmanagementplanexcludestheviewsofthegeneralpublic.Itgivespreferencetotheworkofparticularacademicdisciplinesovermembersofthepublicorother(non-heritage)specialistswhomightformanopinionofthesignificanceofthesite;andthisisdespitethefactthatthesiteisbeingconservedforthegeneralpublicwhoneedtoknowasmuchabouttheirleadersaspossible;thetypeofpeopleweelecttothepresidencytellsusagreatdealaboutourselves(1999,p.7).Again,itispossibletoseeheretheexclusionofthegeneralpublicandtheemphasisonheritageastherealmofprofessionalsthatSmithsuggestsarefeaturesoftheAHD.TheseideasaboutheritageattheTrumanHomedonotexistinisolation,butflowdownfromvariousotherdocumentswhichcirculateparticular ideasaboutheritagethatmakeupwhatSmithreferstoas theAHD.TheNationalHistoricPreservationAct1966,asamended(NHPA),isthekeypieceofFederallegislationinfluencingthewayinwhichheritageismanagedandlistedintheUSA.AlthoughthepropertywasactuallylistedundertheHistoricSitesAct1935,theNHPAisthelegislative toolthatgovernstheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesonwhich thebuildingsitsalongsideover76,000otherheritageplacesorobjects.TheNHPAdefinestheregisterascomposedofdistricts,sites,buildings,structures,andobjectssignificantinUShistory,architecture,archaeology,engineering,andculture(Section101(a)(1)(A)).Thisdefinitionimmediatelydefinesheritageasmaterial,andthevalueofheritageasinherentinadistrict,site,building,structureorobject.Inthissense,theActcanbeseenasfulfillingthefirstofSmithscharacteristicsoftheAHD,thatheritageisseenascontainedwithinmaterialthings.ThefirstsectionoftheNHPA,which


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setsoutitspurpose,doesmoretorealisemanyoftheofficialideasaboutheritagethatSmithdescribesascomprising theAHD:

(b)TheCongressfindsanddeclares that(1) thespiritanddirectionoftheNationarefoundeduponand

reflected initshistoricheritage;(2) thehistoricalandculturalfoundationsoftheNationshouldbe

preservedasalivingpartofourcommunitylifeanddevelopmentinordertogiveasenseoforientation totheAmericanpeople;

(3) historicpropertiessignificanttotheNationsheritagearebeinglost or substantially altered, often inadvertently, with increasingfrequency;

(4) thepreservationofthisirreplaceableheritageisinthepublicinterestso that itsvital legacyofcultural,educational,aesthetic,inspirational, economic, and energybenefits willbe maintainedandenrichedforfuturegenerationsofAmericans...

(NHPA,Section1(b))TheNHPAdeclares theintegralrelationshipbetweenheritageandthenation,andtheinherentcorrectnessofconservingheritage,whichisseentohaveaseriesofbenefitstothewell-beingoftheAmericanpeople.Italsointroduces theideathatheritage isbeinglostwith increasingfrequency,whichnotonlygivestheactofconservationasenseofurgencyinthelightofthisthreat,butsuggestsacompletelistofheritage(oracanonofheritage)thatisbeingerodedbythisloss.TheActspecifiesarangeofheritageprofessionalsas theexpertsondetermining thevaluesofheritageandthepastthroughitsexplicitreferencetohistory,architecture,archaeology,(and)engineering. It alsoplacestheultimateresponsibilityforthecategorisationandmanagementofheritageinthehandsoftheFederalgovernment,whichfurtherexcludesthegeneralpublicfromdecisionsaboutdeterminingthesignificanceofheritage.Thetermhistoricpropertyitselfseemstopresupposenotonlythatheritageisphysicalbutthatitwillbeaboundedentitysuchasabuildingorplace,ratherthanapracticeoraseriesofcharacteristicscontainedwithinabroaderlandscape.ThecriteriaforentryontotheNationalRegisterarestandardsagainstwhichplacesnominatedforinclusionontheregisterareassessed.ThesecriteriaarelaidoutinPart60oftheNationalRegisterFederalProgramRegulations.

NationalRegistercriteriaforevaluationThequalityofsignificanceinAmericanhistory,architecture,archaeology,engineering,andcultureispresentindistricts,sites,buildings,structures,andobjectsthatpossessintegrityoflocation,design,setting,materials,workmanship,feeling,andassociationand

34


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(a) thatareassociatedwitheventsthathavemadeasignificantcontributiontothebroadpatternsofourhistory;or

(b) thatareassociatedwiththelivesofpersonssignificantinourpast;or

(c) thatembody thedistinctivecharacteristicsofatype,period,ormethodofconstruction,orthatrepresenttheworkofamaster,orthatpossesshighartisticvalues,orthatrepresentasignificantanddistinguishable entity whose components may lack individualdistinction;or

(d) thathaveyielded,ormaybelikelytoyield,informationimportantinprehistoryorhistory.

(AdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation,2008)Theemphasisinthesecriteriaisonthearchaeological,architecturalordesignvaluesofahistoricproperty.Clearly,adeterminationofwhatconstituteshigharchaeological value can onlybe carried outbyan archaeologist. Similarly,architectsandengineerswouldbe involved indetermining thevaluesof thedesign and technical accomplishment inso far as these issues relate tohistoricproperties.Theuseofcomplexthresholdcriteriaalsoestablishestheneedforprofessionals toactasexperts inundertakingaheritageassessmentto determine whether or not a historicproperty meets the threshold.TheNationalHistoricPreservationAct1966waspassedtwoyearsaftertheVeniceCharter.AlthoughtheUSAhadsignificanthistoricheritagelegislationasearlyas1906withtheAntiquitiesAct1906,whichprotectedhistoricorprehistoric

remains

on

sites

of

scienti

ficvalue

on

federal

lands

and

made

unauthoriseddestructionorremovaloftheseremainsillegal,the1964VeniceCharterhadamajorinfluenceonthewayinwhichheritagewasconceivedandpresentedin the1966Act.

ReflectingonthecasestudyItispossibletorepresentthisflowofideasaboutheritageattheTrumanHomeschematically,asinFigure1.9.ThiswholesystemrepresentsSmithsAHD.Ideasaboutwhatheritageis,andwhoshouldbeinvolvedindeterminingwhichaspectsofheritagetoconserveandinwhatway,areimplicitatalllevelsofdocumentationguidingthemanagementoftheTrumanHome.ItisinthiswaythatSmithsAHDcanbeunderstoodasatotalsystemthatconstantlyreinforcesitsownphilosophiesandideals.AuthorsinthechapterswhichfollowwillcontinuetoconsiderthewaysinwhichtheAHDmightbeseentobemanifestedintheexamplestheydiscuss.WehopethatyouwilllookcloselyattheseandotherexamplesofwhichyouareawareandbegintonoticeinstancesinwhichtheAHDapplies,andotherinstancesinwhichitmaynot.


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36

A seri eso f bo xes, lin ke db ya rro ws, ill ust rati ngt h ele ga la nd do cumen ta ryin flu en ce so nth e ma nage men ta nd inte rp reta tio n of the Tru man Ho use .In d ire ctse q uen ce ,ru nn ing to pto b otto mof the d iagr am:fi rst, th eV en ice Ch arte r; se con d, the Na tio na lH isto ricP re se rva tio nA ct;t h ird, th eN atio na lR egi ste ro fH isto ric Pla ce sE valu ati on Cri te ria ,an d,f ee din gin to th isit emfro mth ele ft of the dia gra m,th ein p ut fromh eri tage p ro fessi on als an d orga n isati on s;f ou rth ,th eG en era lM an age ment Pla n; an dfi na llyt he Tru man Ho me.

Figure1.9 Schematicdiagramshowingthestatutoryanddocumentaryinfluenceofcharters, lawsanddocumentsontheinterpretationandmanagementoftheTrumanHomeasheritage


HeritageandtheproductionofcultureAnother

way

of

thinking

about

heritage

is

to

view

it

not

simply

in

terms

ofphysicalthingsbutasaformofsocialandculturalaction.Mostanthropologistsnowagreethatculturesarenotsimplyanaccumulationofthingsandpeoplebutarebetterunderstoodintermsofaseriesofprocessesbywhichnewandoldpracticesareadaptedandadoptedwithinaculturalsystem.Theseprocessescanbethoughtofasformsofworkwhichhelptoproduceaculture.Intheseterms,culture(andbyextension,heritage)canneverbethoughtofasbeinglost,becausecultureisalwaysproducedinthepresenttodealwiththecircumstancesofeverydaylife.DrawingontheworkofanthropologistArjunAppadurai(1996,[2001]2008),archaeologistDenisByrne(2008)discussesthewaysinwhichcommunitiesuseheritageasapartoftheworkwhichmaintainstheirconnectiontoparticularplacesandtoeachother.Appaduraicallsthiswork theproductionoflocality.Aformalexampleof theuseofheritageintheproductionoflocalityandcommunity isdiscussedfurther inChapter7inthecasestudyofthelocalheritagemuseumsinKenya.Suchapproachestoheritageshareafocusonthelocalandonestablishingasenseofconnectionbetweenpeopleandplaces.Anexampleofaheritagepracticethatisconcernedwiththeproductionoflocalityandcommunityfromacontemporarydevelopednationisthetraditionaltug


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ofwarthatisheldbetweentheBullHotelandtheFeathersHoteleachyearinLudlowtowncentre(England)onBoxingDay(Figure1.10).Here,hundredsoflocalsgathertoeatanddrinkinthestreetswhilecheeringontheteams

Ou tsid e the B ull Ho tel, a den se thro n go fp eop le surr ou nd ingy o un gste rse n gage d in atu go f wa r,w ith much la ugh te ra nd goo d humo urin e vid en ce.T h ero pe ru nsd ia go nall yo ut of the pic tu re att he left -h an dco rn er.

Figure1.10 LocalsgathertocheeronthetwoteamsduringtheBoxingDaytugofwarinLudlowtowncentre.Unknownphotographer.Photo:courtesyoftheShropshireStar.


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representingthese twopubslocatedonoppositesidesofthemainstreet.Thefocusonthisparticularplaceandoncommunaleatinganddrinkingdemonstratesclearlythewaysinwhichsuchdiscreteheritagepracticescanhelpindividualsexpressasenseofconnectionbetweenpeopleandplace.Thefabricofthebuildingsandthestreetare irrelevant tothisheritagepractice,whichdemonstrates theactiverolethatheritagecantakeinacommunitybybringingpeopletogethertoemphasisesharedvalues.Beingabletoconnectonesselftothepast,andtothecollectivepastofothersviatherecollectionorrecreationofspecificmemoriesandhistories,isaformofculturalcapitalthatrelatestoheritage.Forexample,ifanindividualcanmakeaconnectionbetweentheirpastandtheheritagethatispromotedasanaspectoftheircommunityspast,itgivesthemaconnectiontheycanusetopurchaseprivilegeinsocialinteractions.InPierreBourdieusconceptofculturalcapital(see,forexample,BourdieuandPasseron,1990)theskillsandknowledge

that

people

accumulate

in

the

course

of

their

lives

can

be

employed

culturallyinawaythatissimilartoeconomiccapital.Culturalcapitalmightbeunderstoodtobesimilartoprestigeorknow-how:theabilitytogetalongandacquiremoreinfluenceandstatus.Educationisthekeymeansofacquiringdistinctionthroughculturalcapital.Inthismodel,heritageisnotsomethingimposedfromabove,butsomethingthatpeoplecreateanduseactivelytomaintaintheconnectionsbetweenthemselvesandotherplacesandthings.Thismodelofheritageassocialactionisfarbetterataccommodatingtheintangibleaspectsofheritagesuchassong,languageandtraditionthoseformsofheritagedescribedearlierinthischapterasheritagepractices.Ifheritagecanbeaformofculturalcapitalandawayofconnectingpeoplewitheachotherandwiththeenvironmentthatsurroundsthem,thepromotionofheritageorinvolvementinheritagecanbeconsideredtobeaformofsocialaction.Bydrawingonthepastandcreatinganewsignificancefor itstracesandmemories,peoplecantransformandrefigurethewaysinwhich theirsocietiesoperate.Suchamodelofheritagedoesnotnecessarilycriticiseheritageforcreatingalternativeversionsofhistory,butseestheroleofthiscreationofcollectivememoriesasboththeproductionandthetransformationofsocietyandculture.

ConclusionThischapterhasexplored ideasaboutwhatconstitutesheritagefromacanonicallistofplacesandobjectstocommunitypracticesandsocialaction.Intheintroductiontothischapteritwassuggestedthatheritagestudiesasanacademicdisciplinewasconcernedwiththestudyoftwoprocessesandtherelationshipbetweenthem.Thefirstoftheseprocessesconcernsthewaysinwhichideasaboutofficialheritage,orAHD,areinvolvedintheproduction

38


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ofaheritageindustrywhichgrantsthepowertocontrolheritageand,byextension,itsmessages,toexpertsandthestate.Criticshavedisapprovedofaspectsoftheheritage industryforproducingsanitisedandunrealisticreconstructionsof thepast,aswellasfordistractingpeoplefromthecontemporaryandcreativeaspectsofculturethatcouldtransformit.TheAHDmodelpresentsheritageascomplete,untouchableandinthepast,andembodiedwithintangiblethingssuchasbuildingsandartefacts.Suchamodelofheritage isbasedontheideathatthevaluesofheritageareinherentandunchanging.Ontheotherhand,scholarshavepointedtoalternativeaspectsofheritagethatinvolvetheproductionofidentityandcommunity,thatrelate toofficialandunofficialpracticesofheritage,andthathavethepotentialtotransformsociety.Therelationshipbetweenlocalactionandglobalnetworkshasbeenhighlightedasimportanttothisprocess.Thismodelofheritageassocialaction

could

also

be

characterised

as

a

bottom

up

approach,in

opposition

to

thewayinwhichheritageasanindustryoperatesfromatopdownposition.Heritageassocialactionismoreconcernedwithpracticesorwiththeintangibleaspectsofheritage thanwithobjectsofheritageor tangibleheritage.It isinvolved intheproductionofbothcollectiveandindividualmemoryandperformssocialworkwhichhelps tobuildcommunityandidentity.Thechapters thatfollowincludemorethoroughexaminationsofaspectsofthesetwoprocessesandtherelationshipbetweenthemthroughdetailedcasestudiesanddiscussion.

WorkscitedAdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation(2008)NationalRegister

EvaluationCriteria[online],www.achp.gov/nrcriteria.html(accessed10October2008).

Anderson,B.(2006)ImaginedCommunities:ReflectionsontheOriginandSpreadofNationalism(revisededn),LondonandNewYork,Verso.

Appadurai,A.(1996)ModernityatLarge,MinneapolisandNewYork,UniversityofMinneapolisPress.

Appadurai,A.([2001]2008)Theglobalisationofarchaeologyandheritage:adiscussionwithArjunAppaduraiinFairclough,G.,Harrison,R.,Jameson,J.H.JrandSchofield,J.(eds)TheHeritageReader,AbingdonandNewYork,Routledge,pp.20918.

Ashworth,G.J.,Graham,B.andTunbridge,J.E.(2007)PluralisingPasts:Heritage,IdentityandPlaceinMulticulturalSocieties,London,PlutoPress.


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Boswell,D.(1999)IntroductiontoPart2inBoswell,D.andEvans,J.(eds)RepresentingtheNationAReader:Histories,HeritageandMuseums,LondonandNewYork,Routledge,pp.11115.

Bourdieu,P.andPasseron,J.C.(1990)ReproductioninEducation,SocietyandCulture,London,SagePublications.

Byrne,D.(2008)HeritageassocialactioninFairclough,G.,Harrison,R.,Jameson,J.H.JrandSchofield,J.(eds)TheHeritageReader,AbingdonandNewYork,Routledge,pp.14973.

Carman,J.(2002)ArchaeologyandHeritage:AnIntroduction,LondonandNewYork,Continuum.

GettyConservationInstitute(2008)CulturalHeritagePolicyDocuments[online],www.getty.edu/conservation/research_resources/charters.html (accessed8September2008).

Hewison,R.(1987)TheHeritageIndustry:Britain inaClimateofDecline,London,Methuen.

ICOMOS([1964]1996)TheVeniceCharter:InternationalCharterfortheConservationandRestorationofMonumentsandSites[online],www.icomos.org/docs/venice_charter.html(accessed8September2008).

Lowenthal,D.(1985)ThePastisaForeignCountry,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress.

Lowenthal,D.(1997)TheHeritageCrusadeandtheSpoilsofHistory,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress.

Mitchell,W.J.T.(2005)CanoninBennett,T.,Grossberg,L.andMorris,M.(eds)NewKeywords:ARevisedVocabularyofCultureandSociety,Malden,MAandOxford,BlackwellPublishing,pp.202.

NationalParkService,USDepartmentoftheInterior(1999)HarryS.TrumanNationalHistoricSiteGeneralManagementPlanRevision,WashingtonDC,NationalParkService,USDepartmentof theInterior.

Samuel,R.(1994)TheatresofMemory:Volume1,PastandPresentinContemporaryCulture,LondonandNewYork,Verso.

Smith,L.(2006)UsesofHeritage,AbingdonandNewYork,Routledge.UNESCO(n.d.)Thedifferenttypesofculturalheritage[online],http://portal.

unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=1907&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC& URL_SECTION=201.html(accessed31January2008).

UNESCO(2008)MirCastleComplex [online],http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/625(accessed8September2008).

40
http://portal/http://portal/


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UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeWorldConservationMonitoringCentre(2008)GreatBarrierReefWorldHeritageAreaDatasheet[online],www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html (accessed8September2008).

Urry,J.(1990)TheTouristGaze:LeisureandTravelinContemporarySocieties,London,Sage.

Walsh,K.(1992)TheRepresentationofthePast:MuseumsandHeritage inthePostModernWorld,LondonandNewYork,Routledge.

Wright,P.(1985)OnLivinginanOldCountry:TheNationalPastinContemporaryBritain,LondonandNewYork,Verso.

FurtherreadingAplin,G.(2002)HeritageIdentification,ConservationandManagement,

Melbourne,OxfordUniversityPress.Carman,J.(2002)ArchaeologyandHeritage:AnIntroduction,Londonand

NewYork,Continuum.Corsane,G.(ed.)(2004)Heritage,MuseumsandGalleries:AnIntroductory

Reader,LondonandNewYork,Routledge.Fairclough,G.,Harrison,R.,Jameson,J.H.JrandSchofield,J.(eds)(2008)

TheHeritageReader,AbingdonandNewYork,Routledge.Fowler,P.(1992)ThePastinContemporarySociety:Then,Now,Londonand

NewYork,

Routledge.

Graham,B.,Ashworth,G.J.andTunbridge,J.E.(2000)AGeographyof

Heritage:Power,Cultureand theCommunity,London,Arnold.Graham,P.andHoward,P.(eds)(2008)TheAshgateResearchCompanionto

HeritageandIdentity,Aldershot,Ashgate.Harvey,D.(2001)Heritagepastsandheritagepresents:temporality,meaning

and thescopeofheritagestudies,InternationalJournalofHeritageStudies,vol.7,no.4,pp.31938.

Hewison,R.(1987)TheHeritageIndustry:BritaininaClimateofDecline,London,Methuen.

Howard,P.(2003)Heritage:Management,Interpretation,Identity,London,Methuen.

Kirshenblatt-Gimblett,B.(1998)DestinationCulture:Tourism,MuseumsandHeritage,Berkeley,UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

Lowenthal,D.(1997)TheHeritageCrusadeandtheSpoilsofHistory,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress.


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Merriman,N.(1991)BeyondtheGlassCase:ThePast,theHeritageandthePublic inBritain,London,LeicesterUniversityPress.

Merriman,N.(ed.)(2004)PublicArchaeology,LondonandNewYork,Routledge.

Pearce,S.M.(1998)Theconstructionandanalysisoftheculturalheritage:somethoughts,InternationalJournalofHeritageStudies,vol.4,no.1,

pp.19.Samuel,R.(1994)TheatresofMemory:Volume1,PastandPresentin

ContemporaryCulture,LondonandNewYork,Verso.Smith,L.(2006)UsesofHeritage,AbingdonandNewYork,Routledge.Walsh,K.(1992)TheRepresentationofthePast:MuseumsandHeritagein

thePostModernWorld,LondonandNewYork,Routledge.Wright,P.(1985)OnLivinginanOldCountry:TheNationalPastinContemporaryBritain,LondonandNewYork,Verso.